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SUB-SPECIES     OF    MANKiKD 


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ARTS  ^^S:  SCIENCES 

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BILDER  -  ATLAS 

(  Iconographische  Enc^clopaedie  ) 

REVISED  AND  ENLARGED   BY  EMINENT  AMERICAN    SPECIALISTS 


beauhiPuII^    illusbr'ahed    wiHj    ncapl^     600    Steel.  Wood    and 
Lih^ojrapfpic  "^ppinl-s,  fpon}    hJje  Opi^inal   4>lafes 
wit-lp  upward  of  loo  <|>lahes  exciusivel;y  pre- 
paped  fop  l-l?is  editioa  and  erT)bpacin_^ 
rr)0pet-l2an  12000  sepapafe  fi_|upes. 


PUBLISHED    BY   SPECIAL  ARRANGEMENT     WITH    THE    PROPRIETOR 

F.  A  .   BROCKHAUS  , 

LEIPZIG. GERMANY. 


Jcono^rapi^ic  fuhlishin^  C?, 

Pbiladelpbia. 


V.  I 


THE 


ICONOGRAPHIC  ENCYCLOP/EDIA 


ANTHROPOLOGY  AND  ETHNOLOGY 

By  DANIEL  G.  BRINTON,  A.M.,  M.  D. 

Professor  of  Ethnology  and  Arch-eology  at  the  Academy  op  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia; 

President  of  the  Numismatic   and  Antiquarian  Society  of  Philadelphia;    Member  of  the  American  Philosophical 

Society,  the  American  Antiquarian  Society,  the    Historical  Sucieties  of   Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  etc.; 

Membre  de  la  Societe  Ruyale  des  Antiquaircs  du  Nord,  de  la  Sociele  Americaine  dc  France,  de  ta 

Societe   d'Anihropologie   de    Paris,    Delegue-General    de    I'lnstitution    d' Ethnographic ; 

Vice-President  du  Congres  Iiitt;rnatii»n:il  des  Americanistes  ;  Corresponding 

Member  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Washington,  etc.,  etc. 


ETHNOGRAPHY 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  GERMAN  OF 

GEORG   K.  C.  GERLAND 

Profbssor  in  the  University  op  Strasbhrg.  Editor  op  Waitz's  "  Anthropologib,"  Author 
OF  "Anthropologische  Beitrage,"  etc.,  etc. 


Edited  by  D.  G.  BRINTON,  A.M.,  M.D. 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH   112  PLATES  COMPRISING  MORE  THAN   1200  FIGURES. 


VOL.    I, 


piiii.ADEi.rin.\ 
ICONOGRAPHIC   PUBLISHING   CO. 

1886 


Copyright,  1883,  by  the  ICONOGRAPHIC   PUBLISHING   CO. 


Westcott  &  Thomson.  Megakgeb  Bros.,  Franklin  Printing  House.  Oldach  &  Mergenthaler. 

Eitctrotyptrs.  Paptrmakers.  Printers.  Binders. 

PHILADELPHIA. 


EDITOR'S    PREFACE. 


THE  present  volume  is  the  first  of  a  series  which  will  include  in 
their  scope  all  the  principal  Arts  and  Sciences.  Such  a  survey 
of  the  attainments  of  man  logically  begins  with  an  investigation  of  Man 
himself,  a  discussion  of  his  place  in  the  scheme  of  nature,  an  examina- 
tion into  the  underlying  laws  of  his  intellectual  growth,  and  a  description 
of  the  varieties  of  the  species,  their  characteristics,  their  locations,  and 
their  relationships.  These  are  the  topics  which  are  included  in  the 
sciences  of  Anthropology,  Ethnology,  and  Ethnography;  and  to 
these  branches  of  learning  this  first  volume  is  devoted. 

The  articles  on  Anthropology  and  Ethnology  have  been  prepared 
expressly  for  the  present  edition  of  this  work,  while  that  on  Ethnog- 
raphy has  been  translated  from  the  German  of  Professor  Georg  K.  C. 
Gerland,  now  of  the  University  of  Strasburg.  Professor  Gerland's  text, 
expressing  as  it  does  the  accepted  doctrines  of  a  large  school  of  Euro- 
pean ethnologists,  has  been  translated  with  entire  fidelity  to  the  views 
of  the  distinguished  author,  even  on  points  where  those  of  the  Editor 
of  the  volume  diflfered  widely,  as  was  not  unfrequently  the  case.  There 
are  many  points  in  Ethnography  which  must  be  considered  as  belonging 
to  the  yet  undetermined  and  debatable  domains  of  that  science. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  ethnographic  descriptions  of  Professor  Ger- 
land will  recommend  themselves  to  all  by  their  vividness  and  accuracy. 
He  has  exercised  scrupulous  care  to  follow  only  the  best  authorities,  and 
by  a  comparison  of  various  sources  to  secure  exactness  where  writers 
difiFered.  His  linguistic  arguments,  although  somewhat  dr>'  reading  to 
many  persons,  merit  careful  study,  as  they  are  the  net  results  of  wide 
philological  comparisons. 

It  is  now  universally  acknowledged  th.at  as  an  educational  aid 
engravings  are  of  the  highest  value,  and  that  they  add  greatly  to  the 
worth  of  a  publication  as  a  means  of  instruction  in  the  school  and  the 
family,  as  well  as  for  private  readers.  Little,  therefore,  need  be  said 
of  the  illustrations  which  form  so  prominent  a  feature  of  this  work. 
Their  fidelity  can  be  depended  upon,  and  tlie  text  should  be  read  witli 


4  EDITOR'S   PREFACE. 

constant  reference  to  them.     By  appealing  to  the  eye  they  fix  penna- 
neutly  in  the  mind  tlie  facts  and  descriptions  to  which  they  relate. 

The  orthography  of  the  niimerous  proper  names  occurring  through- 
out the  work  has  presented  unusual  difficulties,  since  in  many  instances 
they  have  no  recognized  English  forms.  As  a  rule,  that  orthography 
has  been  adopted  which  is  most  accordant  with  usage,  rather  than  that 
which  specialists  have  urged  as  more  consonant  with  the  standard  alpha- 
bet generally  adopted  by  linguists.  This  position  is  defensible,  both 
because  such  specialists  themselves  are  by  no  means  in  accord,  and 
because  in  a  work  intended  for  general  and  popular  instruction  the 
introduction  of  the  new  orthographic  methods — as,  for  instance,  Cheraki 
for  Cherokees — would  prove  confusing. 

D.  G.  BRIXTON. 
Philadelphia,  Dec,  1885. 


With  special  reference  to  the  article  on  Ethnography,  the  Editor  appends  a 
brief  sketch  of  the  scientific  career  of  Professor  Gerland  by  way  of  introducing  his 
work  to  the  English-speaking  public : 

Georg  Karl  Cornelius  Gerland  was  born  at  Cassel,  January  29,  1833.  He 
received  his  early  training  at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  city,  and  pursued  higher 
studies  at  the  universities  of  Marburg  and  Berlin.  He  then  entered  upon  his  career 
as  teacher,  being  first  employed  in  his  native  town,  and  afterward  in  the  Normal 
School  at  Magdeburg,  where  he  taught  from  1858  to  1870.  During  this  period  he 
took  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  with  a  dissertation  on  "The  Old  Greek 
Dative."  His  inclination  at  this  time  was  to  strictly  philological  studies,  but  through 
his  investigation  of  the  Indo-Germanic  and  other  languages  he  was  led  on  to  the 
study  of  Ethnography  and  Anthropology.  In  these  branches  he  received  excellent 
instruction  from  Professor  Theodor  Waitz  at  Marburg.  On  the  death  of  Professor 
Waitz  in  1864,  Professor  Gerland  undertook  the  completion  of  his  Anthropology 
of  Savage  Races.  The  preparation  of  this  work  mainly  occupied  his  time  until 
1871,  though  he  published  some  essays  on  kindred  subjects,  as  The  Dying  Out  of 
Sa7'age  Races  (Le\\)sic,  1868).  In  1870,  Professor  Gerland  was  called  to  the  City 
Gymnasium  at  Halle,  where  he  remained  until  Easter,  1875. 

In  organizing  the  University  of  Strasburg,  intended  to  commemorate  the  forma- 
tion of  the  new  German  Empire  in  1870,  it  was  the  aim  of  the  government  to  call 
to  its  service  the  most  eminent  scholars  and  teachers  of  Germany.  For  its  chair  of 
Geography  and  Ethnology,  Professor  Gerland  was  deservedly  selected.  In  his  new 
position  he  has  devoted  himself  with  renewed  zeal  to  studies  in  Comparative  Plii- 
lology,  Anthropology,  and  Geography.  This  last  branch  he  teaches  especially  as  a 
part  of  natural  science,  seeking  to  free  it  as  much  as  possible  from  the  usual  limits 
imposed  by  history  and  from  the  burdens  of  statistics.  Among  his  later  publications 
are  Anthropological  Essays  (vol.  i.,  Halle,  1874);  "Atlas  of  Ethnography,"  in  the 
Bilder-Atlas  (Leipsic,  1876;;  and  contributions  to  Behm-Wagner's  Geographical 
Year-Book,  1876. 


PUBLISHERS'    NOTICE. 


IN  presenting  to  the  English-speaking  world  an  Anglicized  edition  of 
the  great  German  BiLDER- Atlas,  under  the  English  title,  "The 
IcONOGRAPHic  ENCYCLOPEDIA,"  the  Publishers  are  actuated  by  the 
conviction  that  they  are  supplying  a  widely-recognized  desideratum, 
and  that  its  publication  will  fill  a  notable  gap  in  the  encyclopaedic 
works  of  the  period. 

Notwithstanding  the  magnitude  of  the  original,  which  itself  is  par 
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scholars  of  our  time.  In  connection  with  the  translations  and  the 
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The  following  constitute  the  leading  divisions  of  the  work :  Anat- 
omy, Anthropology,  Agriculture,  Archeology,  Architecture, 
Astronomy,  Botany,  Building,  Chemistry,  Engineering,  Eth- 
nology, Geology,  History  of  Culture,  Mathematics,  Mechanics, 
Military  Science,  Mineralogy,  Mining,  Mythology,  Naval  Science, 
Painting,  Physics,  Sculpture,  and  Zoology. 


6  PUBLISHERS'    NOTICE. 

The  prot^ress  of  civilization,  natural  science,  the  entire  range  of  the 
liberal  and  fine  arts,  and  the  higher  products  of  the  artisan  are  treated, 
not  alphabetically,  but  in  their  logical  sequence. 

The  value  of  this  work  as  a  complement  to  any  general  encyclopaedia 
cannot  be  overestimated.  It  is  indispensable  to  those  who  desire  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  best  practical  achievements  of  mankind, 
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The  work  is  both  instructive  and  entertaining:  it  is  replete  with  sug- 
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instruction. 

By  special  arrangement  with  the  original  publisher,  F.  A.  Brockhaus 
of  Leipsic,  the  present  publication  will  be  the  only  edition  in  the  Eug- 
li.sh  language.  The  compendious  additions  made  to  the  work  have 
enabled  the  Publishers  to  present  the  English  edition  in  a  form  com- 
bining a  popular  rendering  of  the  entire  range  of  the  arts  and  sciences 
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as  a  fit  receptacle  of  the  great  store  of  valuable  information  which  it 
contains. 


CONTENTS. 


PART    I.    ANTHROPOLOGY. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY,  E  ITINOLOGY,  AND  ETHNOG-  ,^r.^ 
RAPHY 17- 

Physical  Characteristics  of  Man i3 

Erect  Posture,  18. — Lower  Limbs,  iS. — Feet,  iS. — Hands,  19. — Other  Anatomical  Traits, 
19. — Teeth,  20. — Brain,  20. — Absence  of  Tail,  20. 

Psychical  Characteristics  of  Man 21 

Emotions,  21. —  Reasoning,  21. —  Self-Consciousness,  2:. —  Religion,  21. — Language,  22. — 
Causality,  22. — Manufacture  of  Tools,  22. 

Unity  of  the  Human  Species 22 

Definition  of  Species,  22. — General  Similarities,  23. — Fertility  of  Crossings,  23 — Parallelism 
of  Development,  24. 

Antiquity  of  Man,  and  his  First  Home 24 

Unity  of  Species  does  not  Require  a  Common  Ancestr,',  24. — Relation  of  Man  to  other 
Fauna,  24. — Geographical  Age  of  the  Earth,  25. — Climate  in  the  Late  Tertiar)',  25. — The 
Glacial  Epoch,  25. — First  Appearance  of  Man,  2f) — The  Earliest  Stone  Implements,  26. — 
Use  of  Fire,  27. — Drift  and  Cave  Men,  27. — Their  Distribution,  27. — Age  of  the  Oldest 
Remains,  28. — First  Habitat  of  Man,  28. 

The  Origin  of  Man 29 

Theories  of  Origin:  1.  Special  Creation,  29;  2.  Ilelerogenesis,  29;  3.  Evolution,  30, — Argu- 
ments for  Evolution,  30. — Similarities  to  Lower  Animals,  30. — Rudimentary  Organs,  30. — 
Reversions,  31. — Embryology,  31. — Conclusion,  31. 

Influence  of  Physical  Surroundings 31 

Adaptability  of  the  Species,  32. — Effects  of  Climate  on  Physical  Vigor,  32. — On  the  Dura- 
tion of  Life,  32. — On  the  Height,  Strength,  and  Weight,  33. — Effects  of  Elevation,  ^^. 

Limits  of  Variations  in  the  Species 33 

Variation  in  Height  and  Weight,  33. — The  Epoch  of  Puberty,  34. — The  Epoch  of  Com- 
pleted Cirowth,  34. — Longevity,  35. — Tolerance  of  Disease,  35. — Fertility  in  Mairiage, 
35. — Anatomical  Variations,  Eyes,  etc.,  36. 

7 


8  CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

The  Primitive  Condition  of  Man 36 

Popular  Opinions  on  the  Subject,  36. — Scientific  Opinion,  36. — Arguments  for  the  Latter  from 
Histor)-,  37. — From  Archa;olog)^  37. — I-rom  Language,  37. — From  the  Tendency  to  Re- 
trogression, 37. — From  Osseous  Remains:  the  Neanderthal  Skull;  Engis  Skull;  Jaw  of 
La  Naulette,  38. 

The  Sub-Species  or  Races  of  Men 39 

Antiquity  of  Races,  39. — Homo  Primigenius,  39. — Dift'erences  between  Races,  40. — The 
Number  of  Races,  40. 

Proposed  Classification  of  Races 40 

1.  By  Location  :  The  Linnoean  System,  or  the  Geographical  System,  40. 

2.  By  the  Stin  :  Color,  Odor,  or  Parasites,  41. — Systems  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier,  41. — 

Causes  of  Color,  41. — ^Correlated  to  Exemption  from  Disease,  42. — Distribution  of  Colored 
Races,  42. — \ariations  of  Color  in  the  Same  Race, 43. — Albinism, 43. — Melanism,  43. — 
Odor  of  the  Skin,  44. — Parasites  of  the  Skin,  44. 

3.  By  the  Hair:  Shape,  Color,  or  Abundance,  45. — Shape  of  the  Hair,  45. — Straight-Haired 

and  Woolly-Haired  Races,  45. — Abundance  or  Deficiency  of  Hair,  46. — Classification  of 
Races  by  the  Hair,  46. — Criticisms  on  this  Scheme,  47. 

4.  By  the  Skull,  47. — The  Science  of  Craniology,  47. — Brachycephalic  and  Dolichocephalic 

Races,  48. — Orthognathic  and  Prognathic  Races,  48. — Classification  of  Races  by  Crani- 
ology, 48. — Criticisms  on  this  Scheme,  49. — Craniological  Illustrations,  49. 

5.  By  Language,  49. — On  the   Lexical   Identity  of   Languages,  49. — Changes  in  Words, 

50. — Borrowed  Words,  50. — Onomatopoietic  Words,  50. — Natural  Expressions  of  the 
Emotions,  50. — Coincidences,  50. — Their  Grammatical  Structure,  51. — Classification  of 
Languages,  52. — Polyglottic  and  Monoglottic  Races,  52. — Changes  in  Language,  52. — 
Their  Rapidity,  53. — Their  Causes,  53. — Rise  of  Dissimilar  Languages,  53. 

6.  By  Social  Organisation,  54. — Systems  of  Consanguinity  and   Affinity,  54. — Systems  of 

Religion,  54. — Occupations,  54. — Results  of  the  Comparison  of  these  Proposed  Classifica- 
tions, 55. — A  Modified  Form  of  the  Linnaean  System  the  least  objectionable,  55. 

Present  Relations  of  the  Races 55 

Progressive  Obliteration  of  Race  Distinctions,  55. — Effects  of  the  Intermixture  of  Races,  56. — 
Probable  Destiny  of  Races,  56. — Disappearance  of  the  Weaker  Races,  56. 


PART    II.    ETHNOLOGY. 

DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  ETHNOLOGY  AND  ETHNOGRAPHY.  .  57 
THE  "DETERMINATIVE  ELEMENTS"  OF  HUMAN  SOCIETY.  .  57 
The  Food-Supply 58 

The  Natural  Diet  of   Man,  58. — Quality  of  his  Food,  59. — Quantity,  59. — Sources  of  his 
Supply,  60. 

I.  from  Natural  Products,  60. — The  Educating  Influence  of  the  Hunting  Life,  60. — Its 
Migratory  Character,  61. — Hunting  Weapons,  61. — Bows,  61. — Boomerang,  61. — SUngs, 
61. — Traps  and  Calls,  62. — Fishing  Utensils,  62. — Anthropophagy  or  Cannibalism,  its 
frequency,  63. 


CONTEXTS.  9 

PAGE 

2.  From   Cultivated  Products,  63. — Influence  of  Agriculture,  63. — Age  and  Distribution  of 

Food-Plants,  64. — Agricultural  Arts,  64. — Domesticated  Animals,  their  Introduction  and 
Use:  Horses,  Cattle,  Swine,  Bees,  Fowls,  65. — Relation  of  the  Cultivation  of  Food  to 
the  Growth  of  Society,  65. — To  Developing  Arts,  66. — To  Establishing  Classes,  66. — 
To   Public  Works,  66. 

3.  By  Exchange  and  Commerce,  66. — Arts  Necessary  to  Commerce,  66. — Influence  on  Social 

Ijfe,  67. — On  the  Aggregation  of  People,  67. — On  the  Prevention  of  Famine,  67. 

4.  Stimulants  and  Narcotics,  67. 

5.  The  Preparation  of  Food,  68. — Preparation  of  the  Cassava  (Manioc),  68. — Cooking,  69. — 

The  Use  of  Fire,  6g. — When  Discovered,  69. — Cooking  Utensils,  Pottery,  etc.,  69. 

The  Sexual  Relation 69 

The  Origin  of  Sex  in  Nature,  69. — Primitive  Relation  of  the  Sexes,  not  that  of  Promis- 
cuity, 70. — Emotions  of  Jealousy  and  Modesty,  70. — Polygamy,  70. — Polyandry,  70. — 
The  Different  Fonns,  71. — Monogamy,  Various  Fomis  of,  71. 

1.  Forms  of  Marriage,  "jl. — Marriage  by  Capture,  or  Bride-Lifting,  71. — Marriage  by  Pur- 

chase, 72. — Both  of  these  largely  Symbolic,  72. — Other  Forms  of  Marriage,  73. — The 
Highest  Form,  73. 

2.  Limitations  of  Marriage,  73. — Prohibitions  of  Marriage,  73. — Restrictions  through  Kin- 

ship, 73. — Origin  of  this  Restriction,  74. — Irrational  Examples,  74. — Prevalence  of  the 
Single  Life,  74. 

3.  Influence  of  the  Form  of  Marriage  on  Population,  75. — Some  Errors  Pointed  out,  75. — 

Premature  Marriages,  76. — Their  Effect  on  the  Body  and  Mind,  76. 

4.  Laws  of  Descent,  -jii. — Tracing  Descent  through  the  Mother,  or  the  Matriarchal  System, 

76. — The  Patriarchal  and  Agnatic  Systems,  77. 

5.  Social  Position  of  Woman,  77. — In  Savage  Life  frequently  Equal  to  Man,  77. — Instances 

of  Gynocracy,  77. — Position  among  some  American  Tribes,  78. — Affection  toward 
Mothers,  79. — The  Grounds  of  Sexual  Attraction,  79. — The  Emotion  of  Love,  79. — Its 
Prevalence,  79. — Terms  of  Endearment,  80. — Modes  of  Caressing,  So. — Kissing,  So. — 
Suicide  for  Love,  80. 

Language 80 

Definition  of  Language,  Si. — Language  among  the  Lower  Animals,  8l. 

1.  Gesture-  or  Sign-Language,  %\. — .Sign-Language  of   Deaf  Mutes,  81. — Of  Neapolitans, 

8l. — Of  Indians,  82. — Not  caused  by  Poverty  of  the  Spoken  Tongue,  82. — Plan  of 
Thought  in  Sign- Language,  83. 

2.  Inarticulate  Language,  83. — Examples  of   Inarticulate    Language,   83. — Philosophy  of, 

84. — Emotional  Forms  of,  84. — Power  of,  over  Afiections,  84. 

3.  Articulate  Language,  84. — Probable  Origin  of  Articulate  Language,  84. — Explanation  of 

Articulate  Sounds,  85. — Differences  between  Articulate  and  Inarticulate  Speech,  85. — 
Influence  of  a  Language  on  the  People  Speaking  it,  85. — Copious  Vocabularies  not  a 
Proof  of  Excellence  in  Tongues,  86. — Examples  of  this,  86. — Nor  Regidarity  of  Struc- 
ture, 86. — Nor  Capacity  to  Express  Thoughts,  87. — In  what  Superiority  in  a  Language 
consists,  87. — The  Progress  of  Languages,  88. — By  Admixtures,  88. — The  Value  of 
Jargons,  88. — Example  of  the  Chinese  and  English,  88. 

4.  Recorded  Language,  88. — The  Influence  of  Spoken  Language  on  the  Methods  of  Writ- 

ing, 89. — Various  Systems  of  Writing:  A.  Thought-Writing,  89. — Writing  with  Pic- 
tures, 89. — Picture-Writing,  89. — Principles  of,  and  Examples,  90. — Peruvian  "Quipus," 
90. — B.  Sound-Writing,  90. — Clrowth  of  the  Alphabet,  go. — Chinese  System  of  Writing, 
91. — Japanese,  91. — Cuneiform,  92. — Ancient  Eg)'ptian,  92. — Mexican  or  Aztec,  93. — 
Early  Semitic  System,  93. — Gnjeco-Italic  System,  94. 


lo  CONTENTS. 

PACS 

5.   Poetry  and  Prose,  94. — Universality  of  Poetr)-,  94.^Distinct   Effect  from   Prose,  94. — 
Rhyme  not  Required  in  I'oelry,  94. — Rhythm  in  Language,  94. 

Technology,  or  the  Arts 95 

A.  The  Utilitarian  Arts,  95. — Classification  hy  their  Products:    i.   Tools  and  Utensils, 

96. — Early  Stone  Tools,  96. — How  Made,  96. — The  Hammer,  etc.,  97. — Metal  Tools, 
97. — Honors  to  the  SmilH,  97. — Copper,  97. — Bronze,  97. — Iron,  98. — Other  Mate- 
rials, 98. 

2.  Weapons,  98. — Offensive  Weapons,  98. — The  Club,  98. — Bow  and   Arrow,  98. — Spear, 

99. — Sword,  99.  —  Firearms,  99.  —  Defensive  Weapons,  99.  —  Shields,  gg.  —  Armor, 
etc.,  99. 

3.  Buildings,  100. — Buildings  for  Shelter,  100. — Man  a  Nest-building  Animal,  100. — Exam- 

ples, loo.- — Uifferences  of  Nations  in  this  Respect,  100. — Tents,  100. — Brick  Buildings, 
100. — Stone  Walls  without  Mortar,  101. — With  Mortar,  loi. — The  Pillar,  loi. — The 
Arch,  loi. — Influence  of  Domestic  Architecture,  loi. — Morgan's  Views,  102. — Build- 
ings for  Defence,  102. — Primitive  Forts,  102. — Walls,  102. 

4.  Clothing,  103. — First    Prompted  by  Modesty,   103. — Variations  in  this    Feeling,   103. — 

Examples,  103. — Materials  of  Clothing,  104. — Skins,  104. — Spinning  and  Weaving 
Fibres,  104. — Felting,  104.— Clothing  as  a  Decoration,  104. 

5.  Means  of   Transportation,  105. — Superior  Locomotive  Powers  of   Man,  105. — Artificial 

Aids,  105. — Water  Transportation  :  Rafts,  105. — Canoes,  106. — Leather  Boats,  106. — 
Ships,  106. — Means  of  Propulsion :  Poles,  107. — Oars,  107. — Sails,  107. — Steam,  107. — 
Land  Transportation:  Beasts  of  Burden  and  Draught;  The  Horse,  108. — Wheeled 
Vehicles :  Chariots,  108. — 0.\  Carts,  loS. — Arts  Developed  by  the  Desire  for  Transpor- 
tation, log. — Aerial  Navigation,  log. 

6.  Weights   and  Measures,    log.  —  The  Conceptions    of  Number,    log. — Nations  without 

Numerals,  log. — Numeral  Systems,  log. — The  Multiplication  Table,  no. — Measures  of 
Time:  Days,  no. — Seasons,  110. — Months,  111. — Weeks,  ill. — Calendars,  III. — 
Hours,  111. — Sun-dials,  ill. — Clepsydra,  ill. — Sand-glass,  ill. — Clocks  and  Watches, 
III. — Measures  of  Space:  Lineal  Measures,  112. — The  Lineal  Unit,  112. — Geometry, 
112. — Measures  of  Direction:  The  Plumb-line  and  Level,  113. — Four  Cardinal  Points, 
113. — Geodesy,  113. — Cartography,  113. — Measures  of  Gravity:  Er.rliest  Units,  114. — 
Later  Developments,  114.— Metric  .System,  114. — Common  Measures  of  Force,  114. 

7.  Media  of  Exchange,  1 15. — Earliest   Currencies,  115. — Moral   Effect  of  an   Established 

Currency,  115. — Shell  Money,  116.^"  Wampum,"  116. — Mexican  Coins,  116. — Copjier 
Money,  I16. — The  Precious  Metals,  Gold  and  Silver,  I16. — Paper  Money,  117. — Effects 
of  the  Love  of  Money,  118. — Examples  of  Spain,  118. 

B.  The  /Esthetic  Arts,  no. — Classification   of  the  /Esthetic  Arts,   119. — Rudiments  of, 

in  the  Lower  Animals,  119. — Relation  of,  to  the  Sexual  Instinct,  120. — Influence  of,  on 
Social  Life,  120. — The  Theory  of  the  Beautiful,  120. 

1.  Decorative  Designs   in    Line  and  Color:    Painting   the   .Skin,   120. — Tattooing,   121. — 

Modern  Examjiles,  121. — The  Art  of  Drawing,  122. — PetrogK'jihs  or  Rock  Paintings, 
122. — Decoration  on  Potter)',  122. — Greek  Patterns,  122. — Perspective  and  Chiar-Oscuro, 
122. — Decorations  in  Textile  Materials,  123. — Development  of  the  Color  Sense,  123. — 
The  Symbolism  of  Colors,  124. 

2.  Sculpture  and  Modelling:    Earliest  Examples,  124. — Egj^itian   Sculpture,  125. — Native 

American  Sculpture,  125. — Secret  of  Greek  Art,  125. — Prohibitions  of  the  Imitative  Arts, 
and  the  Results,  126. 

3.  Music  and  Musical  Instruments:  Vocal  Music,  126. — By  Vibrating  Surfaces,  127. — By 

Wind  Instruments,  127. — By  Stringed  Instruments,  127. — Musical  Scales,  127. 


CONTEXTS.  II 

PAGB 

4.  Scen/s  and  Flavors,  127. — Perfumes  in   Use  in  Uncultured  Nations,  128. — In  Ancient 

Times,  128. — Pleasures  of  the  Table,  128. — Use  of  Salt  and  other  Condiments,  128. — 
Disappearance  of  the  Vice  of  Gluttony,  129. 

5.  Games  and  Festivals,   129. — The    Roman  Games,   129. — Contrasted  with  the  Olympic 

Games,  130. — The  Mexican  Game  of  Ball,  130. — The  Passion  of  Gaming,  130. 

C.  The  Religious  Arts,  131. — Early  Appearance  of  the  Religious  Arts,  131. — Primitive 
Idols,  I^I. — Charms  and  Amulets,  132. — Funeral  Objects,  132. — Tombs,  132. — Influ- 
ence of  the  Religious  Sentiment  on  the  Development  of  the  Arts,  132. 


Government  and  Laws 133 

Development  of  Goiiernmeiit,  133. — Primitive  Society  in  the  White  Race,  133. — The  r'amily, 
and  what  Constituted  it,  133. — Lubbock's  Theory  of  Primitive  Society,  134. — Morgan's 
Theory,  134. — Growth  of  States  among  the  Proto-Aryans,  134. — Among  the  Quiches 
of  Central  America,  135. 

Property  and  Property  Rights,  135. — The  Sense  of  Ownership  among  the  Lower  Animals 
and  Savages,  136. — Tenure  of  Land,  136. — Primogeniture  and  Allied  Customs,  136. 

Laws,  137. — Origin  of  Primitive  Laws,  137. — Definition  of  Immoral  Actions,  137, — Dete- 
rioration of  Laws  through  Changed  Conditions  and  Religious  Influence,  137. — The 
"Taboo,"  137. — Blood-Revenge,  and  its  Abolition,  138. — The  Extension  of  Laws  from 
Individuals  to  Areas,  138. — Equality  before  the  Law  as  the  Perfected  Form,  1 38. 

War,  138. — Unceasing  Hostilities  of  Savage  Nations,  138. — Advantages  of  War,  139. — 
Effects  of  National  Timidity  or  Valor  on  the  Community,  139. — War  as  a  Training- 
School,  140. — The  Growth  of  Castes,  140. — Distinctions  of  Nobility,  140. — Defensive 
Institutions,  140. — Standing  Armies,  141. — War-Chiefs,  141. — Advantages  of  Mihtary 
Governments,  141. — Growth  of  International  Law,  141. 


Religions 141 

Definition  of  Religion,  142. — A  Sentiment  Universal  to  the  Race,  142. — Its  Psychology  and 
Origin,  142. — Prompted  by  Fear,  but  Founded  on  Causality  and  a  Belief  in  an  Intelli- 
gent Government  of  the  World,  142. 

Character  of  Louver  Religions,  143. — Prevalence  of  Terror,  143. — The  Beneficent  Deities, 
143. — Simplest  Elements  of  Religion,  143. — Ancient  Eg)-ptian  Religion,  144. — Doctrine 
of  Animism,  144. — Doctrine  of  Fetichism,  145. — The  Tree,  the  Seriient,  and  the  Bird 
as  Fetiches,  145. — Worship  of  Natural  Forces :  Of  Light,  146. — Of  Life,  or  the  Repro- 
ductive Principle,  146. — Of  Motion,  especially  the  W'ind,  147. 

The  Aim  of  Religion,  147. — The  General  Aim  is  to  Obtain  a  Wish,  147. — Shown  in  the 
Forms  of  Prayer,  147.— Examples,  148. — Motive  of  Sacrifice,  148. — Divination,  Augury, 
and  Prophecy,  149. — Examples,  149. 

Development  of  Thcistic  Conceptions,  150. — Comte's  Theor)',  150. — Monotheisms,  150. — 
Polytheisms,  150. — Good  and  Bad  Divinities,  150. — Examples,  150. 

Differences  of  Religions  in  Extension,  151. — Tribal,  National,  and  World  Religions,  151. 

Postulates  of  World  Religions,  151. — Their  Intolerance,  151. — Spirit  of  Proselytizing, 
152. — Necessarily  Book  Religions:  Buddhism,  152. — Christianity,  152. — Mohammed- 
anism, 152. — Are  these  Race-Religions?  152. 

Mythology,  152. — What  Myths  are,  152. — Imix>rtance  of  their  Study,  153. — Influence  of 
Language  on  Myths,  153. — By  Personification,  153. — By  Paronymy  and  Homonymy, 
>54- — Influence  of  Linguistic  Structure,  154. — Of  Natural  Environment,  155, — Of  Na- 
tional Imagination,  156. 


12  CONTEXTS. 

Characteristics  of  Special  Mythologies,  156. — Ancient  Egyptian  Mytholog}-,  156. — An-an 
Mythology,  157. — American  Mythology,  157. — Comparison  of  these  with  Regard  to  the 
Notions  of  Life  and  God,  159. — Parallelisms  in  Mytliologies,  160. — Examples  from 
Greek  and  Aztec  Myths,  160. 

Religious  Doctrines,  161. — Doctrine  of  the  Soul,  161. — Ancestral  Worship,  161. — Influence 
of  the  Belief  in  Immortality,  162. — Doctrine  of  Fatalism,  162. — Of  the  Unreality  of 
Phenomena,  162. 

The  Priestlv  Class,  163. — Their  Number  and  Power,  163. — Examples,  164. — Mysteries  and 
Secret  Orders,  164. 

Religion  as  an  Element  of  Culture,  165.— Influence  of  Self-Culture,  165,— In  Strengthening 
the  National  Bond,  165. — Enforcing  the  Respect  for  the  Law,  166. — Oaths  and  Ordeals, 
166. — Cultivating  the  Literary  Faculties,  166. — As  a  Teacher  of  Ethics,  167. 


CIVILIZATION  AS  THE  RESULTANT  OF  ETHNIC  DEVELOPMENT.   168 

What  is  to  be  Understood  by  "the  Law  of  Progress,"  16S. — Definition  of  Prog- 
ress AND  OF  Civilization,  168. 


The  Stages  of  Progress 169 

stages  Measured  by  Artistic  and  Industrial  De^'clopment :  (I.)  The  Stone  Aye,  Paleolithic 
and  Neolithic,  169.— (2.)  The  Bronze  Age,  171.— (3.)  The  Iron  Age,  172. 

Stages  Measured  by  the  Sources  of  the  Food- Supply  :  (l.)  The  Hunting  and  Fishing  Stage, 
174. — (2.)  The  Nomadic  or  Pastoral  Stage,  174. — (3.)  The  Agricultural  Stage,  176. — 
(4.)  The  Commercial  Stage,  177. 

^ages  Measured  by  the  General  Condition  :  (l.)  The  Stage  of  Savagery,  178. — (2.)  The 
Stage  of  Barbarism,  178. — (3.)  The  Stage  of  Semi-Civilization,  178. — (4.)  The  Stage  of 
Civilization,  179. — (5.)  The  Stage  of  Enlightenment,  179. 

Morgan's  Subdivision,  180. — Chronological  Estimates  of  the  Length  of  these  Stages,  180. 


The  Conditions  and  Momenta  of  Progress iSi 

Progress  as  Stimulated  by — 

1.  The  Grozi'th  of  Wants,  181. — Savage  Nations  lack  Wants,  iSi. — Civilization  Promoted 

by  a  Sense  of  Want,  181. 

2.  Racial  and  A'ntional  Endowments,  1S2. — The  White  Race  long  in  a  Barbarous  Condi- 

tion, 182. — Slight  Differences  in  Racial  Endowments,  182. 

3.  Geographical  Siirroundings,  182. — Importance  of  a  Fertile  Soil  and  a  Protected  Situation, 

182. — Examples,  183. 

4.  The  Commingling  of  A'ations,  I  S3. — Examples  of  Chinese  and  European  Nations,  183. 

5.  Influence  of  Great  Men,  183. — Dependent  on  the  Character  and   Psychology  of  their 

Nations,  183. 

Concluding  Remarks,  184. — Complexity  of  Social  Forces,  184. — Relations  of  Ethnology  to 
History,  184. 


CONTENTS.  13 


PART    III.    ETHNOGRAPHY. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   SPECIES   ACCORDING    TO   GEOGRAPHICAL  p^oe 
DISTRIBUTION 185 

I.  The  Oceanic  Peoples 1S5 

Subdivision  of  the  Group  and  Location,  185. — Ethnological  Description,  186. 

The  Australians,  186. — Physical  Characteristics:  Stature,  186. — Color,  1S6. — Hair,  186. — 
Skull,  186. — Domestic  Habits,  1S7.— Dwellings,  1S7. — Weapons,  187. — Wars,  187. — 
Marriage,  188. —  Character,  188. —  Arts,  188.  —  Amusements,  188.  —  Festivals,  1S8. — 
Government,  189. —  Religious  Belief,  189. —  Burials,  i8g.  —  Social  Condition,  190. — 
Language,  190. 

The  Melanesians,  1 90. — Classification,  190. — Physical  Characteristics:  Stature,  191. — Color, 
191. — Hair,  191. — Skull,  191. — Dress,  192. — Customs,  192. —  Dwellings,  192. — Arts, 
192. — Musical  Instruments,  193. —  Amusements,  193. —  Literature,  193.  —  Commerce, 
193. — Marriage,  193. — Social  Life,  193. — Sacrifices,  194. — Cannibalism,  194. — Wars, 
194. — Weapons,  194. — Religious  Belief,  195. — Death,  195. — Burial,  195. — Social  Con- 
dition, 195. — Languages,  195. 

The  Polynesians  and  Micronesians,  I96. — Physical  Characteristics,  196. — Dress,  197. — 
Dwellings,  197. — Technical  Skill,  198, — Poetry,  198. — Music,  198. — Games,  198. — Fes- 
tivals, 198. — Wars,  199. — Social  Life,  199. — Marriage,  199. — Rank,  199. — Religious 
Belief,  200. — Idols,  200. — Temples,  200. — Priests,  200. — Burials,  201. — Monuments, 
201. — Status,  201. — Dialects,  201. 

The  Malaysians  and  Malagassies,  202. — Physical  Characteristics,  202. — Complexion,  202. — 
Hair,  202. — Skull,  202. — Costume,  202. — Architecture,  203. — Temples,  203. — Dwellings, 
203. — Agriculture,  203. — Food,  203. — Stimulants,  203. — Industrial  Arts,  203. — Weapons, 
204. — Commerce,  204. — Fine  Arts,  204. —  Musical  Instruments,  204. — Vocal  Music, 
205. — Poetry,  205. — Entertainments,  205. — Social  Life,  205. — Matrimony,  205. — Gov- 
ernment, 205. — Warfare,  206. — Character,  206. — Religious  Belief,  206. — Superstitions, 
207. — Burial,  207. — Language,  207. 

II.  The  Americans 209 

The  Aboriginal  Inhabitants  a  Single  Race,  209. — Classification,  209. — Location,  209. —  Orig- 
inal Home  of  the  Americans,  210. — Immigration,  210. — Landing,  210. — Dispersion, 
211. — Unity  of  Type,  211. — Language,  211. — Physical  Description:  Skull,  212. — 
Stature,  213.— Form,  213. — Color,  213. —  Hair,  213. —  Features,  214. —  Intermixtures, 
215. — Civilization,  215. — Mounds,  215. 

Actual  Life  of  the  Uncivilized  Americans,  216. — Dress,  216. — Ornaments,  216. — Wampum- 
Belts,  217. — Signification  of  Ornaments,  218. — Dwellings,  2 1 8. — Sledges,  219. — Skiffs, 
219. — Fishing  and  Hunting  Weapons,  219. — Agriculture,  220. — Stock-Raising,  220. — 
Stimulants,  220.  — Utensils,  220. — Industrial  Arts,  220.— Painting,  221. — Sculptures, 
221. — Poetry,  221.— Music,  221. — Social  Life,  221. — Games,  222. — Weapons,  222. — 
Wars,  222. — Cannibalism,  222. — Family  Life,  223.— Matrimony,  223. — Government, 
223. — Death,  224. — Burial  Ceremonies,  224. — Religious  Belief,  224. — Idols,  225. — Tem- 
ples, 225. — Priests,  225.— Sacred  .Songs,  226. — Hieroglyphics,  226. 

Life  of  the  Civilized  Americans,  226. — Character  of  the  Mexicans,  226. — Architecture,  227. — 
Religion,  228. — Sacrifices,  228. — Industrial  Acquirements,  229. — Intellectual  Acquire- 
ments, 229. — Soi'Tii  Americans  :  Costume,  229. — Government,  229. — Religion,  229. — 
Sacrifices,  230. — Idols,  230. — Pottery,  230. — Utensils,  230. — Structures,  231. — Music, 
231. — Science,  23 1. — General  Conclusions,  232. 


14  CONTENTS. 


PAGB 


III.  The  Mongolians 235 

Division  by  (Jroups,  235. — Unity  of  Type,  235. — Subdivisions,  236. — Comparative  I'hysical 
Cliaracteristics  ;  Stature,  236. — Form,  236.— Color,  237. — Hair,  237. — Skull,  237. — 
Features,  237. — Ethnological  Position,  239. — Language,  241. — Monosyllabic  Speech, 
242. — Polysyllabic  Speech,  243. 

A.  The  Monosyllabic  Mongolians,  247. — Classification,  248. 

1.  The  Peoples  of  Farther  India,  247. — Division,   247. — Physical   Characteristics  :   Stature, 

249. — F"orm,  249. — Color,  249. — Features,  249. — Hair,  250. — Costume,  250. — Archi- 
tecture, 251. — Temples,  251. — Palaces,  251. — Dwellings,  251. — Commerce,  251. — Trade, 
251. — Art,  251. — Literature,  251. — Intellectual  Faculties,  251. — Family  Life,  252. — 
Government,  252. — Slavery,  252. — Soldiery,  252. — Arms,  252. — Religion,  253. 

2.  The    Chinese,    254.  —  Physical   Characteristics:    Stature,    254.  —  Color,    254.  —  Features, 

254. — Hair,  254. — Costume,  254. — Architecture,  255. — Food,  255. — Stimulants,  255. — 
Agriculture,  255. — Literature,  255. — Family  Life,  255. — Government,  255. — Warfare, 
256. — Weapons,  256. — Religion,  256. — Funeral  Ceremonies,  256. 

3.  The  Thibetans,  257. — Groups,  257. — Divisions,  257. — Location,  257. — Physical  Charac- 

teristics, 25S. — Costume,  258. — Architecture,  258. — Social  Life,  258. — Burials,  258. — 
Religion,  259. 

B.  The   Polysyllabic  Mongolians,  259. 

1.  Ural-Japanese  Peoples,  259. — Classification,  259. — Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Coreans, 

261. — Japanese,  261. — -Ainos,  262. — Public  Life  of  the  Ainos,  262.— Domestic  Life, 
262. — Religion  of  the  Ainos,  263. — Dress  of  the  Japanese,  263.- — Dwellings,  264. — 
Food,  264. — Stimulants,  264. — Art,  265. — Literature,  265. — Character  of  the  Japanese, 
265. — Family  Life,  265. — Government,  265. — Caste,  266. — Weapons,  266. — Warfare, 
266. — Antiquities,  266. — Religion,  266. — Temples,  267. — Buddhism,  268. 

2.  Ural-Altaic  Peoples,   268. — Dress,   268. — Ornament,   268. — Dwellings,   269. — Structures, 

269. — Food,  270. — Stimulants,  270. — Water-Mills,  271. — Wind-Mills,  271. — Agricul- 
ture, 271. — Art,  271. — Literature,  271. — Intellectual  Faculties,  271,. — Character,  272. — 
Family  Life,  272. — Government,  272. — Weapons,  272. — Religion,  273. — Burials,  274. 

3.  Isolated  North  Asiatic  Peoples,  274. — Classification,  274. — Physical  Characteristics,  275. — 

Dress,  275. — Ornaments,  275.— Dwellings,  275. — Domestic  Animals,  276. — Food,  276. — 
Weapons,  276. — Domestic  Life  of  the  Kamchatkans,  276. — Religion,  276. 

4.  Peoples  of  the   Caucasus,   277. — Divisions,   277. — Dress,  278. — Ornaments,    278.^Social 

Life,  278. — Dwellings,  279. — Weapons,  279. — Government,  279. — Religion,  279. — 
Character,  280. 

IV.  The  Dravidian  Peoples 281 

Ethnologic  Division,  281. — Classification,  281. — Physical  Characteristics,  282. — Color,  283. — 
Hair,  283. — Features,  283. —  Intermixtures,  2S3. —  Language,  284. —  Costume,  285. — 
Hair-dressing,  285. — Jewelr)',  285. — Dwellings,  285. — Agriculture,  285. — Stock-Raising, 
2S5.— Food,  2S6. — Drink,  286. — Naval  Architecture,  286. — Domestic  Life,  286. — Mar- 
riage, 286. — Government,  2S7. — Religion,  287. — Superstition,  287. — Sacrifices,  288. — 
Priests,  288.— Idols,  2S8.— Death,  28S.— Burial,  2S8.— Intellectual  Faculties,  288.— 
Achievements,  2S8. 

V.  The  Arabic-African  Race 291 

Di\nsion  by  Groups,  291. — Geographical  Distribution,  291. 

I.    The  Koi-Koin,    291.— Peculiarity    of    language-Sounds,    29I. —  Habitat,    292. —  Racial 


CONTENTS.  15 

Division,  292. — Tribal  Divisions,  293. — Physical  Characteristics  :  Stature,  294. — Form, 
294. — "Hottentot  Apron,"  294. — Color,  295. — Hair,  295 — Sl<ull,  295. — Features,  295. — 
Circumcision,  295. — Costume,  296. — Ornaments,  296. — Weapons,  296. — Building,  297. — 
Manufactures,  297. — Stock-Raising,  297. — Food,  298. — Preparation  of  Food,  298. — 
Prohibition  of,  298. —  Stimulants,  298. — Agriculture,  298. —  Hunting,  298. —  Fishing, 
298. — Marriage,  298. — Marriage  Ceremonies,  298. — Marriage  Restrictions,  298. — Births, 
299. — Ceremonies  at  Births,  299. — Maturity,  299. —  Inheritance,  300. —  Government, 
300. — Laws,  300. — Wars,  300. — Funeral  Ceremonies,  300. — Religious  Belief,  301. — 
Deities,  301. — Myths,  301. — Spirits,  302. — Superstitions,  302.— Musical  Instruments, 
303. — Dances,  303. — Culture,  303. — Character,  303. — Linguistics,  304. 

The  Banlu  Peoples,  305. — Languages,  305. — Classification,  306. — Similarity  of  Tribes, 
307. — Intemiixtures,  307. — Physical  Characteristics  :  Stature,  307. — Form,  307. — Color, 
308. — Hair,  308. — Skull,  308. — Features,  309. — Disfigurations,  309. — Costume,  310. — 
Decorations,  310. — DweUings,  311. — Villages,  311. — Household  F'urniture,  312. — Uten- 
sils, 312. — Iron-Smelting,  313. — Weapons,  313. — Hunting,  314. — Fishing,  314. — Agri- 
culture, 314. —  Implements,  314. — Cotton,  315. —  Stock-Raising,  315. —  Food,  315. — 
Stimulants,  315. — Art,  316. — Musical  Instruments,  316. — Singing,  316. — Dancing,  316. — 
Domestic  Life,  316. — Domestic  Habits,  316. — Births,  317. — Ceremonies  at  Births,  317. — 
The  State,  317. — Laws,  318. — Punishments,  3lS.^-0rdeals,  318. — Wars,  31S. — Deaths, 
319. — Burials,  319. — Religious  Views,  320. —  Superstitions,  320. —  Magicians,  321. — 
Political  Development,  322. — Moral  Development,  322. 

The  Peoples  of  Soudan,  322. —  Classification,  322.  —  Language,  323.  —  Groups,  326. — 
Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Negro:  Form,  329. — Color,  329. — Hair,  330. — Stature, 
330. — Brain,  330. — Skull,  330. — Features,  330, — Interminglings,  330. — Deviation  in 
Form,  331. — Variations  in  the  Color  of  the  Skin,  332. — Disfigurement  of  the  Body, 
332. — Hair-dressing,  333. — Costume,  333. — Ornaments,  333. — Dwellings,  334. — Farm 
Buildings,  334. — Agriculture,  335. — Implements,  335. — Plant  Products,  335. — Stock- 
Raising,  335. — Food,  336. — Stimulants,  336. — Industrial  Arts,  337. — Money,  337. — 
Arts,  337. — Music,  337. — Musical  Instruments,  338. — Literature,  338. — Family  Life, 
338. — Sexual  Relations,  338. — Forms  of  Marriage,  339. — Divorce,  339. — Births,  339  — 
Ceremonies  at  Births,  339. — Religious  Rites,  339. — Festivities,  339. — Children,  340. — 
Government,  340. — Laws,  341. — Punishments,  341. — Oaths  and  Ordeals,  342. — Wars, 
342. — Weapons  :  Bows  and  Aitows,  342. — Spears,  342. — Clubs,  342. — Shields,  342. — 
Battle-Axes,  343. — Trumbash,  343. — Firearms,  343. — Captives,  343. — Military  Spirit, 
343. — Armies,  344. — Cannibalism,  344. —  Religion,  344. — Elementary  Deities,  345. — 
Fetiehism,  345. — Guardian  Spirits,  345. — Immortality  of  the  Soul,  346. — Superstitions, 
346. — Theory  of  Creation,  346. — Future  State,  346. — Piniishments  for  Religious  Viola- 
tions, 347. — Offerings,  347. — Sacrifices,  347. — Priesthood,  347. — Idols,  347. —  Secret 
Societies,  348. — Funeral  Ceremonies,  348. — Character,  348. — Condition,  348. — Valor 
and  Humanity,  349. — Slavery,  349. — Social  Manners,  349. — Avarice,  349. — Climatic 
Influences,  etc.,  350. 

The  Semites,  350. — Location,  350. — Classification,  350. — African  Semites,  350. — General 
Considerations,  350. — Asiatic  Semites,  353. — Divisions,  353. — Physical  Characteristics 
of  the  African  Semites,  353.  —  Asiatic  Semites,  355.  —  Skull,  356.  —  Disfiguration, 
356. — Life  of  the  Semites:  Clothing,  356. — Building,  358. — Domestic  Life,  358. — 
Stock-Raising,  358. — Hunting,  358. — Agriculture,  35S. — Food,  35S. — Stimulants,  35S. — 
Utensils,  359. — Household  Goods,  359. — Technical  and  Industrial  Arts,  360. — Fine 
Arts,  360. — Architecture,  360. — M\isic,  360. — Musical  Instniments,  360. — Poetry,  361. — 
Weapons,  361. — Warfare,  362. —  Family  Life,  362.  —  Parentage,  363.  —  Government, 
363.  —  Constitution,  364.  —  Chieftainship,  364.  —  Judiciary,  364.  —  Religions,  365. — 
Animism,  366. — Superstition,  366. — Sorcery  and  Magic,  367. — Eschatology,  367. — Cere- 
monies at  Death,  367. — Offerings,  368. — Burials,  368. — Intellectual  Faculties,  369. — 
Language,  369. — Ethnologic  Relations,  369. 


i6  CONTENTS. 


PAr.E 


VI.  The  Indo-Europeans 37' 

A.  The  Basques,  371. — Classification,  371.— General  Characteristics  and  Social  Life,  371. — 

Language,  371. 

B.  The  Indo-Germanic  Family,  375.— i.   '!'''(  Indians,  376. — Classification  and  General 

Characteristics,  376.— Physical  Characteristics:  Hair,  37S.— Sl<ull,  378.— Dress,  378.— 
Ornaments,  378. — Dwellings,  378. — Character,  379. — Government,  379. — Family  Life, 
379. — Language,  379. — Literature,  379. — Caste,  380. — Religion:  Bralimanism,  381. — 
Buddhism,  38 1. — Superstitions,  382.  2.  The  Iranian  Peoples,  383. — Classification, 
383. — Language,  385. — Dress,  385. — Architecture,  385. — Civilization,  386. — Religion, 
386. — Death,  387. — Burial  Ceremonies,  387. 

C.  The  European  Indo-Germanic  Peopi,f,s,  388. — Deterioration  of  Type  and  Language, 

3S8. — Influence  of  Migration,  38S. — Influence  of  Natural  Surroundings,  389. — Aborig- 
inal Remains,  390. — Dispersion,  390. — Classification,  39I. — Language,  394. — Civilization, 
396. — Intellectual  Development,  396. 


ANTHROPOLOGY, 
ETHNOLOGY,  AND  ETHNOGRAPHY. 


PART  I. 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 


OF  the  various  branches  of  human  learning,  there  are  three  which 
make  man  himself  the  subject  of  investigation  :  these  are  Anthro- 
pology, Ethnology,  and  Ethnography.  They  are  closely  allied, 
but,  as  they  differ  both  in  their  methods  and  in  their  fields  of  research, 
the  distinction  between  them  becomes  an  important  one. 

Definitions. — Anthropology  (from  the  Greek  dyftpioKo:;,  man,  and 
)-6yo:;^  a  discourse)  deals  with  man  as  a  zoological  species.  It  defines  the 
differences  which  distinguish  him  from  other  species  of  the  higher  ani- 
mals. It  sets  forth  his  physical  and  mental  peculiarities.  It  treats  him 
as  a  unit  in  the  series  of  organic  fonns,  and  catalogues  the  traits  which 
bind  all  his  varieties  into  one  species,  while  at  the  same  time  they  sepa- 
rate him  sharply  from  the  other  highly-developed  mammals. 

Ethnology  (from  the  Greek  l^voc,  a  people,  and  ^ojoc,  a  discourse)  con- 
templates man  as  essentially  a  social  creature — as  bound  together  in  com- 
munities by  ties  of  mutual  protection,  of  recognized  kinship,  of  a  common 
religion,  of  a  language,  of  affection,  and  of  government.  It  studies,  not 
man  in  general,  but  men  in  their  various  races,  nations,  tribes,  and  fam- 
ilies. It  is  much  more  concerned  with  the  mental,  the  psychical,  part  of 
man  than  with  his  physical  nature,  and  seeks  to  trace  his  intellectual 
development  as  the  result  of  his  social  relations. 

Ethnogr-^phy  (from  the  Greek  edvoi;,  a  people,  and  Yf>d<fstv,  to  write) 
also  studies  men  in  communities ;  but  it  differs  from  Ethnology  by 
confining  itself  to  the  collection  of  facts  and  the  description  of  actual 
relations  and  customs.  It  does  not  undertake  to  explain  their  origin, 
their  influence,  and  their  sociologic  significance.  These  belong  to  Eth- 
nology, in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term. 

Vol.  I.— 2  17 


iS  ANTHROPOLOGY. 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS   OF   MAN. 

Erect  Posture. — In  the  classifications  of  zoologists  man  is  stated  to  be 
a  mammal  and  to  belong  to  the  order  of  Primates.,  which  also  includes 
the  highest  species  of  apes — the  gorilla,  the  chimpanzee,  and  the  orang- 
outang. But  he  is  at  once  distinguished  from  these  and  all  other  animals 
by  his  adoption  of  the  erect  posture  in  walking.  This  he  is  enabled  to 
do  by  virtue  of  several  marked  peculiarities  of  his  anatomical  conforma- 
tion. His  head  rests  on  his  vertebral  column  or  backbone  almost  at  the 
centre  of  the  base  of  the  skull,  whereas  in  other  animals  the  point  of 
connection  is  much  more  to  the  rear  of  the  skull.  The  weight,  there- 
fore, of  his  head  is  evenly  balanced  on  its  support ;  and  so  systematic  is 
this  arrangement  that  in  races,  as  the  African,  where  the  jaws  are  devel- 
oped to  an  uncommon  degree  forward,  the  back  of  the  head  has  a  corre- 
sponding extension  backward,  so  as  to  compensate  for  the  additional 
weight  in  front. 

His  spinal  column  gradually  increases  in  .size  toward  the  base,  and  is 
so  disposed  in  cur\-es  as  to  break  the  effect  of  shocks,  at  the  same  time 
that  the  weight  above  is  distributed  exactly  in  the  line  of  the  centre  of 
gravity.  The  weight  of  the  column  and  the  contents  of  the  trunk  are 
supported  by  a  bony  pelvis  or  basin  broader  and  more  widely  expanded 
in  proportion  to  the  general  frame  than  in  any  other  animal. 

Lozver  Limbs. — In  proportion  to  the  trunk,  the  lower  limbs  of  man 
are  longer  than  in  any  other  mammal,  the  kangaroo  not  excepted.  Their 
great  length,  indeed,  prevents  him  from  walking  in  any  other  than  the 
erect  attitude.  They  are  in  marked  contrast  with  the  short  and  bowed 
legs  of  the  gorilla,  chimpanzee,  or  orang-outang.  These  apes,  which  are 
the  highest  in  the  scale  of  animals  below  man,  rarely  attempt  progression 
in  the  standing  position,  and  when  they  do  they  are  obliged  to  support 
themselves  by  tising  their  forearms  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  criitches, 
placing  the  right  and  left  knuckles  alternately  on  the  ground. 

Feet. — The  foot  of  man  is  broader,  stronger,  and  larger  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  body  than  in  any  other  animal,  so  that  man  can  stand 
on  one  leg,  which  no  other  mammal  can  do.  The  heel  is  extended  behind 
at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  limb,  thus  forming  a  powerful  lever  for 
the  great  muscles  of  the  calf  of  the  leg  which  raise  the  body  in  walking, 
while  the  bones  of  the  great  toe  are  proportionately  strong  and  fonn  the 
chief  support  upon  which  the  body  may  be  raised.  By  this  disposition 
of  parts  it  results  that  when  a  man  stands  erect  a  vertical  line  from  tlie 
top  of  his  head  would  pass  through  the  junction  of  the  head  and  spinal 
column,  follow  the  latter  to  the  pelvis,  and  be  equally  distributed  between 
the  hips,  knees,  and  feet.  This  explains  why  a  man  can  carr}-  a  weight 
on  the  top  of  his  head  easier  than  in  any  other  way,  as  is  readily  discov- 
ered by  laundresses  and  others  whose  duties  oblige  them  frequently  to 
caxry  burdens    {pi.  i,  fig.  8,  /J,  d\ 

The  indirect  results  of  the  erect  position  have  been  of  the  utmost 


ANTHR  OPOL  OGY.  19 

importance  in  favorinq^  the  development  of  man's  faculties.  A  few 
reflections  will  ilhistrate  this  :  In  the  erect  postnre  the  face  is  placed 
perpendicnlarly  nnder  the  forehead,  so  that  the  planes  of  both  are  par- 
allel. The  direction  of  the  orbits  of  the  eyes  is  thus  brought  to  a  hori- 
zontal line,  which  secures  the  widest  range  of  vision,  and  the  direction 
of  the  nose  thus  obtained  gives  the  greatest  range  to  the  sense  of  smell. 
In  proportion  to  the  length  of  his  body,  the  eyes  are  more  elevated  than 
in  other  animals,  and  thus  he  gains  a  wider  horizon  to  survey.  These 
were  by  no  means  unimportant  points  of  superiority  when  man  had  to 
measure  his  powers  in  daily  contests  with  the  wild  animals  of  the 
forests. 

Hands. — But  the  most  valuable  advantage  man  derives  from  the  erect 
posture  is  that  it  exempts  the  upper  limbs  from  taking  any  part  in  the 
support  of  the  body  or  in  the  act  of  progression  ;  in  other  words,  it  gives 
him  the  use  of  his  hands,  those  "instruments  of  consummate  perfection," 
as  they  have  well  been  called,  each  elaborately  framed  of  twenty-seven 
bones  and  numberless  fine  fibres  of  muscle  and  tendon.  To  the  intelli- 
gent use  of  his  hands  more  than  to  any  other  of  his  faculties  man  owes 
the  conquests  over  the  forces  of  nature  on  which  he  has  reared  the  fabric 
of  his  civilization. 

The  older  anatomists  were  of  the  opinion  that  the  four  feet  of  the 
higher  apes  were,  properly  speaking,  hands  rather  than  feet,  and  therefore 
they  included  them  in  a  class  called  the  Oiiadruuiana.,  or  "four-handed" 
animals.  More  accurate  dissections  have  shown  this  view  to  be  erroneous. 
These  members  possess  certain  muscles  peculiar  to  the  human  foot  and 
not  found  in  the  hand,  and  are  therefore  feet  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  and  the  so-called  group  of  Quadrumana  has  no  existence.  Man 
alone  of  animals  has  a  hand. 

Much  of  the  power  of  the  hand  to  grasp  weapons,  tools,  and  the  like 
comes  from  the  position  of  the  thumb,  which  is  "opposed,"  as  it  is  called, 
to  the  fingers  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  can  be  brought  into  contact  with  the  tip 
of  any  one  of  them.  This  is  also  in  a  less  degree  the  case  with  the  four 
feet  of  the  higher  apes,  but  the  human  thumb  is  longer  and  more  freely 
acting,  and  the  palm  is  wider,  thus  conferring  greater  prehensile  power 
on  the  member    (//.  i,  fig.  8,  <?,  c). 

Other  Anatomical  Traits. — These  are  by  no  means  all  the  points  in 
which  man  differs  in  his  anatomy  from  the  highest  apes.  Thus,  in  most 
of  his  varieties  he  has  a  smooth  almost  hairless  skin,  in  strong  contrast 
to  their  hirsute  bodies.  With  few  exceptions  this  is  also  the  most  marked 
in  those  branches  of  the  human  famih'  which  are  least  developed  in  men- 
tal powers.  Most  of  the  apes  have  a  separate  bone  of  the  face  called  the 
intermaxillary  bone,  which  never  appears  in  the  human  skeleton.  The 
conformation  of  tlie  lower  jaw  is  also  characteristic.  It  has  been  said 
that  man  is  the  only  creature  which  has  a  chin.  It  is  most  distinct  in 
the  white  race,  becomes  less  marked  in  the  negro,  and  does  not  exist  in 
the  apes.     Although  man  has  the  .same  number  of  teeth  as  the  higher 


20  AXTIIR  OPOL  OGY. 

apes,  their  development  differs  in  several  particulars  not  necessary-  to 
specif)-  here.  It  is  well,  however,  to  correct  a  prevalent  error  on  this 
point.  The  conformation  of  the  human  teeth  has  led  many  to  found 
arguments  that  man's  diet  originally  was,  and  should  remain,  either  veg- 
etable or  animal,  or  of  both  articles.  No  conclusion  of  the  kind  can  be 
derived  from  this  point  of  his  anatomy.  His  dentition,  indeed,  adapts 
him  to  eat  either  animal  or  vegetable  food,  and  tribes  in  a  state  of  nature 
are  found  living  almost  exclusively  on  one  or  the  other  ;  but  the  presence 
of  grinding,  cutting,  and  tearing  teeth,  equally  developed,  in  the  jaws  of 
any  animal  is  no  proof  that  it  is  omnivorous  or  is  confined  to  a  special 
variety  of  food.  Some  monkeys  have  large  canines,  yet  live  on  vegeta- 
bles ;  all  bats  possess  well-formed  incisors,  canines,  and  molars,  yet  some 
are  purely  fruit-eating,  while  others  live  exclusively  on  animal  food. 

Brain. — Much  stress  has  been  laid  by  some  on  the  shape  of  the  skull 
in  man  and  the  amount  and  character  of  the  brain-substance  which  it 
contains.  It  is  true  that  in  these  respects  there  are  obvious  differences 
between  him  and  the  animals  nearest  him  in  the  scale  of  organic  life, 
but  the  precise  import  of  these  differences  has  not  been  ascertained. 
Neither  in  the  absolute  weight  of  his  brain,  nor  in  its  weight  in  relation 
to  that  of  his  body,  does  man  stand  at  all  at  the  head  of  the  list  of 
animals.  Thus,  the  weight  of  a  well-developed  human  brain  is  about 
three  pounds,  which  is  scarcely  or  not  at  all  more  than  in  a  dolphin  of 
seven  or  eight  feet  in  length,  and  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  elephant 
and  other  large  animals.  Cohsidered  in  its  proportion  to  the  total  weight 
of  the  body,  the  brain  of  man  is  as  i  :  37,  which  is  inferior  to  that  of  sev- 
eral of  the  American  monkeys,  where  the  proportion  is  as  i  :  25,  or  even 
less  than  this. 

Writers  have  therefore  sought  to  discover  the  signs  of  the  superiority 
of  man  in  the  confonnation  rather  than  in  the  amount  of  his  brain-sub- 
stance. They  have  said  that  the  mental  powers  are  dependent  on  the 
amount  of  gray  matter  in  the  brain.  This  gray  matter  is  the  exterior 
coating  of  the  brain,  and  of  course  the  more  numerous  the  folds — or,  as 
they  are  called,  the  convolutions — of  the  brain,  the  larger  area  of  external 
surface  there  will  be,  and  consequently  the  more  gray  matter.  Hence  the 
complexity  of  the  convolutions  of  the  brain  has  been  asserted  by  some  to 
stand  in  direct  relation  to  intellectual  power  ;  and  it  has  been  triumph- 
antly pointed  out  in  support  of  this  theory  that  the  brains  of  the  higher 
apes  are  much  more  simple  in  their  convolutions,  and  therefore  have  less 
gray  matter,  than  that  of  man.  This  is  true,  but  comparative  anatomy 
has  also  discovered  the  opposing  fact  that  the  brain  of  the  dog  has  very 
much  simpler  convolutions  than  that  of  the  sheep,  which  is  notoriously  a 
stupid  animal  in  comparison. 

Absence  of  Tail. — The  apparent  absence  of  a  tail  in  man  has  often  been 
mentioned  as  one  of  the  obvious  distinctions  between  him  and  monkeys, 
but  this  is  a  popular  error.  Anatomically  speaking,  man  has  a  tail,  as 
any  one  can  see  by  looking  at  a  human  skeleton  ;  only  it  is  not  developed 


ANTHR  OPOL  OGY.  2  r 

externally,  and  in  this  respect  he  is  like  several  of  the  higher  species  of 
monkeys,  which  are  also  usually,  though  incorrectly,  spoken  of  as  tailless. 
Besides  the  above  anatomical,  there  are  a  number  of  physiological, 
differences  between  man  and  the  apes,  especially  with  reference  to  the 
laws  of  his  growth,   but  they  need  not  occupy  us  here. 

PSYCHICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   MAN. 

Emotions. — Although  the  above-mentioned  traits  clearly  distinguish 
man  from  other  species  of  animals,  they  do  not  establish  any  such  marked 
peculiarities  in  him  as  to  remove  him  from  the  chain  of  organic  forms,  in 
which  he  stands  merely  as  physically  the  most  complete.  If  he  differs 
radically  in  kind  rather  than  in  degree  from  his  fellow-creatures,  it  must 
be  not  in  his  physical  but  in  his  psychical  powers,  in  his  intellect  or  soul. 
Yet  even  here  the  researches  of  recent  years  have  materially  narrowed  the 
gulf  which  was  once  supposed  to  separate  man  from  beast.  It  has  been 
proved  beyond  peradventure  that  the  lower  animals  have  much  the  same 
emotions  as  ourselves.  Even  such  cold-blooded  creatures  as  fishes  are 
found  to  love  and  hate,  to  fear  and  to  be  able  to  conquer  fear,  with  a 
fervor  that  bears  close  comparison  with  anything  the  records  of  our  race 
can  produce. 

Reasoning. — The  power  of  reasoning,  and  especially  the  faculty  of 
fonning  abstract  conceptions,  were  long  claimed  as  the  exclusive  prerog- 
atives of  man.  But  there  are  any  number  of  authentic  narratives  about 
the  intelligence  of  brutes  which  seem  to  require  for  their  explanation  the 
exercise  of  both  these  faculties  ;  and  it  becomes  impossible,  therefore,  to 
deny  their  presence  in  some  degree  in  the  more  intelligent  quadrupeds. 
Every  reader  must  be  able  to  recall  many  such  anecdotes  of  our  household 
friend  the  dog,  and  a  close  study  of  so  low  an  organized  animal  as  the  ant 
has  revealed  even  more  remarkable  display's  of  intellectual  action  in  the 
management  of  its  communities. 

Self-consciousness. — Several  philosophers  have  maintained  that  the 
power  of  contemplating  one's  self  as  a  separate  existence,  of  sclf-con- 
scioiisness,  is  enjoyed  exclusively  by  man,  and  is  the  secret  of  his  intel- 
lectual supremacy.  The  assertion  is  as  difiicult  to  prove  as  to  disprove, 
as  there  is  no  action  which  we  can  name  as  the  exclusive  outcome  of  this 
feeling.  If  we  accept,  as  some  have  suggested,  suicide  as  such  an  action, 
then  we  must  extend  it  to  the  brutes,  for  there  are  undoubted  instances  of 
deliberate  self-destruction  among  them. 

A  careful  survey  of  the  recent  studies  on  instinct  and  intelligence 
among  the  lower  animals  indicates  that  in  only  two  directions  can  man 
claim  to  possess  intellectual  properties  wholly  beyond  the  ken  of  the 
lower  animals :  one  of  these  is  in  his  religions.,  the  other  in  his 
languages. 

Religion. — Whether  we  look  upon  religion  as  the  recognition  and 
worship  of  an  unseen  Power  who  has  the  ordering  of  the  events  of  lift-, 
or  whether  we  confine  it  to  a  sense  of  duty  prompting  to  the  perform- 


22  ANTIIR  OPOL  OGY. 

ance  of  certain  actions  and  to  the  abstention  from  others,  in  either  of 
these  comprehensive  senses  of  the  term  it  seems  the  exchisive  perquisite 
of  man,  and  not  in  any  degree  known  or  felt  by  inferior  species. 

Language. — Language,  articulate  grammatical  speech,  is  not  less  the 
exclusive  property  of  the  human  race.  It  is  quite  true  that  many  of  the 
lower  species  have  the  power  of  communicating  information,  and  this  not 
unfrequently  by  means  of  sounds.  Such  instances  are  familiar  to  every 
one.  So  has  the  infant.  But  the  difference  between  this  inarticulate, 
interjectional  mode  of  utterance  and  spoken  language  is  a  radical  one, 
and  vindicates  for  man  the  possession  of  certain  powers  found  nowhere 
else  in  nature.  As  the  eminent  anthropologist  Dr.  E.  B.  Tylor  has  well 
remarked  :  "Alan's  power  of  using  a  word,  or  even  a  gesture,  as  a  symbol 
of  a  thought  and  the  means  of  conversing  about  it,  is  one  of  the  points 
where  we  see  him  parting  company  with  all  lower  species  and  starting  on 
his  career  of  conquest  through  higher  intellectual  regions." 

Causality. — Employing  a  term  drawn  from  the  vocabulary  of  meta- 
physics, we  may  define  the  fundamental  difference  between  the  mind  of 
man  and  the  intelligence  or  instinct  of  the  lower  animals  to  be  that  man 
has  and  constantly  exercises  the  perception  of  causality.  He  recognizes 
and  governs  his  actions  by  the  observed  relations  of  cau.se  and  effect. 
This  the  highest  apes  do  not  attain  to  in  the  most  simple  matters.  Thus 
travellers  in  Central  Africa  tell  us  that  in  the  cool  nights  there  the  apes 
will  be  seen  watching  the  travellers  keep  up  their  camp-fire  with  sticks 
of  wood,  and  if  the  men  withdraw  the  apes  will  gather  around  the  fire 
and  enjoy  the  wannth  hugely,  but  they  never  attain  the  degree  of  intelli- 
gence to  lay  wood  on  the  fire  to  keep  it  burning.  The  relation  of  cause 
to  effect  in  this  simple  act  escapes  them. 

Manufacture  of  Tools. — For  the  same  reason,  no  brute  ever  fashions  a 
tool  or  weapon  for  its  future  use.  Some,  indeed,  make  use  of  such  when 
ready  to  their  hand.  Thus,  a  monkey  has  been  known  to  select  a  stone 
of  convenient  shape  for  cracking  its  nuts,  and  even  to  hide  such  a  stone 
to  preserve  it  for  future  occasions  ;  the  gorilla  and  orang-outang  will  tear 
limbs  from  trees  or  pick  up  sticks  to  use  as  weapons  ;  and  other  species 
will  hurl  stones  or  nuts  as  missiles  at  their  enemies  ;  but  in  spite  of  this 
familiarity  with  the  use  of  ready-made  instruments,  no  instance  can  be 
cited  where  even  the  most  advanced  of  the  inferior  animals  fashioned  a 
single  tool.  When  it  is  remembered  that  even  the  very  lowest  tribes  of 
men  make  tools  of  remarkable  ingenuity,  and  that  in  the  most  remote 
geologic  age  in  wdiich  we  find  the  slightest  traces  of  man  he  both  knew 
the  use  of  fire  and  manufactured  weapons,  these  distinctions  mark  him 
ofi"  broadly  from  all  other  living  creatures. 

THE   UXITY  OF  THE   HUM.\N  SPECIES. 

Definition  of  Species. — As  the  above  considerations  demonstrate  that 
man  has  a  number  of  traits  which  mark  him  off  as  a  wholly  distinct 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  23 

species,  the  question  arises,  Must  we  go  farther  and  erect  him  into  a 
genus,  including  a  number  of  species?  In  other  words,  Is  there  but  one 
species  of  man  or  are  there  several? 

Some  years  ago  this  question  assumed  a  certain  degree  of  political 
importance  in  the  United  States,  and  several  ambitious  treatises  were 
published  to  prove  that  the  white  and  the  negro  races  belong,  zoolog- 
ically, to  different  species.  The  aim  of  these  efforts  was,  however,  rather 
to  defend  a  theory  than  to  arrive  at  the  truth. 

Owing  to  the  general  acceptance  of  the  modern  doctrines  of  the  evo- 
lution and  retrogression  of  organic  fonns,  the  definition  of  species  is  by 
no  means  so  rigid  as  it  was  formerly.  Indeed,  it  is  no  easy  task  to  state 
precisely  what  we  mean  by  a  species.  We  can  at  best  say  that  it  includes 
all  members  of  an  organic  group  who  have  an  obvious  similarity  between 
themselves,  and  who  have  been,  or  may  be  supposed  to  have  been, 
descended  from  the  same  ancestral  pair. 

Such  general  similarity  exists  to  a  remarkable  degree  among  all  races 
of  men,  especially  when  we  reflect  to  what  extremely  different  food, 
climate,  and  surroundings  they  are  subjected,  in  these  respects  far 
transcending  any  other  animal.  They  agree  not  only  in  all  those 
marked  traits  which  have  been  mentioned  above  as  distingruishine 
them  from  other  species,  but  in  a  vast  number  of  small  and  unim- 
portant characteristics,  such  as  we  cannot  imagine  would  have  been 
acquired  in  any  other  way  than  by  inheritance  from  some  common 
ancestor. 

This  is  observable  in  both  physical  and  mental  peculiarities.  It  has 
been  repeatedly  noticed  by  close  observers  that  the  physical  differences 
of  races  are  very  much  less  in  infancy  and  youth  than  in  later  life.  The 
hue  of  the  new-born  babe  in  the  colored  races  is  much  lighter  than  that 
of  the  adult,  and  in  the  shape  of  the  head  and  the  features  of  the  face  the 
babes  of  all  races  are  strikingly  alike.  The  racial  differences  only  grad- 
ually assert  themselves.  From  the  same  street  in  Pekin  we  could  select 
a  full-blooded  Mongolian  child  who  would  pass  in  Brazil  for  the  offspring 
of  a  native  Indian,  and  another  from  the  same  place  domiciled  in  an 
Irish  shanty  would  be  taken  for  a  son  of  the  soil  of  Erin. 

Every  intelligent  European  who  has  become  intimate  with  the  repre- 
sentatives of  other  races,  be  they  of  any  clime  or  color,  has  discovered  in 
them  the  same  sentiments  and  tastes,  the  same  emotions  and  passions,  as 
in  his  fellow-countrymen  of  the  like  grade  of  culture  ;  wherever  he  wan- 
ders, the  highest  type  of  man  is  ever  forced  to  recognize,  in  all  tribes  who 
claim  the  name,  his  fellow-beings — men  like  himself,  heirs  of  the  same 
mental  powers,  brethren  of  the  same  household. 

Fertility  of  Crossings. — This  conclusion  is  confinned  by  the  well- 
ascertained  fertility  in  the  marriages  between  different  races  arid  in 
their  offspring.  This  was  long  set  up  as  the  test  of  the  unity  of  species. 
It  was  maintained  that  crosses  between  different  species  are  uniformly 
barren,  or  at  least  that  the  offspring  of  such  crosses  are  always  sterile. 


24  ANTHR  OrOL  0  G  Y. 

This  position  has  now  been  abandoned.  Though  it  holds  good  as  a 
general  rule,  it  is  far  from  being  a  law  of  nature.  Several  of  our  domes- 
tic animals  are  undoubted  products  of  the  crossing  of  several  wild  species  ; 
for  instance,  the  dog,  the  hog,  and  the  ox.  So  far,  however,  as  the  rule 
goes,  it  is  in  favor  of  the  unity  of  the  human  species.  All  its  varieties 
blend  in  fertile  unions,  and  produce  offspring  who  in  their  turn  are  as  fer- 
tile as  were  their  parents,  when  living  under  equally  favorable  conditions. 
The  examples  which  from  time  to  time  have  been  brought  forward  to 
support  the  contrary  view  have,  on  investigation,  turned  out  to  be  errors 
of  observation. 

Parallelism  of  Development. — The  theor}'  of  unity  is  also  supported 
by  another  line  of  facts  whose  correct  appreciation  is  of  the  highest 
importance,  not  only  to  ethnology,  but  to  the  histor}-  of  civilization  ; 
and  this  is,  the  parallelism  which  prevails  in  the  industrial  and  ethical 
development  of  the  human  race  in  all  ages  and  in  all  parts  of  the  globe. 
Turn  where  we  will  in  history  or  in  geography,  we  find  nations  of  the 
same  grade  of  culture,  no  matter  of  what  race,  presenting  the  most  extra- 
ordinary coincidences,  not  merely  in  their  arts,  customs,  laws,  and  social 
arrangements,  but  even  in  the  toys  of  their  children,  their  purely  imag- 
inary tales  of  their  gods,  their  religious  symbols,  their  folk-lore,  and  the 
stories  they  invent  for  mere  amusement.  There  are  yet  some  authors  who 
strive  to  explain  these  coincidences  by  the  hypothesis  of  historic  trans- 
mission. When  they  find,  for  instance,  as  is  the  case,  the  storj-  of  "The 
House  that  Jack  Built"  in  Europe,  India,  CaflSr-Laud,  and  Brazil,  told 
in  an  original  version  by  the  natives  of  each  land,  they  maintain  that  it 
must  have  descended  from  some  remote  period  when  the  ancestors  of  these 
widely-dispersed  tribes  were  in  geographical  relations.  But  this  and  the 
hundreds  of  instances  of  a  similar  kind  which  have  been  collected  by 
writers  are  to  be  attributed  to  that  oneness  of  mental  nature  which  more 
than  anything  else  proves  that  man  is  of  one  blood,  and  in  his  psycholog- 
ical processes  is  everywhere  the  same. 

ANTIQUITY  OF  MAX   ON   EARTH,    AND   HIS   FIRST   HOME. 

Having  established  the  probability  that  man  is  of  only  one  zoological 
species,  we  may  next  proceed  to  inquire  when  and  where  he  first  appeared 
on  earth.  Not  that  it  necessarily  follows  that  he  appeared  at  one  place 
only.  The  unity  of  a  species  does  not  require  this.  Whatever  Power 
brought  it  into  being  at  one  place  might  have  also  acted  with  the  same 
result  in  several.  Naturalists  do  not  insist  that  all  the  members  of  a 
species  shall  be  descended  from  one  pair  of  ancestors.  Were  it  to  happen 
that  some  inventive  resident  of  another  planet  should  devise  an  aerial 
car  and  pay  us  a  visit,  and  we  should  find  that  he  was  in  all  respects  like 
one  of  ourselves,  we  should  unhesitatingly  claim  him  as  of  the  same 
species,  although  there  could  be  no  talk  of  community  of  ancestn,'. 

Relation  of  Man  to  Other  Fauna. — This  consideration  renders  the 
question  of  the  whereabouts  of  man's  first  appearance  somewhat  more 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  25 

involved.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  greatly  lightened  by  the  acknow- 
ledeed  fact  that  in  the  advent  of  organic  forms  on  earth  it  is  a  nniform 
law  that  they  bear  fixed  relations  to  the  forms  around  them.  Their 
existence,  indeed,  is  conditioned  by  the  presence  of  a  number  of  similar 
forms  anterior  to  them.  Hence  we  need  only  look  for  the  first  abode  of 
man  in  some  locality  whicli  was  peopled  at  the  time  by  the  highest  mam- 
mals, those  placed  next  to  him  in  the  zoological  scale  ;  that  is,  the  man- 
like apes.  The  climatic  conditions  which  best  suited  their  life  were  also 
such  as  were  most  favorable  to  him  in  the  infancy  of  the  race. 

But  this  inquiry  carries  us  far  afield,  for  we  cannot  confine  ourselves  to 
the  physical  geography  of  the  globe  as  it  now  is,  but  must  look  at  it  at 
the  period  when  the  earliest  signs  of  man's  occupancy  present  them- 
selves. 

Here  Geology  must  be  asked  to  the  assistance  of  Ethnology,  for  the 
time  is  past  when  we  can  suppose  that  the  period  of  the  existence  of  man 
can  be  measured  by  a  few  thousand  years.  Evidence  that  cannot  be  con- 
troverted proves  that  tens  of  thousands  of  years  ago  he,  or  some  creature 
possessing  faculties  like  him,  roamed  widely  over  the  face  of  the  earth, 
then  under  climatic  conditions  strangely  dissimilar  from  those  with  which 
modern  geography  is  familiar. 

A  very  brief  sketch  of  the  doctrines  of  Geology  may  make  this  branch 
of  our  subject  more  easily  comprehended.  Students  of  that  science 
divide  the  rocky  strata  which  make  up  the  earth's  crust  into  Primary, 
Secondary,  and  Tertiary  strata,  the  Primary  being  the  oldest,  the  Ter- 
tiary the  most  recent.  Some,  indeed,  consider  the  Tertiary  as  reaching 
down  to  and  including  the  present  age,  but  most  are  of  accord  in  calling 
this  latter  by  a  different  term.  By  these  the  Tertiary  age  or  epoch  is 
subdivided  into  three  minor  ages — the  Eocene,  which  is  the  oldest  ;  the 
Miocene  ;  and  the  Pliocene,  which  is  the  latest.  After  this  is  placed  by 
some  the  Pleistocene,  by  others  the  Quaternar}',  epoch — terms  often  used 
as  almost  synonymous  to  designate  the  period  intervening  between  the 
close  of  the  Tertiary  and  the  beginning  of  the  Geologic  age  in  which  we 
live,  this  being  known  as  the  Alluvial  or  Actual  age. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  world  differed  exceedingly  in  these  vari- 
ous epochs.  Thus  in  the  Miocene  and  early  Pliocene,  Greenland  enjoyed 
as  mild  and  as  balmy  a  climate  as  the  Madeira  Islands  or  Southern 
Florida  does  to-day.  Tropical  animals,  as  the  rhinoceros,  the  elephant, 
and  numerous  apes  and  monkeys,  found  a  congenial  home  where  now  the 
raw  climate  of  the  British  Isles  will  not  admit  of  the  ripening  of  Indian 
corn. 

Glacial  Epoch. — But  at  or  near  the  close  of  the  Tertiary  period  a  tre- 
mendous change  took  place,  the  most  extraordinary  known  in  the  geologic 
annals  of  the  world.  The  genial  warmth  disappeared,  and  in  place  of  it 
vast  sheets  of  ice  descended  from  the  polar  continents  of  both  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  regions,  and  covered  the  greater  part  of  the  land  to  tlie 
thirty-fifth  or  fortieth  parallel  with  a  solid  sheet  of  snow  and  ice  to  a 


26  ANTIIR  OPOL  OGY. 

depth  of  thousands  of  feet.  The  continental  areas  of  the  globe  were 
greatly  changed  ;  a  land-bridge  which  had  connected  North  America 
with  Northern  Europe  was  wholly  torn  away  ;  the  ragged  edges  of 
Norway  and  the  coast  of  Maine  remain  as  proofs  of  the  mighty  power 
of  the  ice-mass,  while  the  Great  Lakes  and  Prairies  of  Central  North 
America  and  the  Panipas  of  South  America  are  so  many  witnesses  to 
its  effect  on  existing  land-areas. 

The  ice-sheet  was  not  permanent  during  its  stay.  Twice,  and  perhaps 
three  times,  it  somewhat  capriciously  retired  to  the  far  north,  disappear- 
ing rather  suddenly,  and  then  slowly  creeping  down  again  into  latitudes 
which  we  now  call  temperate,  freezing  them  with  the  cold  of  an  Arctic 
winter  which  knew  no  summer.  The  comparatively  mild  periods  between 
these  visitations  are  called  the  "Inter-glacial  periods." 

First  Appearance  of  Alan. — The  particular  interest  that  these  geologic 
events  have  to  us  in  this  connection  is  that  it  was  either  immediately  before, 
during,  or  else  immediately  after  this  Glacial  period  that  man  first  appeared 
on  the  earth,  or  at  least  it  is  in  the  strata  of  this  age  that  we  find  the  first 
unequivocal  traces  of  his  presence.  Some,  indeed,  have  maintained  that 
evidence  of  his  handiwork  has  been  taken  from  strata  of  the  Miocene 
period,  but  the  most  careful  writers  on  the  subject  have  not  as  yet  con- 
ceded that  this  is  established.  There  is,  moreover,  an  inherent  improb- 
ability from  analogy  that  any  one  species  has  maintained  so  complex  an 
organism  as  man's  for  so  long  a  period.  The  evidence  that  assigns  him 
an  appearance  on  earth  in  the  Inter-glacial  or  the  immediately  Post-glacial 
period  has  received  the  sanction  of  the  most  eminent  geologists. 

But  when  we  speak  of  ' '  man ' '  as  then  existing,  that  word  must  be 
understood  in  its  widest  sense,  embracing  any  animal  which  had  the 
faculty  of  building  a  fire  and  fashioning  ever  so  rude  a  tool  or  weapon 
from  a  piece  of  stone  ;  for  that  was  all  the  ability  that  we  can  assign  to 
those  very  early  representatives  of  our  species.  It  is  not  likely  that  they 
had  any  religious  sentiments  or  that  they  were  capable  of  articulate 
speech.  An  intellectual  status  as  low  as  this  appears  to  be  indicated 
by  the  remains  of  their  art  and  of  their  bony  skeletons  which  have  been 
discovered.  A  brief  description  of  these  ancient  relics  will  illustrate 
this. 

The  Earliest  Stone  Implements. — ]\Iost  of  the  earliest  specimens  of 
man's  ingenuity  are  of  stone  ;  some  few  are  of  bone.  Doubtless,  he  at 
that  time  also  made  use  of  wood,  but  his  works  in  that  material  soon 
perished.  The  stones  he  chose  were  of  a  size  convenient  to  hold  in  the 
hand,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  hands  of  these  primitive  mechanics 
were  smaller  than  ours,  about  the  size  of  a  boy's.  The  pieces  of  flint  and 
argillite  selected  were  rudely  chipped  by  striking  one  against  another,  and 
thus  brought  to  an  edge  and  point.  In  this  fonn  they  would  serve  as  a 
more  effective  weapon,  tool,  or  utensil,  for  all  of  which  purposes  doubt- 
less they  were  intended.  Frequently  one  side  or  one  end  only  is  chipped, 
the  others  being  left  in  the  natural  state.     Such  instruments  are  called 


AXTHR  OPOL  OGY.  27 


(( 


hand-stones, "  or  celts.  The  chips  flaked  off  in  their  preparation  have  also 
been  collected,  sometimes  in  considerable  quantity,  showing  that  the  manu- 
facture of  these  implements  was  carried  on  with  diligence  (//.  i,  fig.  10). 

Use  0/  Fire. — Other  evidence  proves  that  these  first  settlers  knew  the 
use  of  fire.  Flints  are  found  that  have  been  subjected  to  the  fire  for  the 
purpose  of  breaking  them  into  small  and  angular  pieces,  and  even  the 
charcoal  and  ashes  of  some  of  these  ancient  hearths  have  been  e.xhumed 
in  deposits  which  competent  geologists  place  as  remote  in  time  as  the 
Inter-glacial  epochs.  In  and  around  the  remains  of  these  early  camp- 
fires  the  bones  of  animals,  some  of  extinct  species,  broken  to  extract 
their  marrow  or  artificially  sharpened  to  a  point,  indicate  that  these 
primitive  tribes  were  hunters  and  fishers,  that  they  cooked  their  food, 
and  that  they  had  some  beginnings  of  a  social  life. 

Drift  and  Cave  Men. — These  earliest  tool-  and  fire-using  animals,  who 
are  generally  included  in  the  species  man,  although  undoubtedly  much 
inferior  to  any  tribe  now  known  to  us,  are  called  distinctively  the  ' '  River 
drift"  and  "Cave"  men,  because  their  relics  are  found  for  the  most  part 
in  the  beds  of  drift  gravel  deposited  in  the  ancient  river-beds  of  various 
streams,  as  the  Ouse  in  England  and  the  Somme  in  France  ;  and  also  in 
the  caves  of  France,  Belgium,  England,  and  other  countries,  where  they 
have  continued  undisturbed  and  covered  with  the  deposits  of  later  fonna- 
tions.  By  some  writers  the  Drift  men  are  considered  an  older  generation 
than,  or  even  a  different  race  from,  the  Cave  men,  but  this  is  not  gener- 
ally accepted. 

This  inceptive  period  of  human  art  is  called  the  PaI<Tolitliic  ox  "Old 
Stone"  age,  or  the  period  of  rough  stone  implements,  the  characteristic 
feature  of  its  remains  being  that  they  are  of  rough,  utlpolished  stone,  the 
simple  art  of  smoothing  and  sharpening  one  stone  by  rubbing  it  against 
another  being  unknown  or  indifferent  to  these  workmen  (//.  i,  fig.  12). 

Their  Distribution. — The  most  remarkable  fact  about  these  Drift  men 
was  their  extremely  wide  dispersion  over  the  earth's  surface,  and  conse- 
quently the  great  length  of  time  that  they  must  have  lived  upon  the 
globe.  They  must  have  been  verj-  ill  provided  with  means  of  travelling, 
as  they  had  no  domestic  animals  and  probably  no  boats  ;  yet  their  charac- 
teristic relics  have  been  disinterred  from  the  caves  and  river-valleys  of 
Western  Europe,  from  the  old  gravel-beds  of  Palestine  and  Upper  Egypt, 
from  the  laterite  fonnations  at  the  foot  of  the  Ghaut  Hills  in  Southern 
India,  at  a  depth  of  forty  feet  below  the  surface  in  the  diamond-diggings 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  at  an  equal  depth  under  the  Post-glacial 
gravels  near  Trenton  on  the  Delaware  River  in  New  Jersey,  in  the 
deposits  on  the  upper  terrace  of  the  Mississippi  north  of  St.  Paul,  a 
hundred  feet  below  the  surface  in  the  auriferous  gravels  of  California, 
in  the  Drift  and  Glacial  deposits  of  Chili  and  Buenos  Ayres,  and  else- 
where. Collections  taken  from  these  various  localities  offer  so  few  differ- 
ences in  the  specimens  that  but  for  the  character  of  the  material  used 
they  might  be  attributed  to  any  one  of  the  list. 


28  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Age  of  Oldest  Remains. — Tliis  extraordinarily  wide  diffusion  of  the 
early  race  can  only  be  explained  on  the  supposition  that  it  occupied  the 
habitable  land  of  all  the  great  continents  for  a  very  long  period  ;  and 
hence  we  are  obliged  to  place  the  first  appearance  of  man  at  a  point  of 
time  far,  verj'  far,  beyond  the  furthest  limit  of  histor)-  or  tradition.  Geol- 
ogists have  not  hesitated  to  make  calculations  as  to  when  this  point  was. 
Supposing  it  to  have  been  at  or  about  the  Glacial  period — which  for  many 
reasons  is  probable — the  inquiry  has  been  put,  Did  this  unparalleled  cli- 
matic event  in  the  history  of  the  world  leave  behind  it  the  conditions 
for  certain  progressive  changes  which  have  been  going  on  ever  since,  and 
which  we  may  take  as  chronometers  of  geologic  time?  Several  such 
might  be  named,  the  most  conclusive  of  them  being  the  gradual  erosion 
of  river-valleys  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  action  of  Niagara  Falls  in  slowly 
cutting  its  deep  channel  westward  from  Lake  Ontario.  This  we  know 
must  have  entirely  taken  place  since  the  close  of  the  Glacial  period,  for 
the  chain  of  Great  Lakes  themselves  is  one  of  the  effects  of  glacial 
action.  There  are  a  number  of  other  examples  of  the  same  kind  in  the 
two  hemispheres  which  offer  the  data  for  such  calculations.  The  conclu- 
sions reached  by  different  students  of  the  matter  have,  however,  been 
discrepant.  Some  place  the  close  of  the  Glacial  age  in  North  America 
as  recent  as  thirty-five  thousand  years  ago,  while  an  eminent  French 
geologist  calculates  that  in  Western  Europe  its  final  recession  cannot  be 
less  than  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  years  from  us.  To  explain  the 
problems  of  Ethnolog}'  we  should  be  better  accommodated  with  a  period 
of  the  latter  length  than  of  the  former.  Even  that  would  be  but  a  very 
small  fraction  of  the  duration  necessarj'  to  explain  the  transformations  of 
the  earth's  crust  w'ith  which  Geology  deals. 

First  Habitat  of  Man. — With  these  facts  in  mind,  we  are  better  pre- 
pared to  approach  the  question  as  to  the  first  habitat  of  man,  and  whether 
he  had  more  than  one.  His  traces  are  found  in  remotest  ages  on  the  areas 
of  all  four  continents,  but  not  on  the  oceanic  islands.  IManj-  of  these  were 
not  peopled  at  all  even  within  the  historic  period,  as  the  Azores  and  Cape 
Verde,  Iceland,  the  Bermudas,  and  many  in  the  Pacific.  All  the  great 
island-world  of  the  latter  received  its  population  within  a  few  thousand 
years,  as  language  and  tradition  prove.  Australia  is  in  the  same  case, 
and,  moreover,  its  fauna  is  in  development  ver>'  much  in  arrears — more 
akin  to  that  of  the  Tertian,'  epoch  than  that  of  any  other  area.  This  is 
also  an  objection  to  supposing  that  any  part  of  the  American  continent 
could  have  been  the  birthplace  of  the  race.  Its  highest  mammals,  living 
or  fossil,  are  far  behind  those  of  the  Old  World.  For  instance,  it  has 
never  possessed  a  single  monkey  with  the  same  number  of  teeth  as  man, 
not  one  that  is  without  a  tail,  not  one  that  is  classed  by  naturalists  with 
the  anthropoids,  or  man-like  apes.  Moreover,  the  earliest  relics  of  man's 
industr}-  found  in  America,  though  not  far  from  the  same  Geologic  age, 
are  certainly  a  shade  higher  and  indicate  a  slightly  more  developed 
culture  than  the  oldest  from  European  strata. 


& 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  29 

At  the  period  we  speak  of,  just  anterior  to  the  Glacial  epoch,  North- 
ern Europe,  Northern  Asia,  and  Northern  Africa  (that  portion  of  it  now 
included  in  the  Sahara  Desert)  were  covered  with  water.  The  Persian 
Gulf,  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas,  were  parts  of  a  broad  arm  of  the  sea 
which  connected,  the  Indian  Ocean  with  what  is  now  the  Baltic  and  the 
North  Sea.  A  continental  area  connected  what  are  now  the  territories 
of  the  British  Isles,  France,  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  Italy,  and  Morocco 
into  one  region.  Its  climate  was  warm  and  moist ;  its  fauna  and  flora 
were  tropical  in  character  ;  and  among  the  former  man-like  apes  of  large 
size,  taller  and  stronger  than  any  now  in  existence,  found  a  congenial 
home.  Their  fossil  remains,  have  been  exhumed  of  late  years  near 
Madrid,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Pyrenees  and  elsewhere  in  France,  in 
Tuscany  and  other  localities  in  the  Italian  Peninsula.  Within  this 
same  region  have  been  discovered  those  fragments  of  the  human  skel- 
eton which  geologists  pronounce  the  most  ancient  yet  brought  to  light, 
and  anatomists  consider  the  most  primitive  in  character.  It  seems  there- 
fore probable  that  man  originated  somewhere  on  that  fonner  European 
continent,  which,  it  will  be  observed,  differed  very  widely  from  modern 
Europe  in  size,   outline,   and  climatic  conditions. 

As  no  such  connected  series  of  facts  has  yet  been  discovered  to  show 
a  similar  development  in  Eastern  Asia  or  Central  Africa,  we  have  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  there  was  a  separate  centre  of  origin  in  either  of 
those  localities.  With  the  light  which  science  at  present  sheds  upon 
the  subject  we  must  conclude  that  man  had  but  one  original  abode,  and 
that  was  in  some  part  of  Western  ancient  Europe    (conip.  p.  240). 

THE   ORIGIN   OF   MAN. 

Having  in  a  measure  defined  both  in  time  and  space  the  first  appear- 
ance of  man  on  our  globe,  we  are  prepared  to  go  a  step  farther  and  inquire 
how  he  came  there — what  natural  or  divine  forces  brought  him  into 
being. 

The  answers  to  these  questions  which  have  been  offered  may  be 
arranged  in  three  classes  : 

The  first  explains  man's  presence  by  a  special  creation,  b}-  a  direct 
fiat  of  the  Almighty,  which  brought  him  into  existence  complete  in  all 
his  faculties.  Almost  all  religions  teach  this  doctrine  in  one  fonn  or 
another.  As  it  removes  the  inquiry  from  the  domain  of  research  to  that 
of  belief,  scientific  men  do  not  generally  rest  satisfied  with  this  reply,  but 
suggest  other  possible  theories  of  man's  origin. 

Theories  of  Origin. — The  first  of  these  is  by  heterogenesis.  By  this 
is  meant  that  the  parents  of  one  species  might  bring  forth  offspring  so 
widely  different  from  themselves  that  this  offspring  would  become  the 
starting-point  of  what  would  be  virtually  another  and  a  new  species. 
We  all  know  as  a  familiar  fact  that  no  child  is  precisely  like  its  parents. 
Sometimes  the  difference  is  very  marked,  both  in  physical  appearance 
and  mental  disposition.     In  many  of  the  lower  animals  and  under  certain 


30  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

conditions  this  discrepancy  is  accentuated  to  such  a  degree  that  we  could 
not  believe  parents  and  offspring  to  be  of  the  same  race  had  their  life- 
histor}'  not  been  traced.  It  is  utterly  inexplicable  how  some  men  of  the 
most  brilliant  genius  come  to  be  born  of  a  line  of  most  commonplace 
ancestors.  So,  it  is  argued,  there  is  nothing  incredible  in  the  supposition 
that  a  child  capable  of  inventing  a  tool  and  building  a  fire  could  have 
been  born  to  an  anthropoid  ape  ;  and  these  two  advantages  seem  to  have 
been  all  that  the  earliest  men  possessed  above  the  highest  mammals. 
"With  them  they  were  qualified,  by  slow  degrees  but  surely,  to  conquer 
the  world. 

The  second  theor\'  is  that  by  cvohttion  under  known  laws.  This  is 
the  "Darwinian  Theory,"  as  it  is  called,  and  has  received  a  great  deal 
of  attention.  It  is  a  part  of  the  general  theor\'  of  the  evolution  of 
organic  forms  which  Darwin  extended  to  both  the  animal  and  vegetable 
world.  As  applied  to  the  human  race,  he  developed  it  quite  fully  in  his 
celebrated  work  entitled  The  Descent  of  Man,  and  his  suggestions  have 
found  favor  with  many  ethnologists. 

Darwin's  theor>'  is  sometimes  stated  to  be  that  man  is  descended  from 
the  monkey  or  one  of  the  apes.  This  is  an  error  which  he  himself  point- 
edly corrected.  His  conclusion  was  that  "man  is  the  descendant,  with 
other  species,  of  some  ancient,  lower,  and  extinct  form."  No  competent 
anatomist  to-day  would  maintain  that  the  human  species  was  or  could  be 
the  offspring,  however  remote,  of  any  other  known  species  of  animal. 

Arguments  f<n'  Evolution. — The  arguments  for  the  development  of 
man  from  a  lower  form  are  drawn  from  several  sources.  First,  we  may 
obser\-e  that  the  most  ancient  osseous  remains  of  man,  as  well  as  the 
lowest  existing  varieties,  have  more  points  of  similarity  with  the  next 
highest  mammals  than  have  the  present  highest  t}-pes  of  the  race.  The 
skulls  exhumed  from  the  ancient  undisturbed  strata  of  Western  Europe 
have  thick  walls,  hea\w  jaws,  the  lower  half  of  the  face  prominent,  but 
the  chin  and  forehead  retreating,  and  the  brain-capacit}'  small.  The  tibia 
or  shinbone  is  flattened  instead  of  triangular,  the  bone  of  the  arm  is  per- 
forated at  its  extremity,  the  areas  of  the  insertion  of  muscles  are  rougher 
and  more  prominent,  and  in  other  respects  the  bones  assimilate  more 
closely  to  those  of  lower  species.  It  has  even  been  confidently  asserted, 
on  the  evidence  of  two  ver}'  ancient  jaws,  found  one  in  the  cave  of  La 
Naulette,  Belgium,  the  other  in  the  Schipka  cave,  Moravia,  that  there 
was  such  a  marked  deficiency  in  the  muscular  attachment  of  the  tongue 
that  articulate  speech  could  scarcely  have  been  possible  to  the  creature 
who  had  such  an  inferior  maxillary.  That  there  has  been  a  positive 
advance  on  the  structure  of  these  early  fonns  cannot  indeed  be  denied. 

Rudimentary  Organs. — Another  argument  of  the  evolutionists  is  the 
presence  in  the  human  body  of  a  number  of  so-called  "  rudimentar}- " 
muscles  and  organs.  These  are  structural  elements  which  in  man  do 
not  ser\-e  any  purpose,  but  which  are  important  parts  in  the  economy  of 
some  of  the  lower  animals.     It  is  believed  that  thev  have  survived  in 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  31 

man  owing  to  the  laws  of  transmission,  although  in  an  atrophied  con- 
dition and  without  any  application  to  his  present  wants.  There  are  many 
such,  as  the  muscle  with  which  some  persons  can  move  their  ears  and 
scalps  ;  the  semilunar  fold  of  the  eyelids,  which  is  a  diminished  repre- 
sentative of  the  "nictitating  membrane"  of  birds;  the  venniform  appen- 
dix of  the  small  intestines  ;  and  a  number  of  small  muscles  occasionally 
found  in  the  human  subject.  No  plausible  explanation  of  these  relics  of 
a  lower  anatomical  structure  has  been  offered  except  that  they  are  the 
traces  of  an  inferior  ancestry. 

Reversions. — Further  evidence  of  a  similar  nature  is  that  derived 
from  the  expression  of  the  emotions,  which  presents  striking  similarities 
in  man  and  animals,  and  also  in  instances  of  what  is  called  "reversion." 
The  latter  includes  those  cases  where  children  develop  the  phj-sical  or 
mental  traits  of  brutes,  diverging  far  from  the  normal  standard  of  the 
human  race. 

Embryology. — Great  weight  has  also  been  attached  to  the  argument 
from  embrj'ology.  At  a  ver}^  early  period  of  foetal  life  the  human  embryo 
does  not  differ  from  that  of  any  other  vertebrate  animal.  Later  on,  it 
resembles  certain  lower  forms  when  adult ;  and  it  is  only  at  quite  a  late 
period  in  its  history  that  the  young  human  being  presents  marked  differ- 
ences from  the  young  ape.  In  fact,  it  is  not  much  of  an  exaggeration  to 
say  that  in  its  uterine  e?:istence  the  human  child  develops  gradually 
through  the  various  lower  orders  of  organic  forms  until  it  reaches  the 
highest.  The  inference  is  close  at  hand  that  the  development  of  the 
embryo  portrays  within  the  limits  of  nine  months  the  life-history  of  the 
race  through  the  countless  ages  of  geologic  time. 

Such,  in  a  few  words,  are  the  arguments  of  the  evolutionists.  But 
they  are  by  no  means  secure  from  criticism.  Although  many  anomalies 
in  human  anatomy  have  been  shown,  the  "connecting  link"  between 
man  and  any  lower  species  has  never  been  pointed  out.  It  is  extra- 
ordinary, to  say  the  least,  that  of  the  millions  of  families  scattered  all 
over  the  earth,  not  one  has  been  discovered  lacking  the  true  specific 
qualities  of  man  as  laid  down  on  a  previous  page.  Nor  has  the  deh'ing 
of  geologists  in  the  older  strata  been  more  successful  in  this  direction, 
though  pursued  with  the  greatest  ardor.  The  facts  from  embryology  and 
from  the  presence  of  rudimentary  parts  may  be  capable  of  an  entirely 
different  interpretation,  as  some  able  anatomists  have  pointed  out.  An 
unbiassed  mind,  therefore,  while  acknowledging  that  the  Darwinian 
theory  is  the  most  plausible  hypothesis  yet  offered  to  account  for  the 
facts  stated,  will  not  accept  it  as  a  completely  demonstrated  law  of 
organic  life  as  applied  to  man. 

INFLUENCE  OF   PHYSICAL  SURROUNDINGS. 
Man  is  not  only  the  most  highly  organized  of  all  animals,  but  also  the 
most  cosmopolitan  of  all.     So  wonderfully  adjusted  is  his  structure  that 
he  can  live  and  thrive  in  a  range  of  two  hundred  degrees  of  temperature. 


32  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Nothing  like  this  can  be  said  of  any  other  vertebrate.  He  also  resides 
with  equal  comfort  in  valleys  far  below  the  sea-level,  as  that  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  on  table-lands  and  mountain-sides  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea,  as  in  Thibet  and  South  America,  where  even  an  animal  so 
tenacious  of  life  as  the  cat  perishes.  The  tribes  of  some  regions  are 
exclusively  vegetarians,  in  others  they  eat  nothing  but  animal  food  ; 
during  the  bitter  winters  of  Patagonia  they  go  almost  naked,  and  under 
a  tropical  sun  many  are  constantly  clothed.  There  is  little  difference  in 
man's  vigor  whether  he  is  roaming  over  the  arid  plains  of  the  Sahara, 
where  rain  never  falls,  or  in  the  mountains  of  North-eastern  India,  where 
the  annual  rainfall  is  nearly  three  hundred  inches. 

Adaptability  of  the  Species. — Owing  to  man's  extraordinary  powers  of 
accommodation  these  diverse  conditions  of  existence  exert  a  remarkably 
small  influence  either  on  his  mental  or  bodily  nature.  The  Eskimo  amid 
his  wild  wastes  of  snow,  and  in  spite  of  the  depressing  influence  of  the 
long  polar  night,  is  more  cheerful,  garrulous,  inventive,  and  happy  than 
many  of  the  tribes  of  the  most  favored  climes.  The  school  of  ethnol- 
ogists who  endeavored  to  explain  man's  physical  differences,  and  to  trace 
the  course  of  his  civilization,  principally  by  means  of  climate  and  his 
other  physical  environments,  has  now  fallen  to  the  rear.  It  is  recognized 
that  man  is  stronger  than  his  surroundings,  and  that  their  influence  upon 
him  is  far  from  that  of  master   (comp.  p.  396). 

Effects  of  Climate  on  Physical  Vigor. — With  regard  to  climate — by 
which  term  is  generally  meant  temperature  and  moisture — it  cannot  be 
said  that  it  exerts  any  pronounced  effect  either  on  the  bodily  or  mental 
powers  after  the  system  has  become  "acclimated."  This  process  may 
take,  indeed,  several  ofenerations.  It  is  well  known  that  the  children  of 
European  parents  in  India  are  feeble  and  short-lived  ;  but  this  is  not 
owing  to  any  inherent  inability  in  the  European  race  to  support  the 
climate  of  the  country,  inasmuch  as  a  large  portion  of  the  natives  are 
pure  Ar>-ans,  descended  from  the  same  remote  ancestors  as  the  English 
themselves.  The  languor  and  love  of  idleness  which  we  often  associate 
with  a  tropical  climate  are  contradicted  by  the  colossal  architectural 
works  which  we  find  in  the  tropics  of  both  hemispheres,  and  by  the 
exceedingly  laborious  lives  of  the  inhabitants  of  many  tropical  regions. 
The  porters  of  Calcutta  and  Madras  and  the  dyewood-  and  mahogany- 
gatherers  of  Central  Am.erica  are  generally  men  of  exceptional  vigor, 
with  whom  it  is  no  unusual  task  to  labor  at  their  onerous  emi5lo)nients 
twelve  to  fourteen  hours  a  day  with  the  thermometer  at  100°  F.  in  the 
shade. 

On  the  Duration  of  Life. — Nor  does  climate  seem  to  exert  any  verj- 
positive  impression  on  the  duration  of  life  or  the  power  of  reproduction 
in  the  human  race.  In  the  hottest  portion  of  the  globe,  the  region  lying 
along  the  shores  of  the  southern  extremit}-  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  natives 
are  generally  long-lived  and  have  numerous  progeny.  It  has  been 
asserted  that  the  tribes  of  the  extreme  North  are  less  fertile  and  are 


ANTHR  OPOL  OGY.  33 

rather  short-lived,  but  it  appears  from  more  careful  observatious  that 
their  marriages  have  an  average  fertility,  though  the  infaut  mortality 
is  excessive,  either  from  carelessness  or  infanticide,  and  that  want  and 
exposure  are  the  common  causes  of  the  death  of  the  aged — all  prevent- 
able causes. 

On  the  Height^  Sh-C7!gtli,  and  Weight. — The  qualities  of  height, 
strength,  and  weight  are  also  largely  independent  of  climate  and  sur- 
roundings. Within  the  limits  of  British  Guiana  we  find  the  tall,  sym- 
metrical, and  powerfully-built  Carib  and  the  weak  and  stunted  Warrau, 
both  natives  of  the  spot  for  time  out  of  mind.  Many  of  the  Polynesians, 
hemmed  in  on  their  small  islands,  are  described  as  offering  the  finest 
examples  of  splendid  physical  form. 

Effects  of  Elevation. — Elevation  probably  exerts  a  more  direct  influ- 
ence on  the  physical  structure  than  climate.  The  rarity  of  the  atmo- 
sphere requires  a  greater  expansion  of  the  breast  to  admit  the  proper 
amount  of  oxygen  to  the  blood,  and  the  unusual  development  of  the 
thorax  leads  to  corresponding  changes  elsewhere.  A  striking  example 
of  this  is  furnished  by  the  tribes  which  for  generations  have  lived  on  the 
hio-h  lands  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  with  a  minimum  elevation  of  ten  thou- 
sand  feet.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  long  bodies,  broad  shoulders, 
deep  and  high  chest-walls,  and  disproportionately  short  legs.  These 
characteristics  are  transmitted,  and  remain  in  their  descendants  even 
when  for  generations  they  have  lived  in  the  lower  levels  along  the 
seacoast. 

LIMITS  OF  VARIATION   IN   THE  SPECIES. 

The  folk-lore  of  all  nations  tells  about  giants  and  dwarfs,  and  up  to  a 
recent  date  sober  writers  were  willing  to  accept  some  of  these  tales  as 
founded  on  fact.  Now,  however,  it  is  well  ascertained  that  the  limits 
of  variation  in  the  human  species  are  much  narrower  than  those  of  any 
species  of  domestic  animal — the  dog  or  the  ox,  for  instance.  It  is  a  still 
later  result  of  investigation  that  these  variations  are  not  characteristics  of 
races  or  sub-species,  but  rather  of  tribes  and  localities. 

Height  and  Weight.  — This  is  especially  true  with  regard  to  height  and 
weight.  Thus  in  South  Africa  we  find  the  Bushmen,  usually  quoted  as 
the  smallest  of  the  human  family,  having  an  average  height  of  only  144 
centimetres  (56.7  inches),  while  adjacent  to  them  are  the  Caffirs,  of  such 
unusual  stature  that  the  average  of  ten  of  them  was  183  centimetres  (72 
inches),  both  tribes  belonging  to  the  Negro  race.  The  same  contrast 
reappears  among  the  Malayans.  The  Asiatic  Malays  are  quite  short 
and  feeble,  their  average  height  being  154  centimetres  (60.6  inches),  while 
the  Polynesian  Malays  of  some  of  the  Pacific  Islands  are  among  the 
largest  of  men,  running  up  to  the  extraordinary  average  height  of  193 
centimetres  (76  inches).  The  Obongos  of  the  Soudan  and  the  Lapps  of 
Northern  Europe  are  scarcely,  if  at  all,  taller  than  the  Bushmen.  The 
Eskimos  are  also  quite  short,  but  it  would  be  a  hasty  generalization  to 

Vol.  I.— 3 


- 1  ANTHR  OPOL  O  G  V. 

infer,  with  some  writers,  that  the  extreme  cold  of  the  high  latitudes 
necessarily  lowers  the  stature,  as  the  nation  of  the  white  race  which 
has  the  highest  average  stature  is  the  Scandinavian  ;  whereas  the  Ved- 
dahs  of  Ce\-lon,  a  wild  tribe  said  to  be  of  Ar>-an  descent,  are  small  and 
weak. 

Height,  weight,  and  muscular  power  can  be  developed  within  the 
limits  of  anv  race  by  favorable  surroundings.  During  the  Civil  War 
in  the  United  States  measurements  in  these  directions  were  taken  in 
over  a  million  subjects  belonging  to  the  white,  the  black,  and  the  red 
races.  The  interesting  result  was  obtained  that  residence  on  this  conti- 
nent— at  least  on  the  northern  portion  of  it — tends  to  develop  all  the 
races  in  all  these  respects.  The  descendants  in  the  second  or  third 
generation  of  European  settlers  are  taller  and  heavier  than  the  average 
Englishman,  Frenchman,  or  German  ;  the  recruits  from  the  Mississippi 
\'alley  were  taller  and  stronger  than  those  from  the  coast  ;  but  both  were 
surpassed  in  these  respects  by  the  native  race  of  the  soil,  the  Iroquois 
Indians,  some  five  hundred  of  whom  were  included  in  the  comparison. 
The  tallest  soldiers  were  from  the  States  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 
They  measured  an  average  of  176  centimetres  (69.3  inches),  while  the 
Iroquois  braves  reached  to  an  average  of  179  centimetres  (70.5  inches). 

All  these  statistics,  it  should  be  remarked,  apply  exclusively  to  the 
male  sex.  The  female  sex  displays  ver\'  much  less  variation.  In  the 
shortest  and  weakest  races  the  females  are  physically  equal  to  the  males, 
and  indeed  often  surpass  them.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  stature  of 
the  males  is  decidedly  beyond  the  normal  the  female  departs  little  from 
it.  Hence  on  measurements  confined  to  the  female  sex  alone  the  limits 
of  the  variation  of  the  species  in  these  respects  are  more  circumscribed. 

Epoch  of  Puberty. — The  attainment  of  the  epoch  of  puberty  and  of 
that  of  completed  growth  are  other  points  in  the  first  rank  of  ph}-siolog- 
ical  importance  in  which  there  is  considerable  variation.  In  general 
terms,  it  may  be  said  that  puberty  arrives  in  the  tropics  about  three 
years  earlier  than  in  high  northern  latitudes.  That  this  difference  is 
closely  dependent  on  temperature  seems  proved  by  the  fact  that  healthy 
children  of  parents  from  the  temperate  zones  ripen  more  quickly  in  the 
tropics,  without  regard  to  race,  while  the  reverse  is  observed  in  the 
negroes  brought  from  Central  Africa  and  domesticated  for  generations 
in  much  colder  latitudes. 

Completed  Growth. — The  epoch  of  completed  growth  appears  to  bear 
a  fixed  relation  to  the  height.  The  taller  the  individual  the  longer  he 
will  require  to  attain  his  full  stature.  This  is  not  so  natural  a  conse- 
quence as  it  may  seem  at  first  sight,  as  the  rate  of  growth  is  by  no  means 
uniform,  most  of  the  height  being  attained  long  before  the  growth  ceases. 
B\-  a  comparison  of  the  statistics  obtained  during  our  war  with  similar 
European  tables,  it  is  shown  that  in  Central  Europe  the  growth  generally 
ceases  by  the  twenty-first  year,  while  in  this  country  it  continues  to  the 
twenty-fourth  }ear,  and  not  rarely  to  the  thirtieth. 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  35 

Longevity. — With  regard  to  longevity  there  is  a  wide  variation  in  fam- 
ilies in  the  same  community,  in  social  classes,  in  the  sexes,  and  in  local- 
ities, but  probably  not  in  races.  The  normal  average  age  of  man  was 
calculated  by  the  eminent  physiologist  Flourens  to  be  about  one  hundred 
3'ears.  He  based  his  estimate  on  the  relation  which  the  average  length 
of  life  in  the  higher  mammals  bears  to  the  period  of  utero-gestation,  to 
the  time  required  to  complete  their  growth,  and  to  their  attainment  of 
puberty.  While  thus  his  conclusion  has  strong  foundation  in  analogy  of 
other  species,  it  is  far  from  holding  true  for  man— either,  as  Flourens 
maintained,  because  he  does  not  live  the  life  best  suited  to  him,  or  for 
some  unknown  reason.  Searching  inquiry  where  careful  records  ha\-e 
been  kept  has  constantly  reduced  the  number  of  alleged  centenarians. 
The  average  duration  of  human  life  is  about  the  third  of  a  century,  and 
this  appears  to  hold  good  in  all  races  except  where  interfered  with  by 
preventable  causes,  as  habits,  unwholesome  food,  epidemics,  and  the  like. 
Probably  as  striking  an  example  of  authentic  longevity  in  a  community 
as  can  be  adduced  is  that  recorded  by  a  visitor  to  one  of  the  missions  of 
Lower  California.  In  a  village  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  souls  he 
found  six  persons  over  one  hundred  years,  all  in  fair  possession  of  their 
faculties,  and  their  ages  guaranteed  by  the  records  of  the  mission.  They 
all  belonged  to  the  pure  native  stock. 

Tolerance  of  Disease. — In  the  tolerance  of  disease  there  would  seem 
at  first  sight  to  be  a  wide  diversity  in  the  races  of  man.  For  instance, 
a  disease  so  little  feared  in  most  civilized  countries  as  measles  becomes  a 
frightful  pestilence  among  some  savage  tribes.  By  it  alone  in  some  of  the 
Polynesian  islands  almost  the  whole  native  population  has  been  swept 
away.  Among  the  Central  American  tribes  it  has  been  more  fatal  than 
the  smallpox.  But  medical  science  explains  away  this  seeming  intoler- 
ance of  disease  in  these  lower  races.  The  mildness  of  these  epidemics 
in  civilized  communities  arises  from  the  fact  that  through  an  exposure 
extending  over  many  generations  all  those  peculiarly  prone  to  their 
poison  have  been  extinguished,  and  those  who  sur\'ived  were  such  as 
transmitted  to  their  descendants  a  certain  insusceptibility  to  the  poison 
of  the  epidemic.  That  this  is  the  correct  solution,  and  that  this  toler- 
ance is  not  a  matter  of  race,  was  proved  sadly  enough  in  the  case  of  the 
measles  by  the  example  of  the  Faroe  islanders.  This  remote  group  to  the 
north  of  Scotland,  peopled  exclusively  by  whites,  had  never,  so  far  as 
known,  had  this  disease  brought  to  its  shores  until  in  the  last  century, 
when  it  was  imported  on  a  fishing  vessel.  It  immediately  became  epi- 
demic on  the  islands,  attacking  adults  and  children  indiscriminately,  and 
caused  a  mortality  comparable  to  that  which  resulted  from  its  introduc- 
tion among  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand. 

Fertility  of  Marriages. — Finally,  with  reference  to  the  fertility  of 
marriages  it  has  not  been  shown  that  any  material  differences  exist 
between  different  races.  The  prevailing  notion  that  the  lower  races, 
as    the    American    Indians,    are    less    productive    than    the    higher,    has 


36  ANTIIR  OPOL  OGY. 

arisen  from  not  taking  into  account  the  prevalence  of  abortion  and 
infanticide,  tlie  marriage  of  girls  of  too  tender  an  age,  the  early 
exhaustion  of  women  by  severe  labor,  and  like  incidental  causes, 
which  certainly  limit  the  families,  but  do  not  tell  against  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  race  when  under  favorable  circumstances.  The  American 
Indians  on  the  reservations  have  families  quite  as  large  as  their  white 
neighbors.  Even  the  products  of  crosses  between  races  are  entirely 
fertile,  although  the  contrary  has  been  repeatedly  stated. 

Oilier  Variations. — There  are  other  variations  sometimes  referred  to 
race,  but  which  belong  properly  to  nations,  or  even  to  limited  branches 
of  a  nation.  Such  is  the  obliquity  of  the  eye  among  the  Japanese  and 
Chinese.  It  is  esteemed  by  them  a  mark  of  beauty  (//.  i.  Jigs,  i,  2,  3,  4). 
It  is,  however,  neither  coextensive  with  the  Mongolian  race  nor  confined 
to  it.  The  traveller  D'Orbigny  met  a  tribe  in  South  America  with  just 
such  Mongoloid  eyes.  The  shape  of  the  orbit  does  not  cause  this  pecu- 
liarity, as  it  depends  entirely  on  the  disposition  of  the  soft  parts  of  the 
face. 

Not  less  singular  is  the  extraordinary  development  of  the  nates  in  the 
Hottentot  women,  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  that  they  cannot  rise  when 
in  a  sitting  posture  (Sir  Andrew  Smith),  but,  like  the  foot  of  a  Chinese 
woman  (//.  i,  fig.  5),  there  is  reason  to  believe  this  is  the  product  of 
sedulous  cultivation,  aided  by  transmission. 

THE   PRIMITIVE   CONDITION   OF   MAN. 

Popular  Opinion. — It  will  be  seen,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  the 
general  argument  of  evolution  or  development,  whether  this  is  taken  in 
its  zoological  or  merely  in  its  historical  sense,  assumes  that  the  primitive 
condition  of  man  was  an  exceedingly  low  one,  removed  but  one  step  above 
that  of  an  intelligent  brute. 

This  is  a  scientific  inference  only,  as  no  such  condition  of  man  is 
known  to  history,  and  no  tribe  has  ever  been  found  even  nearly  approach- 
ing such  a  low  stage  of  culture.  Moreover,  it  is  in  contradiction  to  the 
generally-accepted  opinions  on  the  subject  both  among  cultivated  and 
uncultivated  peoples.  In  the  traditions  of  almost  every  nation  we  hear 
of  an  Age  of  Gold,  an  Arcadian  or  Saturnian  epoch,  during  which  their 
remote  ancestors  lived  in  peace  and  joy,  and  were  men  in  all  respects  of 
mightier  powers  than  their  descendants.  From  this  high  estate  they  fell 
through  some  act  of  disobedience  to  the  supernal  powers  or  through  the 
machinations  of  some  potent  enemy. 

When  these  mythical  conceptions  had  in  a  measure  lost  their  hold 
upon  the  cultivated  fancy,  they  were  replaced  by  the  dreams  of  philos- 
ophers, who  pictured  the  natural  condition  of  man  as  one  of  harmless 
liappiness,  culling  the  fruits  of  the  forest  for  his  food,  and  ignorant  of 
laws  or  morals  because  it  had  not  entered  his  mind  to  go  counter  to  their 
principles  or  to  injure  his  fellow-mortals. 

Scientific  Opinion. — The  assumption  of  science  is  very  different  from 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  2,7 

either  of  these  pictures.  It  regards  early  man  as  a  savage  lower  than 
the  lowest  known  to  lis— a  brute  without  speech,  without  ambition,  with- 
out religion.  He  was  utterly  dependent  on  his  natural  surroundings  and 
the  slave  of  his  appetites  and  lusts.  Family  life  he  had  none,  nor  the 
sense  of  shame,  nor  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful.  Less  cleanly  than 
many  beasts,  far  less  warm  and  fixed  in  his  affections  than  many,  he  was 
content  with  his  condition,  and  felt  no  inborn  longings  for  anything 
higher,  anything  better. 

Argument  from  History. — The  accuracy  of  this  portraiture  is  guaran- 
teed by  many  lines  of  argument,  which  may  be  briefly  mentioned.  First 
is  the  historical.  The  records  of  every  nation  carry  it  back  to  a  period 
of  barbarism.  The  story  is  everywhere  one  of  improvement,  beginning 
with  arts  which  are  rudimentary  and  an  imperfect  social  condition. 
Continue  this  universal  statement  by  the  method  of  analogy,  and  we 
reach  a  condition  of  culture  indefinitely  low  as  that  of  the  earliest 
pre-historic  society. 

Arguments  fram  Archccology. — These  results  are  justified  by  archae- 
ology. We  have  already  seen  that  this  begins  with  a  period  when  a 
rough  stone  and  a  club  were  the  highest  expressions  of  human  art.  The 
relics  of  the  Cave  men  in  the  caverns  of  Belgium  prove  that  they  lacked 
the  neatness  of  the  fox,  as  they  allowed  the  remains  of  their  repasts  to 
lie  where  they  fell,  not  even  cleaning  the  holes  that  served  them  as 
dwellings.  The  customs  of  marriage  and  descent  in  the  oldest  and 
rudest  tribes  render  it  probable  that  the  relations  of  the  sexes  were  at 
first  very  loose,  that  there  was  not  even  that  permanent  pairing  seen 
among  most  birds,  and  that  unions  often  began  with  violence  and  con- 
tinued with  the  slavery  of  the  female. 

Argument  from  Language. — Investigations  into  the  origin  of  language 
testify  to  the  same  effect.  Wherever  commenced,  they  point  back  to  a 
period  when  human  speech  was  a  series  of  cries,  each  a  sentence  in  itself, 
without  syntax,  and  limited  to  the  concrete  needs  of  a  wholly  physical 
existence.  These  interjectional  cries  constitute  the  radicals  or  root-words 
of  languages.  They  are  not  identical  nor  numerous,  but  by  a  series  of 
extraordinary  devices,  never  the  same  in  any  two  examples,  nations  have 
built  upon  them  all  the  stately  structure  of  vocal  expression.  We  have 
even  seen  that  the  jaws  from  the  Schipka  cave  and  the  Trou  de  la  Nau- 
lette  have  been  believed  to  cast  doubt  on  any  power  of  articulate  speech 
whatever  in  the  early  ancestors  of  man.    (See  p.   30.) 

From  the  Tendency  to  Retrogression. — That  the  natural  condition  of 
man  was  an  exceedingly  low  one  seems  further  to  be  indicated  by  his 
strong  tendency  to  retrogression.  History  is  full  of  examples  where 
nations,  after  having  gained  a  certain  degree  of  civilization,  lost  it 
far  more  rapidly  than  it  had  been  acquired.  Their  arts  and  laws  were 
forgotten,  and  their  descendants,  as  in  Asia,  Egypt,  and  Central  America, 
wander  through  the  ruined  halls  of  their  ancestral  palaces  without  a 
glimmer  of  tradition  as  to  their  past  greatness.     Nor  is  modern  history 


38  ANTIIR  OPOL  OGY. 

lacking-  in  similar  instances.  Many  of  the  Spanish  and  Portugfuese  in 
America  have  sunk  to  the  level  of  the  lowest  natives.  St.  Hilaire  found 
some  in  Brazil  who  had  lost  the  knowledge  of  money  and  the  taste  for 
salt ;  Von  Tschudi  discovered  pure-blood  Spaniards  in  the  remote  valleys 
of  the  Peruvian  Andes  who  had  forgotten  their  native  tongue,  whose 
religion  had  degenerated  into  the  grossest  superstition,  and  who  in  no 
respect  were  superior  to  the  natives  about  them.  The  Portuguese  of  the 
Gold  Coast  have  become  as  low  as  the  Negroes  in  moral  qualities,  and 
beneath  them  in  courage  ;  and  it  is  generally  conceded  that  the  Nor- 
wegian colony  in  Greenland  in  the  twelfth  century  was  amalgamated 
and  sank  into  the  neighboring  Eskimos. 

In  this  respect  there  is  little  difference  in  races.  The  fall  is  almost  as 
rapid  in  the  white  as  in  any  other  race.  The  passion  for  hunting  and 
fishing,  even  in  the  most  civilized  nations,  indicates  how  strong  remains 
the  tendency  to  forsake  a  cultured  for  a  wild  life,  and  how  powerful  are 
the  impulses  inherited  from  ancestors  who  for  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
years,  perhaps,  subsisted  by  these  means. 

From  Osseous  Remains. — To  support  these  lines  of  argument,  the 
oldest  bony  remains  of  man  indicate  an  inferiority  to  the  present  race. 
The  most  authentic  of  these  are — 

1.  The  Neanderthal  Skull  {pi.  3,  Jigs.  2-4). — This  was  found  in  a  cavern 
near  Diisseldorf  in  1856,  in  a  diluvial  stratum,  and  associated  with  bone*^ 
of  extinct  species  and  parts  of  a  human  skeleton.  The  character  of 
this  skull  is  most  striking.  There  is  no  forehead,  the  superciliary 
ridges  are  excessively  developed,  the  bones  are  thick  and  heavy,  the 
head  elliptical,  the  sutures  are  nearly  all  consolidated,  and  the  occipital 
region  very  protuberant.  The  head  is  therefore  notably  long  in  propor- 
tion to  its  width,  or  "dolichocephalic."  The  capacity  is  1220  cubic 
centimetres. 

2.  The  Skull  from  Engis.,  Belgium  {pi.  2,  Jigs.  6,  7). — This  is  believed 
to  be  of  later  date  than  that  from  the  Neanderthal  cave.  It  also  is 
markedly  oblong,  with  prominent  superciliar}'  ridges  and  prolonged 
and  rather  flattened  occiput.  It  undoubtedly  belonged  to  a  low  type 
of  humanity. 

3.  The  Jazv  oj  La  Naiilctte  {pi.  i.  Jig.  7). — This  was  also  discovered 
in  Belgium,  in  the  cave  called  "LaTroudela  Naulette,"  near  Dinant. 
It  is  a  part  of  a  solid  and  heavy  lower  jaw,  retreating  like  that  of  an  ape. 
The  molar  teeth,  instead  of  diminishing  as  they  proceed  toward  the 
angle  of  the  jaw,  as  in  man,  increase  in  size.  At  the  median  line  of 
the  internal  curve  of  the  bone,  where  in  man  there  is  a  small  protuber- 
ance sen.-ing  for  the  attachment  of  an  important  muscle  of  the  tongue, 
the  genioglossus,  there  is,  instead  of  this  protuberance,  an  actual 
depression,  as  in  the  monkeys.  This  has  been  held  to  indicate  that 
the  owner  of  this  jaw  could  not  articulate  any  known  form  of  human 
Speech;  and  this  human  bone  has  been  pronounced  "the  most  ape- 
like   that    has    ever    been    discovered"    (De    Mortillet).       It   was  asso- 


ANTHR  OPOL  OGY.  39 

ciated   with    remains    of    the    elephant    and    rhinoceros,    and    belonged 
therefore  to  a  very  ancient  type  of  man. 

THE   SUB-SPECIES  OR   RACES   OF   MAN. 

If  we  accept  the  conclusion  which  has  been  offered  in  the  previous 
pages,  that  all  human  beings  belong  to  one  zoological  species,  and  are 
descended,  if  not  from  one  pair,  at  least  from  a  small  group  of  similar 
animals  occupying  a  limited  territory  toward  the  close  of  the  Tertiary 
epoch,  we  are  next  called  upon  to  explain  the  very  obvious  and  perma- 
nent differences  between  the  varieties  of  men  wliich  now  exist. 

The  distinctions  between  a  negro  and  a  white  man  are  too  positive  to 
be  accidental,  and  of  too  long  standing  to  be  explained  by  any  temporary 
cause.  Scarcely  less  so  are  those  which  divide  the  native  American  from 
the  white  and  other  inhabitants  of  the  Old  World. 

As  already  remarked,  these  differences  are  not  sufficient  to  establish 
other  species,  but  they  are,  in  the  aggregate,  so  clearly  marked  that  they 
separate  the  species  into  a  number  of  sub-species,  otherwise  known  as 
Races,  Varieties,  or  Types  of  Mankind. 

Antiq2tity  of  Races. — These  sub-species  are  of  v^ery  ancient  date.  On 
some  of  the  mural  paintings  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  the  negro  and  the 
pure  white  are  clearly  distinguished  from  the  brown  Copt,  thus  proving 
that  at  the  dawn  of  history  the  racial  traits  were  just  as  pronounced  as 
they  are  now.  But  we  can  with  safety  proceed  much  beyond  this.  It 
was  pointed  out  by  Agassiz  that  the  areas  occupied  by  the  principal  races 
of  men  at  the  earliest  known  epoch  corresponded  closely  to  the  areas  of 
related  fauna  as  defined  by  zoological  geography.  This  points  very 
strongly  to  the  conclusion  that  a  particular  race  developed  coevally 
with  the  fauna  with  which  it  was  surrounded,  and  hence  must  be 
approximately  of  the  same  age.  Grant  this,  and  the  division  of  the 
races  of  men  must  be  put  back  in  time  to  somewhere  about  the  close 
of  the  Tertiary  epoch,  perhaps  to  the  Glacial  period,  after  which  tremen- 
dous catastrophe  the  surface  of  the  earth  slowly  assumed  its  present 
physical  conditions  and  areas  of  organic  life. 

Ho7no  primigenius. — Previous  to  their  dissemination  over  the  globe 
the  primitive  representatives  of  man  may  have  been  of  several  closely- 
allied  species,  which  by  intermixture  led  to  the  formation  of  one  type,  as 
in  the  instances  previously  mentioned  of  the  domestic  dog  and  ox  ;  or 
they  may  have  been  at  first  of  but  one  species.  The  latter  has  proved 
the  most  acceptable  theor}'  to  recent  writers,  and  it  has  been  proposed 
to  call  this  precursor  and  ancestor  of  man  Homo  primigenius,  "primi- 
tive man."  Others,  advocates  of  positive  theories,  not  satisfied  with 
this  vague  term,  have  called  him  Homo  alaiiis,  "speechless  man,"  and 
Homo  anlhropopitJieats,  "ape-like  man."  With  the  inadequate  know- 
ledge that  investigations  have  as  yet  supplied,  it  is  not  worth  while,  as 
some  have  attempted,  to  go  into  a  detailed  description  of  what  this  first 
representative  of  the  race  must  have  been  in  appearance. 


40  ANTHR  OPOL  OGY. 

Differences  betiveen  Races. — The  differences  between  the  races  are 
exceedingly  numerous.  They  vary  in  their  anatomy  and  physiology,  in 
location  and  language,  in  social  customs  and  mental  powers — even  in  the 
parasites  that  infest  them.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  these  variations  are 
so  mutable,  they  so  shade  off  between  races,  they  are,  when  taken  indi- 
viduall)',  so  capricious  and  unstable,  that  it  is  impossible  to  accept  any 
one  as  a  means  of  classifying  the  species  into  its  sub-species.  To  illus- 
trate this,  we  may  examine  the  various  systems  of  classification  which 
have  from  time  to  time  been  proposed. 

Number  of  Races. — These  have  differed  as  much  in  number  as  in  the 
principles  on  which  they  are  based.  Scarcely  any  two  ethnologists  have 
divided  the  race  alike,  which  is  to  be  construed  as  a  convincing  proof  of 
the  uniformity  of  its  type.  The  zoologist  Cuvier  was  content  with  the 
most  limited  number,  grouping  all  examples  under  a  threefold  division 
into  the  white,  j'ellow,  and  black  races  ;  but  it  is  acknowledged  that  in 
this  scheme  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  place  for  the  Malays  and  the  American 
Indians.  Dr.  Samuel  George  Morton  went  to  the  other  extreme,  and 
insisted  that  there  are  at  least  twenty-two  anatomically  distinct  races  ! 
while  Mr.  Charles  Pickering,,  long  the  most  prominent  ethnologist  of  the 
United  States,  maintained  the  intermediate  number  of  eleven  races. 

PROPOSED  CLA.SSIFICATIONS  OF   RACES. 

We  shall  now  examine  in  turn  the  traits  on  which  these  and  other 
writers  have  subdivided  the  human  species,  so  as  to  give  each  its  just 
weight. 

I.  By  Location:  The  Linncran  System^  or  the  Geographical  Syslc7n. — 
In  this  scheme  the  species  is  simply  divided  with  reference  to  the  geo- 
graphical areas  which  its  various  tribes  inhabit.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  Linnccan  classification,  as  having  been  suggested  by  the  eminent 
Swedish  naturalist  Linnaeus  in  the  last  century.  The  continental  areas 
give  their  names  to  the  races,  thus  dividing  the  species  into  six — the 
European,  the  Asiatic,  the  African,  the  American,  the  Australian,  and 
the  Oceanic. 

In  spite  of  the  numerous  and  elaborate  systems  which  have  been 
devised  since  Linna:us  wrote,  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of 
retaining  this  simple  and  broad  division  of  ethnographic  science,  espe- 
cially with  a  few  provisos  and  modifications. 

One  excellent  reason  is  that  it  commits  one  to  no  theory  of  character- 
istic and  permanent  traits.  Furthermore,  although  not  strictly  identical 
with  the  areas  of  characteristic  fauna,  the  great  geographical  divisions 
named  certainly  approach  near  to  them,  and  each  presents  some  features 
peculiarly  its  own. 

Again,  it  must  be  understood  that  these  divisions  are  to  be  considered 
to  apply  to  the  location  of  the  tribes  of  mankind,  not  as  they  are  now, 
but  at  the  earliest  period  known  to  history  or  where  pre-historic  research 
can  confidently  locate  them.     Thus,  the  European  race  is  now  found  all 


ANTHR  OrOL  OGY.  41 

over  the  globe,  and  at  the  dawn  of  history  occupied  large  tracts  in  West- 
ern Asia  ;  but  the  most  modern  research  renders  it  almost  certain  that  it 
was  in  its  origin  exclusively  European,  and  that  the  Persians,  the  Brah- 
mans,  even  the  Semitic  tribes  and  the  Copts  of  pure  descent,  wandered 
eastward  out  of  Europe  at  some  very  remote  epoch.  The  true  Negro  is 
found  nowhere  out  of  Africa,  other  than  in  those  countries  whither  we 
know  he  was  transported.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  American 
Indian,  and  it  holds  nearly  as  good  in  the  instances  of  the  Asiatic 
Mongolian  and  the  Malay. 

We  find,  therefore,  that  the  Linnsan  or  Geographical  method  of  clas- 
sification, when  properly  applied,  approaches  closely  that  which  has  long 
been  the  most  popular — that 

2.  By  the  Skin:  Its  Color ^  Odor,  or  Parasites. — The  color  of  the  skin 
is  the  most  striking  feature  which  impresses  the  observer,  and  conse- 
quently was  the  first  adopted  as  a  means  of  classification.  It  is  used  for 
this  purpose  in  early  Egyptian,  Hebrew,  and  Greek  literature,  and  upon 
it  is  based  the  classification  proposed  by  Blumenbach,  Cuvier,  and  others. 
The  former,  who  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  founder  of  scientific  anthro- 
pology, in  his  celebrated  treatise  Dc  Generis  Hitmani  l^arietate,  proposed 
a  division  into  five  races  or  varieties,  based  almost  exclusively  on  the  color 
of  the  skin  (see  frontispiece) — to  wit: 

1.  The  White  or  Caucasian  race,  the  purest  types  of  which  he  believed 
could  be  found  among  the  tribes  of  the  Caucasus  or  to  have  proceeded  from 
that  locality  ; 

2.  The  Yellow  or  Mongolian  race,  of  which  the  Chinese  are  typical 
examples  ; 

3.  The  Black  or  Ethiopian  race,  embracing  the  true  Negroes  of  Africa  ; 

4.  The  Red  or  American  race  ;  and 

5.  The  Brown  or  Malayan  race,  including  the  Polynesians. 

Cuvier,  as  has  been  mentioned,  followed  Blumenbach  in  selecting 
color  as  the  most  salient  trait  in  the  varieties  of  the  species,  although 
he  restricted  the  shades  to  three,  omitting  the  red  and  brown  races. 
These  he  treated  as  branches  of  the  yellow  race. 

To  estimate  the  importance  of  the  coloration  of  the  skin,  its  phys- 
iological origin  should  be  understood.  This  has  been  but  imperfectly 
attained.  Anatomically,  color  is  not  even  "skin  deep."  It  arises  from 
a  deposit  of  carbonaceous  matter  from  the  blood  immediately  upon  the 
surface  of  the  dermis  or  true  skin.  When  by  accident,  as  a  scald  or  a 
blister,  the  epidermis  or  scurf-skin  is  removed  in  the  Negro  or  Indian, 
most  of  the  coloring-matter  comes  away  with  it,  and  the  dermis  has  the 
appearance  of  that  in  a  white  man    {pi.  i,  fig.  9). 

Causes  of  OA?;'.— Physiologists  have  sought  to  explain  the  greater 
deposition  of  coloring-matter  in  one  individual  than  in  another  b\'  the 
difference  in  the  relative  activity  of  the  great  secretory  organs,  the  lungs 
and  the  liver.  Where  the  lungs  are  fulh'  developed  and  in  high  func- 
tional activity,    the  venous  blood    is  thorough!}-  artcrialized  in  passing 


42  ANTHR  OPOL  OGY. 

through  the  puhnonic  circulation  ;  that  is,  the  carbon  it  contains  passes 
off  as  carbonic  oxide  into  the  air.  Where  the  puhnonary  action  is  slug- 
gish, the  liver  acts  the  part  of  a  compensatory  organ,  the  secretion  of  bile 
is  increased,  but  the  carbon  is  by  no  means  so  completely  abstracted  from 
the  blood,  and,  passing  into  the  fine  capillaries  lining  the  papillae  of  the 
true  skin,  is  deposited  on  their  surface,  thus  forming  the  pigmentary  coat 
above  described. 

This  theory  is  supported  by  several  observed  facts.  The  arterial  and 
venous  bloods  of  natives  of  tropical  climates,  and  of  Europeans  long  resi- 
dent in  them,  do  not  present  that  marked  contrast  of  color  visible  in  tem- 
perate latitudes,  thus  indicating  deficient  arterialization.  Furthermore, 
it  has  been  shown  by  extensive  dissections  that  the  lungs  of  Negroes  are 
smaller  in  proportion  to  the  height  and  weight  of  the  individual  than  in 
the  white  race.  That  they  are  also  much  less  efficient  organs  is  shown  by 
the  greater  liability  of  the  black  race  to  pulmonar}'  diseases  in  temperate 
and  cold  climates. 

Correlated  to  Exemption  from  Disease. — It  has  also  been  argued  that 
the  coloration  of  the  skin  and  this  physiological  difference  in  the  activity 
of  the  lungs  and  heart  are  "correlated,"  as  it  is  termed,  with  a  greater 
resistance  to  the  effects  of  prolonged  heat  and  with  an  immunity  from  the 
action  of  malarial  and  similar  poisons.  The  Negroes  of  the  West  Coast 
of  Africa  live  in  health  where  it  would  be  death  to  any  European  to  spend 
a  night.  Nor  do  they  feel  the  prostrating  power  of  the  heat  in  anything 
like  the  same  degree.  Simstroke,  though  not  absolutely  unknown  in  the 
black  race,  is  exceedingly  rare.  The  blacks  are  usually  proof  against 
yellow  fever,  and  even  the  half-breed  mulattoes  can  generally  expose 
themselves  to  it  without  danger. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  causes  which  bring  about  a  black  skin  also 
confer  these  exemptions  from  disease,  we  can  readily  see  that  by  the  pro- 
cess of  "the  extinction  of  the  unfit"  the  lighter-colored  members  of  a  tribe 
exposed  to  a  tropical  climate  would  perish  more  rapidly  than  the  darker, 
until  an  entirely  dark  tribe  came  to  be  established.  This  correlation  has 
not,  however,  been  proved,  and  there  are  various  reasons  rather  to  believe 
that  the  immunity  from  these  diseases  is  merely  one  of  acclimation  with- 
out reference  to  color.  African  travellers — Dr.  Nachtigall,  for  instance — 
state  that  when  the  Negroes  are  exposed  to  the  malaria  of  a  different  dis- 
trict from  that  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed  they  frequently  are 
attacked  by  it  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Spanish  Creoles  of  Cuba,  of 
pure  white  descent,  are  no  more  liable  to  the  yellow  fever  than  the 
Negroes,  and  they  can  support  the  ardors  of  a  tropical  sun  with  equal 
indifference. 

Distribution  of  Colored  Races. — Onl}'  as  a  general  rule,  subject  to 
nximerous  exceptions,  and  not  as  a  physiological  law,  can  it  be  said  that 
color  darkens  as  we  approach  the  equator  and  becomes  lighter  toward 
the  poles.  The  natives  of  the  Arctic  regions,  the  Laplanders,  the 
Tchuktchis,    the     Eskimos,    though    belonging    to    different    races,    are 


ANTHR  OPOL  OGY.  43 

all  dark,  quite  as  brown  as  the  majority  of  residents  within  the  tropics. 
The  inhabitant  of  the  bleak  and  damp  climate  of  Tierra  del  Fuego 
has  just  as  deep  a  hue  as  a  Botocudo,  whose  home  is  in  the  tropical 
forests  of  Brazil  ;  while  the  Abipoue,  who  lives  about  midway  between 
them,  is  several  shades  lighter  than  either.  Directly  under  the  equator, 
on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  are  the  Yurucare  Indians,  whose 
name  means  "White  People,"  given  to  them  by  their  neighbors,  the 
much  darker  Ouichuas,  because  of  their  remarkably  fair  comiDlexions. 
The  natives  of  Central  Africa  are  by  no  means  all  equally  dark.  They 
vary  in  different  tribes  from  an  ebony-black  to  a  chestnut-brown. 

It  is  further  significant,  as  showing  that  a  deep  coloration  of  the  skin 
is  probably  an  acquired  rather  than  an  original  character  of  the  race,  that 
the  new-born  infants  of  all  the  dark  races  are  several  shades  lighter  in 
hue  than  the  adults.  Several  years  are  required  for  their  skin  to  become 
as  dark  as  that  of  their  parents. 

Variations  of  Color  in  the  Same  Race. — The  variation  of  color  within 
the  limits  of  all  the  races  is  equally  marked.  The  most  completely  white 
communities  are  found  among  the  Slavonic  populations  of  Southern  and 
Central  Russia.  Their  hair  is  colorless,  and  their  complexion  so  near 
a  "dead  white"  that  one  anthropologist  (Theodor  Posche)  has  selected 
the  vast  Rokitno  swamps  as  the  original  home  of  the  white  race,  which 
he  thinks  arose  by  an  endemic  albinism  ! 

The  Scandinavians  still  retain  the  traits  of  the  "blue-eyed,  yellow- 
haired,  fair-skinned,  large-limbed  warriors"  who  alone  of  all  men  checked 
the  advance  of  Rome  in  the  plenitude  of  her  power,  and  excited  the  admi- 
ration of  the  Latin  poets.  The  Romans  themselves,  like  the  Greeks  and 
Iberians,  and  like  their  descendants  to-day,  were  much  darker  than  the 
Teutonic  tribes  ;  the  Semites  of  Northern  Africa,  Phoenicia,  and  Arabia 
present  a  still  deeper  hue  ;  until  among  the  Copts,  Berbers,  and  Abyssin- 
ians,  all  ranked  with  the  white  race,  the  color  shades  by  imperceptible 
degrees  into  a  decided  brown  not  distinguishable  from  the  lightest  of  the 
pure  negro  hue.  Yet  among  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  examples  of 
pure  blondes  with  light  hair  occasionally  occur.  In  Spain  this  is  con- 
sidered a  sign  of  Gothic,  in  Ital)-  of  Etruscan,  descent ;  but  it  is  prob- 
ably a  reversion  to  the  ancient  type  of  the  race. 

Albinism. — The  processes  o{  albinism  and  melanism  occur  as  patholog- 
ical conditions  in  all  races,  and  may  materially  influence  the  general  hue 
of  a  community.  Among  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  Arizona  it  is  not  at  all 
uncommon  to  observe  fair  skins  and  blue  eyes,  and  this  in  families  of 
pure  blood.  It  is  explained  by  the  prevalence  of  albinos  among  them, 
whose  traits  are  transmitted  by  descent.  Either  partial  or  complete 
albinism  is  frequent  in  the  Negro  race.  The  skin  becomes  of  a  dead 
white,  usually  retaining  small  patches  of  the  normal  black  color,  thus 
presenting  a  mottled  appearance.     The  tendency  is  said  to  be  hereditary. 

Melanism. — Instances  of  mela7tisTn,  or  turning  dark,  are  frequent  in 
the   white    race.       The    areola   of    the    nipple    in    pregnancy   generally 


44 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


changes  to  a  decided  brown  ;  freckles  and  moles  are  other  local 
instances  ;  certain  skin  diseases  present  the  same  phenomenon,  as  also 
a  variety  of  cancer  ;  while  the  degeneration  of  the  suprarenal  capsules 
— organs  in  no  way  connected,  so  far  as  known,  with  the  functions  of 
the  skin — is  associated  with  a  bronzing  of  the  entire  surface  of  the 
body. 

These  facts  show  that  color  is  influenced  by  obscure  physiological 
changes  quite  irrespective  of  climate.  There  seems  reason  to  believe 
that  this  has  taken  place  on  an  extensive  scale  within  the  historic  period. 
The  Roman  historians  describe  the  Britons  as  a  blond  race  with  yellow 
hair ;  but  their  descendants,  as  represented  in  the  inhabitants  of  Wales 
and  Cornwall,  have  dark  complexions  and  brown  or  black  hair.  The 
Cherokees  of  East  Tennessee  and  Northern  Georgia  are  described  by  the 
earh'  travellers  as  unusually  fair,  some  of  them  as  much  so  as  South- 
ern Europeans.  At  present  they  are  not  noticeably  fairer  than  other 
tribes.  Change  of  food  and  manner  of  living  may  explain  these 
anomalies. 

Taken  together,  colors  ser\'e  as  an  excellent  rough-and-ready  means  of 
classifying  mankind,  well  marked  in  their  extremes,  but  in  the  mean 
blending  so  constantly  one  into  another  that  no  hard  and  fast  lines  can 
be  laid  down,  and  surely  misleading  the  ethnologist  who  would  depend 
on  these  alone  as  a  basis  for  a  system. 

Odor  of  the  Skm. — Closely  connected  with  the  color  of  the  skin,  and 
probably  dependent  upon  it,  is  the  odor  which  it  exhales.  This  is  per- 
ceptible in  health  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  carbonaceous 
mat'ter  secreted  from  the  blood.  Brunettes  emit  more  positive  odors  than 
blondes,  the  Semitic  than  the  Ar}-an  nations,  and  the  full-blood  Negroes 
most  of  all.  Their  acrid,  ammoniacal  effluvium  is  said  to  have  been  per- 
ceived many  miles  at  sea,  and  in  the  days  of  the  slave-trade  often  betrayed 
the  living  cargo  to  the  British  cruisers. 

Even  the  most  cleanly  white  person  is  instantly  recognized  through 
the  sense  of  smell  by  his  dog,  and  the  lower  races  of  men  with  highly- 
developed  olfactor}'  pow'ers  perceive  the  odor  of  the  European  as  distinct- 
ly as  we  do  that  of  the  Negro.  In  the  dialect  of  the  Chilian  half-breeds 
there  is  an  adjective,  catinca^  to  express  this  smell  of  a  white  man.  Were 
our  olfactory  ner\'es  as  sensitive  as  those  of  many  animals — as  the  deer's, 
for  instance,  which  will  scent  the  hunter  a  mile  away — this  would  prob- 
ably be  the  most  positive  race-distinction  of  all ;  but,  as  it  is,  we  can  treat 
of  it  only  as  an  accessory  to  the  color  of  the  skin. 

Parasites  of  the  Skin. — Upon  the  ph5'siological  constitution  of  the  skin 
depends  another  classification  of  the  human  race  which  was  suggested  by 
Darwin.  Indeed,  he  advanced  it  as  an  evidence  of  the  specific  diversity 
of  the  species.  This  is  the  dijfere?ice  in  the  species  of  parasites  that  make 
their  home  upon  or  within  the  human  body.  It  is  a  familiar  fact  to 
naturalists  that  the  lice  and  fleas  which  infest  different  species  of  animals 
are  themselves  specificallj^  diverse  ;  and  this  holds  good  of  some  internal 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  45 

parasites  of  the  same  generic  character.  According  to  the  testimony  of 
several  investigators,  the  pediculi  which  harbor  in  the  hair  and  skin  of 
the  negro  are  of  different  species  from  those  on  whites,  and  neither  will 
continue  on  persons  of  the  other  race.  The  observations,  however,  on 
this  subject  are  too  scanty  to  admit  of  any  positive  generalizations. 
Habits  and  locality  have  probably  more  to  do  with  the  facts  quoted  than 
diversity  of  race.  In  communities,  as  the  large  cities  of  the  United 
States,  where  the  white  and  black  races  are  thrown  together  under  pre- 
cisely similar  conditions,  no  such  difference  of  parasitic  life  has  been 
noticed.  On  the  contrary,  school-teachers  are  often  made  aware  of  the 
facility  with  which  the  unkempt  children  of  either  race  will  transfer 
pediculi  to  the  other. 

3.  By  the  Hair:  Shape,  Color,  Abundance. — Some  of  the  most  modern 
classifications  of  the  human  race  are  based  almost  exclusively  on  the  hair. 
It  is  claimed  that  no  other  portion  of  tlie  economy  is  so  permanent  and  so 
characteristic.  Pruner  Bey  in  France,  Ernst  Haeckel  and  Friedrich 
Miiller  in  German)',  are  distinguished  names  which  have  supported  and 
given  popularity  to  this  view.  They  claim  that  the  human  race  can  be 
broadly  separated  into  two  great  divisions,  the  one  marked  by  woolly,  the 
other  by  smooth  hair,  which  in  turn  are  capable  of  several  subdivisions. 

Shape  of  the  Hair. — These  peculiarities  of  the  hair  depend  on  its  con- 
formation. When  the  cross-section  of  a  hair  is  examined  with  the  micro- 
scope, it  is  found  to  be  not  circular,  but  more  or  less  oval  in  shape  {pi.  i, 
fig.  6).  The  less  the  difference  between  its  maximum  and  minimum 
diameters — in  other  words,  the  more  nearly  the  cross-section  approaches  a 
true  circle — the  smoother,  coarser,  and  straighter  is  the  hair  ;  the  greater 
the  difference  between  the  diameters — that  is,  the  flatter  each  hair  is — 
the  finer,  harder,  and  curlier  it  becomes. 

Straight-haired  and  Jl'oolly-haired  Races. — The  variations  in  these 
respects  are  very  noticeable.  The  nearest  approach  to  a  circular  form  is 
found  among  the  South  American  Indians,  where  the  proportion  of  the 
short  to  the  long  diameter  of  the  hair  is  95  :  100.  In  most  of  the  American 
tribes  it  is  about  90  :  100.  Next  to  these  stand  the  Mongolian  nations  of 
Eastern  Asia,  with  an  average  of  85  :  100.  In  the  European  race  the 
shorter  diameter  sinks  to  about  three-fourths  of  the  longer,  or  75  :  100. 
It  is  further  reduced  in  the  Australians  to  about  70  :  100  ;  among  the 
Hottentots  and  Bushmen,  to  about  one-half,  or  50  :  100  ;  and  finally,  in 
the  Papuas  of  New  Guinea,  to  an  average  of  one-third,  or  t^t,  :  100,  some 
rare  cases  sinking  as  low  as  one-quarter,  or  25  :  100. 

When  the  smaller  diameter  is  less  than  half  the  longer,  the  hair  will 
felt  like  the  wool  of  a  sheep,  though  in  no  instance  does  human  hair 
equal  wool  in  this  respect. 

All  the  tribes  having  woolly  hair  originally  lived  near  the  equator  or 
south  of  it ;  all  were  in  the  Old  World,  and,  except  the  Papuas,  on  the 
continent  of  Africa  ;  in  all  of  them  the  skull,  as  a  rule,  is  long  and 
narrow  (dolichocephalic)  ;    in  all   the  jaws  protrude  beyond  the  vertical 


46  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

line  of  the  face  (prognathic)  ;  all  have  remained  on  the  lower  stages  of 
culture,  being  neither  city-builders  nor  founders  of  great  states  ;  all  are 
black  or  dark  in  hue  ;  and  in  them  all  there  are  peculiarities  of  structure 
which  assimilate  them  more  closely  to  the  highest  apes  than  is  the  case 
with  other  varieties  of  the  species.  Hence  they  are  considered  to  have 
been  an  extremely  early  variation  of  the  species,  and  either  to  have  retro- 
graded from  the  original  type  or  not  to  have  shared  in  an  equal  degree  in 
the  development  which  it  has  undergone. 

Woolly  hair  itself  has  two  modes  of  growth,  which  have  been  taken 
for  ethnological  distinctions.  Either  it  is  equally  distributed  over  the 
scalp,  like  the  fleece  on  the  back  of  a  sheep,  or  it  grows  in  a  number  of 
separate  tufts  or  bimches,  which  have  been  likened  to  the  arrangement 
of  bristles  in  a  shoe-brush.  The  Papuas,  the  Hottentots,  and  some  of  the 
tribes  of  the  Soudan  present  the  latter  characteristic,  while  the  majority 
of  Negroes  have  the  fonner. 

A  similar  twofold  distinction  is  observable  in  the  smooth-haired  races. 
Either  they  have  straight,  stiff  hair,  like  the  Chinese  and  the  American 
Indians,  or  their  locks  are  wa\y  or  curly,  like  those  of  most  Europeans. 

Abundance  or  Deficiency  of  Hair. — Another  peculiarity  of  the  hair 
which  has  to  do  with  the  distinction  of  races  is  its  abundance  on  the 
person.  While  the  hair  on  the  head  grows  with  great  luxuriance  in  the 
Mongolian  and  American  races,  baldness  being  very  uncommon  among 
them,  their  beard  is  almost  always  very  scanty,  and  they  have  ver}'  few 
hairs  on  the  surface  of  the  body  compared  with  the  European.  This  is 
tnie  also  of  the  Hottentot  and  Papuan  tribes,  and  measurably  so  of  most 
African  Negroes.  Among  the  Australians,  on  the  other  hand,  a  full  beard 
is  not  uncommon. 

Classification  of  tJic  Races  by  the  Hair. — By  comparing  these  peculiar- 
ities Prof.  Friedrich  Miiller  has  proposed  the  following  classification  of 
the  human  race  on  the  basis  of  the  character  of  their  hair  : 
I.  Woolly-haired  T\'pe. 

A.  Tuft-haired  :  i.   Hottentots  ; 

2.   Papuas. 

B.  Fleece-haired  :        i.   African  Negroes  ; 

2.   Caffirs. 
II.  Smooth-haired  Type. 

A.  Straight-haired  :   i.   Australians  ; 

2.  Hyperboreans  ; 

3.  Americans  ; 

4.  Malays  ; 

5.  Mongolians. 

B.  Curly-haired  :        i.  Dravidians; 

2.  Nubians  ; 

3.  Mediterranean  tribes. 

This  classification  is  supported  in  some  instances  by  evidence  from 
language.     Thus,  all  the  Caffirs  speak  related  dialects,  and  so  do  all  the 


ANTHR  OPOL  OGY.  47 

Malayan  tribes.  It  is  probable  that  the  same  is  true  of  the  Papuas  and 
the  Australians,  at  least  so  far  as  the  ultimate  grammatical  structure  of 
their  dialects  is  concerned. 

Criticisms  on  lliis  Scheme. — On  the  other  hand,  there  are  various 
exceptions  to  the  general  character  of  the  hair-growth  which  offer 
serioiis  difficulties  in  accepting  this  classification  as  final.  Thus,  pre- 
cisely among  the  straight-haired  Mongolians,  who  are  classed  as  beard- 
less and  with  little  hair  on  their  bodies,  we  find  the  Ainos,  who  reside  on 
Saghalin  and  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  who  are  the  hairiest  people  on  the 
face  of  the  globe.  Their  faces  are  covered  with  hair  to  the  eyes,  and  their 
bodies  equal  in  this  respect  any  of  the  European  nations.  At  least  one 
American  tribe  of  pure  blood  has  been  observed  (by  the  traveller  D'Or- 
bigny)  to  wear  long  and  full  beards.  The  tufted  character  of  the  hair 
of  the  Papuas  and  Hottentots  reappears  in  a  less  degree  among  the 
Bantu  and  Bechuanas  of  South  Africa,  both  of  the  Caffir  stock,  and  the 
latter  certainly  of  pure  blood.  It  is  also  occasionally  observed  among 
negroes  of  the  United  States,  whose  ancestors  must  have  been  brought 
from  the  coast  of  Guinea.  The  very  considerable  diversity  in  the  hair 
of  members  of  the  white  race  is  apparent  to  every  one.  We  occasionally 
see  persons  with  it  straight,  coarse,  and  black  as  that  of  many  an  Indian  ; 
others  with  a  friz  strongly  reminding  one  of  a  negro.  Every  museum 
has  its  "bearded  woman,"  often  with  a  tolerably  thick  coat  of  hair  on 
the  body ;  while  the  skin  of  others  is  nearly  as  smooth  as  that  of  a  youth- 
ful Mongol.  It  must  be  remembered  also  that  most  of  the  smooth- 
skinned  races  have  for  generations  sedulously  plucked  out  the  hairs  on 
the  face  and  body,  which  leaves  it  uncertain  how  far  their  present  con- 
dition is  the  result  of  natural  causes,  or  of  this  artificial  habit  finally 
leading  to  a  loss  of  transmission  of  the  hair-follicles. 

4.  By  the  Skull :  Science  of  Craniology. — The  science  of  craniology^ 
which  devotes  itself  to  examining  the  skull  and  its  component  parts,  has 
been  zealously  cultivated  by  many  ethnologists  in  the  belief  that  it  offers 
the  means  of  an  accurate  classification  of  the  human  race.  To  such  a 
pitch  of  refinement  has  this  study  been  carried  by  some  of  its  disciples 
that  they  claim  that  it  is  necessary  to  make  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine 
measurements  of  each  skull  in  order  to  determine  its  proper  position  in 
the  craniological  scheme!  Most  obser\'ers,  however,  have  been  content  with 
two  imaginary  lines  drawn  through  the  skull  at  right  angles,  one  giving 
its  length,  the  other  its  breadth,  from  one  external  surface  to  the  other. 

These  measurements  have  shown,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  circum- 
ference of  the  skull  is  never  that  of  a  true  circle  unless  the  bones  have 
been  subjected  to  artificial  compression  ;  it  is  always  more  or  less  oval, 
the  transverse  being  always  shorter  than  the  antero-posterior  diameter. 
The  extent  to  which  this  is  the  case  is  the  principal  basis  for  the  proposed 
classification.  Those  skulls  whose  section  approaches  a  circle  belong  to 
the  so-called  broad-headed,  or  brachyccphalic^  those  which  are  more  oblong 
to  the  long-headed,  or  dolichocephalic,  races. 


48  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

As  these  terms  are  necessarily  vague,  certain  mathematical  limits  have 
been  adopted.  Measuring  the  transverse  or  shorter  diameter  in  per  cent- 
ages  of  the  longer,  we  find  the  utmost  observed  limits  to  be  98  :  100  for 
the  broadest  skull  known,  one  obtained  from  Tartary,  and  58  :  100  for  the 
narrowest,  a  Celtic  skull.  The  majority  of  the  species  have  skulls  in 
which  the  proportions  of  the  diameters  fall  between  74  :  100  and  So  :  100. 
All  included  between  these  measurements  are  called  vicsocephalic  or  orl/io- 
ccpJialic ;  while  the  term  brachyceplialic  is  confined  to  cases  where  the 
transverse  is  more  than  ^"^ths  of  the  antero-posterior  diameter,  and  doli- 
chocephalic to  where  it  is  less  than  yVtr*^^^  °f  ^^  antero-posterior. 

The  eminent  Swedish  anatomist  Retzius  combined  the  shape  of  the 
skull,  as  shown  by  its  two  diameters,  with  the  prominence  of  the  jaws,  to 
erect  a  fourfold  division  of  the  human  species.  If  the  bones  of  the  head 
are  examined  in  profile,  it  will  be  observed  that  in  some  cases  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws  project  much  more  than  in  others.  Such  are  termed 
prognathic  skulls,  while  those  where  the  jaws  protrude  little  or  not  at  all 
beyond  the  vertical  line  of  the  profile  are  known  as  orthognathic.  By 
combining  these  four  characters,  and  after  many  years  of  careful  research, 
Retzius  completed  his  scheme  of  classifj'ing  the  race,  as  follows  : 

I.  Dolichocephalic  Type  : 

A.  Orthognathic,  |  Germans,  English,  Celts,  Romans,  Greeks, 

I      Hindoos,  Persians,  Arabs,  Jews. 

B.  Proonathic        |  Africans,  Australians,  Chinese,  Tunguses, 

"  '       I       Eskimos,  some  American  tribes. 

II.  Brachycephalic  Type  : 

A.  Orthocrnathic, -f  ^^""^'      ^apps,      Hungarians,     European 

'^  '  \      Turks,  Slavs,  Basques,  Etrurians,  etc. 

f  Samoieds,     Asiatic     Turks,     Circassians, 

B.  Procmathic,       \       Afghans,  Tartars,   Malays,   Mongolians, 

*  '       I       Polynesians,     Papuas,    some    American 

^     tribes. 

It  is  quite  obvious  from  an  examination  of  this  scheme  that  it  is  in 
violent  contradiction  with  that  previously  given  on  p.  46,  as  well  as  with 
familiar  facts  from  other  sources.  The  Chinese  are  dissevered  from  the 
other  Mongolians,  the  Turks  in  Europe  from  those  in  Asia,  the  Afghans 
from  the  Persians,  the  Slavs  from  the  Germans,  etc.  ;  whereas  we  know 
from  a  mass  of  other  evidence  that  no  such  separation  is  tenable.  The 
extremes  of  narrowness  of  skull  have  been  found  in  Celtic  and  New  Zea- 
land specimens,  which  have  not  the  slightest  racial  connection,  and  the 
latter  of  whom  are  placed  by  Retzius  among  broad-headed  races.  Among 
American  tribes  there  are  frequent  and  marked  differences  in  these  and 
all  other  measurements  of  the  skull. 

Later  investigators  have  conclusively  shown  that  the  confident  state- 
ments of  Dr.  Samuel  George  Morton  in  his  great  work.  Crania  Ameri- 
cana.^ where  he  undertakes  to  define   the  specific  American  types,  are 


ANTHR  OPOL  OGY.  49 

altogether  erroneous.  Furthennore,  it  has  been  acknowledged  of  recent 
years  that  in  a  collection  of  skulls  from  Central  Germany  there  is  scarcely 
one  that  cannot  be  matched  by  an  analogue  in  an  equally  large  collection 
from  the  Soudan. 

The  consequence  is,  that  there  has  been  a  growing  scepticism  about 
the  value  of  craniometry  as  a  basis  of  classification.  The  most  that  can 
now  be  claimed  for  it  is  that  if  a  reasonably  large  number  of  crania  from 
one  locality  indicates  a  marked  deflection  in  either  direction  from  the 
mean,  we  may  assert  with  reasonable  probability  that  they  did  or  did  not 
belong  to  persons  of  certain  nationalities.  For  example,  in  a  collection 
of  237  skulls  from  Germany  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  narrowest  bore 
the  proportion  69  :  100,  while  the  average  of  66  skulls  from  Africa  pre- 
sented these  same  numbers,  69  :  100. 

There  is  some  evidence  also  that  the  shape  of  the  skull  is  transmitted 
with  little  alteration.  The  modern  Fellaheen  and  Copts  in  Egypt  have 
precisely  the  same  average  (71.5  :  100)  that  was  yielded  by  measuring  a 
series  of  ancient  mummies.  On  the  other  hand,  the  modern  Greek  head 
is  2  per  cent,  broader,  and  the  modern  Italian  about  6  per  cent,  broader, 
than  those  from  ancient  graves.  This  lateral  expansion  is  explained  by 
the  introduction  of  large  colonies  of  broad-headed  Teutons  and  Slavs 
about  the  period  of  the  migration  of  nations. 

Craniological  Ilhtsiyations. — On  Plate  2  {figs,  i^a^b^  c)  will  be  seen  types 
of  dolichocephalic,  mesocephalic,  and  brachycephalic  crania.  Figures  10, 
II  represent  the  actual  difference  between  a  Tartar  and  a  New  Zealand 
skull.  Figures  5,  a,  /?,  c,  show  in  profile  the  orthognathic,  mesognathic, 
and  prognathic  facial  line.  The  remaining  figures,  from  actual  speci- 
mens, present  the  traits  considered  peculiar  to  certain  nations. 

5.  /?!'  Language . — The  methods  of  classification  above  mentioned  are 
all  derived  from  the  physical  structure  of  man.  There  are  others  which 
are  drawn  from  his  mental  powers  and  his  psychical  peculiarities.  Most 
important  of  these  is  language.  The  value  of  the  forms  of  speech  in 
determining  the  relationship  and  descent  of  nations  has  been  steadily 
increasing  as  the  correct  principles  of  its  application  have  been  more 
clearly  defined  and  its  positive  results  recognized. 

The  proper  comparison  of  languages  must  be  instituted  from  two 
directions — the  one,  the  similarity  of  their  words,  or  lexical  identity  ;  the 
other,  the  similarity  of  their  formation  of  sentences,  or  grammatical 
structure. 

Lexical  Identity. — The  lexical  identity  of  languages  has  been  greatly 
misused  for  ethnological  purposes  from  ignorance  and  lack  of  scientific 
method.  It  was  long  supposed  to  be  snfificient  to  compare  a  vocabulary 
of  words  in  one  language  with  those  of  the  same  meaning  in  another  in 
order  to  decide  the  question  of  their  relationship.  This  is  a  superficial 
and  fallacious  procedure.  Not  only  does  the  same  word  change  both  form 
and  signification  from  one  generation  to  another,  but  verbal  identities  fre- 
quently exist  where  no  relationship  is  possible.      Moreover,   words  are 

Vol.  I.— 4 


50  ANTHR  OPOL  OGY. 

freely  borrowed,  and  pass  from  one  race  to  another  with  facility,  some- 
times retaining,  sometimes  altering,   their  original  sense. 

Changes  in  JVords. — How  a  word  may  change  its  fonn  so  as  to  be  quite 
nnrecognizable  is  well  illustrated  by  numerous  examples  in  English. 
Thus,  no  foreigner  hearing  them  for  the  first  time  would  imagine  that 
pen  and  feallier  are  merely  fonns  of  the  same  word. 

Borroivcd  Words. — The  borrowed  words  may  be  very  numerous,  and 
must  be  carefully  eliminated  before  instituting  comparisons.  In  some 
languages,  as  in  English,  they  may  be  from  the  most  diverse  sources. 
There  is  no  quarter  of  the  globe  that  has  not  contributed  more  or  less 
to  the  English  vocabulary.  But  it  is  too  obvious  to  need  emphasizing 
that  because  we  have  such  words  as  barbecue,  canoe,  hominy,  hurricane, 
etc.  from  the  nati\'e  idioms  of  America,  they  do  not  testify  to  a  descent 
from  the  races  of  that  continent,  nor  even  to  the  slightest  intennixture 
of  blood.  They  are  merely  loan-words^  obtained  through  commercial  or 
social  contact.  Such  loans  occur  in  every  tongue  which  has  come  in 
proximity  with  another,  and  they  must  be  omitted  in  an  ethnological 
scrutiny  of  the  idiom. 

Onomaiopoictic  Words. — Another  class  of  misleading  terms  are  those 
which  imitate  the  sounds  of  nature,  the  so-called  onomatopoieiic  words. 
A  bird  or  an  animal  will  be  named  by  an  imitation  of  its  cry  ;  the  sough- 
ing of  the  wind,  the  roaring  of  the  waterfall,  and  other  natural  phenom- 
ena, from  the  sounds  they  make.  These  sounds  do  not  impress  the  senses 
of  all  hearers  alike,  or  we  should  find  such  words  the  same  in  all  tongues. 
This  is  not  the  case,  but  there  is  often  such  a  similarity  in  the  onomato- 
poietics  of  the  most  remote  languages  that  scientific  linguists  are  unan- 
imous in  discarding  them  from  service  in  ethnological  comparisons. 

Natural  Expressions  of  the  Einotions. — A  third  class  of  words  which 
present  deceptive  similarities  are  those  which  may  be  called  the  natural 
expressions  of  the  emotions.  The  inarticulate  cries  of  pain  or  pleasure, 
fright,  surprise,  or  admiration,  which  make  up  the  interjections  of  lan- 
guage, are  not  the  same  in  difiFerent  races.  They  are  often,  however, 
based  on  the  same  vowel  sounds,  and  articulate  words  formed  from  them 
are  liable  to  be  quite  similar.  For  example,  the  first  crj'  of  pain  of  the 
new-bom  child  is  always  a  wail  in  the  first  sound  of  the  letter  «,  as  in 
father.  The  first  articulate  words  it  uses  contain  this  same  vowel;  and  as 
these  first  words  are  in  most  instances  those  with  which  it  addresses  its 
parents,  papa.,  mamma,  these  two  terms  of  consanguinity  are  very  similar 
in  the  most  radically  diverse  languages,  and  have  no  value  in  deciding 
the  relationship  of  nations. 

How  many  words  of  the  two  classes  above  mentioned  there  may  be  is 
still  a  debated  point,  some  linguists  claiming  that  most  of  the  radicals  of 
all  languages  having  been  derived  either  from  imitation  or  the  psvcholog- 
ical  vocal  expression  of  sensation,  they  must  have  a  general  sameness. 

Coincidences. — To  these  must  be  added  purely  accidental  resemblances. 
They  are  more  numerous  than  a  simple  arithmetical  computation  (as  some 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  51 

have  attempted)  would  lead  us  to  suppose.  Although  the  total  phonetic 
elements  of  articulate  speech  have  been  placed  by  some  at  about  four 
lumdred,  they  rarely  exceed  the  tenth  of  this  in  any  tongue,  and  in 
some  sink  as  low  as  eleven.  Many  of  their  combinations  are  theoretical 
only,  being  unsuited  to  the  vocal  organs  or  repellant  to  the  genius  of  the 
language.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  every  language  uses  very  much  less  than 
I  per  cent,  of  the  mathematically  possible  combinations  of  its  phonetic 
elements  ;  even  that  it  uses  less  than  i  per  cent,  of  their  vocally  possible 
combinations. 

These  limitations  greatly  increase  the  probabilit}-  of  fortuitous  iden- 
tities in  sound  and  signification,  especially  where,  as  in  many  tongues,  a 
word  is  usually  a  single  syllable.  With  every  added  syllable  the  chances 
of  the  identity  continuing  are  of  course  vastly  decreased,  so  that  vvdiile 
an  identity  of  meaning  in  a  monosyllable  in  two  languages  has  little 
weight,  it  is  practically  impossible  that  a  word  of  four  syllables  should 
by  accident  mean  the  same  in  both.  Thus,  the  Maya  of  Yucatan,  nearly 
a  monosyllabic  tongue,  has  various  identities  with  the  English,  as  Iiol^ 
hole,  /o/,  poll  (head),  even  bated.,  battle,  but  they  are  absolutely  acci- 
dental and  never  extend  beyond  a  dissyllable.  In  many  monosyllabic 
languages  a  syllable  may  have  several  significations,  and  this  increases 
the  probability  of  such  coincidences.  Ta  in  Chinese  has  twenty-six 
different  meanings,  and  hence  the  chances  are  twenty-six  times  greater 
that  it  will  coincide  with  the  meaning  of  ta  in  any  other  language  than 
if  it  had  but  one. 

But  all  arguments  on  such  lexical  identities  rest  on  the  erroneous 
assumption  that  language  is  something  fixed  and  its  elements  per- 
manent. So  far  from  true  is  this  that  when  we  find  a  word  the  same, 
and  with  the  same  meaning,  in  two  tongues  not  closely  related,  we  may 
be  quite  sure  that  they  do  not  come  from  a  common  source  and  have  710 
genealogical  connection — nothing  but  an  accidental  one.  The  language 
faculty  of  man  is  forever  altering,  remodelling,  working  over  its  pos- 
sessions. Whatever  it  receives  from  another  tongue  or  from  an  antece- 
dent generation  it  invariably  stamps  with  some  new  device  :  it  adds  or 
omits,  it  changes  quantity  or  accent,  it  modifies  and  substitutes.  This  is 
not  effected  capriciously  or  intentional!}',  but  unconsciously  and  in 
accordance  with  fixed  laws  of  utterance.  It  is  the  pro\-ince  of  the 
scientific  linguist  to  ascertain  and  expound  these  laws,  and  it  is  only  in 
obedience  to  them  that  we  can  with  any  safety  proceed  to  compare  the 
vocabularies  of  different  nations. 

Nothing  but  a  deep  knowledge  of  these  laws,  gained  by  the  prolonged 
study  of  many  dialects,  could  have  enabled  linguists  to  accomplish  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  successes  they  have  achieved,  the  classification  of  all 
the  dialects  and  languages  of  the  Aryan  race,  and  the  partial  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  original  speech  from  which  they  sprung  at  an  epoch  far  bej'ond 
the  remotest  horizon  of  history. 

Cranniiatical  Structure. — The  grammatical  stnicture  of  languages  is 


52  ANTHROPOLOG  Y. 

considered  to  be  greatly  more  permanent  than  the  forms  of  words.  In- 
deed, by  some  of  the  most  profound  students  of  the  subject  it  has  been 
held  to  be,  in  its  governing  principles,  unalterable.  An  analysis  of  these 
principles  has  led  to  the  classification  of  all  the  languages  of  the  globe 
into  four  divisions.  They  correspond  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  chief 
continental  areas  and  with  the  division  of  the  species  by  the  peculiarity 
of  color.     They  are  as  follows  : 

I.  Isolating  Languages. 
Characteristics. — Words  are  simply  arranged  in  the  sentence  in  ju.xta- 
position,  without  change  of  form  or  grammatical  connection. 
Spoken  by  Chinese,  Siamese,   Burmese. 

II.  Inflecting  Languages. 

Characteristics. — Each  word  indicates  by  its  own  form  its  character 
and  relation  to  the  proposition  of  the  idea  which  it  represents. 

Spoken  by  the  Ar3'an  nations,  the  purest  types  being  the  Sanskrit, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Gothic. 

III.  Agglutinative  Languages. 
Characteristics. — The   sentence  is  formed   by  suffixing   to   the  word 

various  terminations  modifying  and  limiting  it. 

Spoken  by  the  Finns,  Turks,  and  many  northern  Asiatic  tribes. 

IV.  Incorporative  Languages. 
Characteristics. — The  leading  word  is  either  divided  and  the  modify- 
ing terms  inserted,  or  they  are  united  to  it  as  prefixes  and  suffixes,  so  that 
the  whole  sentence  assumes  the  form  and  sound  of  one  word. 

Spoken  by  most  of  the  American  tribes.  Incorporation  is  regarded  as 
a  characteristic  of  American  languages.  The  Basque  has  a  somewhat 
similar  character. 

Polyglot  tic  and  lifonoglottie  Paces. — It  will  be  seen  that  while  these 
great  divisions  are,  in  a  general  way,  peculiar  to  certain  races,  they  are 
not  absolutely  so.  Still  less  is  this  the  case  with  single  stocks  of  lan- 
guages. Both  the  Semitic  and  Ar>'an  peoples  belong  to  the  pure  white 
race,  but  their  languages  are  totally  diverse,  arid  it  is  next  to  impossible 
to  believe  that  they  could  ever  have  flowed  from  the  same  source.  Such 
races  are  called  polyglottic,  while  those  who  speak  dialects  of  the  same 
tongue  are  monoglottic.  The  best  specimen  of  the  latter  is  the  Malay 
race.  All  its  members,  from  Madagascar  to  Easter  Island,  make  use  of 
dialects  unquestionably  scions  of  the  same  stock.  This  is  also  the  case 
with  all  the  Caffir  tribes  of  South  Africa,  and  some  aver  it  of  the  natives 
of  Australia. 

Changes  in  Language. — These  facts  show  the  great  permanence  of 
linguistic  forms  when  not  disturbed  by  violence.  In  geographical  area 
the  Malayan  race  was  the  most  widely  dispersed  of  any.     By  it  the  Poly- 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  53 

nesian  islands  were  inhabited  between  two  thousand  and  three  thousand 
years  ago.  They  were  found  by  them  uninhabited  ;  therefore  since  then 
the  language  has  undergone  no  other  alterations  than  those  caused  by  time 
alone.  These  have  proved  to  be  very  slight,  and  dialects  which  certainly 
have  been  dissevered  two  thousand  j'ears  remain  almost  mutually  intel- 
ligible. 

The  principal  causes  of  change  in  language  are  war  and  migration. 
But  it  has  been  well  said  that  a  nation  which  loses  its  language  is  also 
quite  sure  to  lose  its  independent  nationality,  whether  conqueror  or  con- 
quered. The  Normans  entered  France  as  a  victorious  people,  and  seized 
and  held  the  land,  but  in  one  or  two  generations  they  had  lost  both  their 
native  tongue  and  national  unity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Jews  and  the 
Gypsies,  though  for  centuries  wandering  over  the  globe,  retained  their  uni- 
ty by  maintaining  through  all  changes  their  separate  tongues,  the  Hebrew 
and  the  Romany.  In  proportion  as  they  lose  the  knowledge  of  these  they 
dissolve  and  become  merged  in  the  nations  among  whom  their  lot  is  cast. 

Causes. — The  forced  migration  of  great  numbers  of  the  African  race 
to  America  as  slaves  led  to  the  phenomenon  of  large  bodies  of  the  blacks 
speaking  English,  French,  Portuguese,  or  Spanish.  But  in  pre-historic 
times  no  such  extensive  transportation  would  have  been  possible,  and  it 
is  safe  to  say  that  the  simpler  the  conditions  of  social  life  the  more  accu- 
rately does  similarity  in  language  testify  to  the  kinship  of  blood. 

Rise  of  Dissimilar  Languages. — The  problem  of  accounting  for  abso- 
lutely dissimilar  linguistic  stocks  occurring  in  the  same  race,  as  the  Arj'an, 
Semitic,  and  Basque  in  the  white  race,  is  perplexing.  It  is  inconceivable 
that  one  of  these  could  ever  have  been  derived  from  either  of  the  others. 
Nor  can  we  understand  how  the  three  could  ever  have  been  developed 
from  any  one  primitive  form  of  speech. 

The  modern  theory  to  explain  these  and  similar  instances  is  that  the 
race  had  definitely  obtained  and  fi.xed  its  racial  characteristics  before  it 
had  a  language  at  all — before  it  had  emerged  from  that  inarticulate  con- 
dition which,  as  has  heretofore  been  observed  (p.  38),  seems  to  be  indicated 
by  some  of  the  oldest  osseous  remains.  When  these  had  become  fixed  and 
the  race  had  separated  into  several  branches,  living  remote  from  each 
other,  then,  and  not  till  then,  did  these  branches  severally  develop  their 
modes  of  speech  and  on  entirely  dissimilar  principles  of  construction. 

If  this  view  is  accepted,  an  interesting  sequence  is  that  the  number  of 
distinct  linguistic  stocks  spoken  within  tlie  limits  of  a  race  is  probably  in 
proportion  to  the  antiquity  of  that  race,  as  it  is  evident  that  its  bands  were 
numerous  at  that  remote  epoch  when  human  speech  had  not  appeared. 
Hence  an  extremely  polyglottic  race,  like  the  American,  would  be  much 
more  ancient  than  a  monoglottic  race,  like  the  Malayan.  In  these  two 
instances  the  reasoning  is  borne  out  by  geologic  and  historic  evidence, 
and  is  sufficient  to  disprove  conclusively  the  theory  sometimes  advanced 
that  America  was  peopled  by  landfalls  on  its  western  coast  from  the  Poly- 
nesian islands. 


54  ANTIIR  OPOL  OGY. 

6.  By  Social  Organisations. — Even  a  superficial  obsen^ation  of  the 
species  shows  that  its  members  differ  materially  in  their  capacity  for 
social  organizations,  both  of  a  civil  and  religious  character.  Some  have 
thought  that  these  might  ser\e  as  a  basis  for  distinguishing  kinship  of 
blood  and  forming  a  classification  of  nations. 

Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity.— On^ _oi  the  most  ambitious 
attempts  in  this  direction  was  that  of  an  American  scholar,  Mr.  Lewis  H. 
Alorgan.  He  made  a  voluminous  compilation  of  the  systems  of  consan- 
guinity and  affinity  of  all  tribes  and  nations,  ancient  and  modern,  as  far 
as  he  was  able  to  obtain  them,  and  where  they  proved  identical  in  cha- 
racter his  theory  was  that  the  tribes  were  descended  from  a  common 
stock. 

As  usual,  exclusive  attention  to  one  such  trait  involved  him  in  conflict 
both  with  every  previous  system  and  with  all  historic  probability ;  which, 
however,  did  not  shake  his  faith  in  his  hypothesis.  Thus  he  found  that 
the  system  of  consanguinity  of  the  sub-tribe  of  Seneca-Iroquois  in  West- 
ern New  York  was  identical  in  many  characteristics,  wliich  he  deemed 
radical,  with  that  of  the  Tamil  people  of  Southern  India  ;  and,  in  spite 
of  the  enormous  distance  separating  them  and  their  diversity  in  so  many 
other  respects,  he  declared  that  the  most  satisfactory-  theory  to  explain 
this  was  to  suppose  that  they  were  descended  from  common  ancestors,  who 
had  been  accustomed  to  this  mode  of  stating  the  family  relations.  Few 
have  been  found  willing  to  follow  him  thus  far. 

Systems  of  Rcligioji. — Religions  have  been  regarded  by  some  as  race 
peculiarities.  Monotheism  has  been  said  to  belong  to  the  white  race, 
fetichism  to  the  black,  and  polytheism  to  the  yellow.  While  this  also 
has  a  certain  degree  of  truth  in  it,  inasmuch  as  certainly  these  religions 
are  most  prevalent  among  the  races  assigned  to  them  in  the  scheme,  yet 
many  circumstances  go  to  show  that  the  religion  of  a  race  is  mainly  a 
matter  .of  culture  and  instruction.  Mohammedanism,  the  most  mono- 
theistic of  religions,  has  millions  of  converts  among  the  blacks  of  the 
Soudan  ;  many  of  the  white  race  in  South  America  have  sunk  to  a 
fetichism  as  low  as  that  of  the  natives,  although  it  may  still  be  called 
by  the  name  of  Christianity  ;  and  faithful  converts  to  the  religion  of  the 
Bible  are  counted  in  large  numbers  in  every  race. 

Occupations. — The  distinction  between  pastoral  and  hunting  tribes  has 
by  some  been  elevated  to  one  of  racial  division.  It  is  certainly  a  curious 
fact,  and  one  most  deeply  influencing  the  destiny  of  races,  that  some  have 
enjoyed  from  earliest  historic  times  the  power  of  subjecting  lower  animals 
to  their  use,  and  that  others  have  never  possessed  or  exercised  this  talent. 
Although  the  African  elephant  is  as  docile  as  that  of  Asia,  and  was  tamed 
with  great  success  by  the  Carthaginians  and  Numidians  of  the  white  race, 
it  has  never  been  brought  under  subjection  by  the  blacks.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  estimate  the  enormous  advantage  to  intellectual  development 
v.-liich  those  two  animals,  the  horse  and  the  cow,  have  been  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  human  race  which  domesticated  them.     Without  his  trained 


ANTHROPOLOGY.  55 

doo-s  it  is  doubtful  if  the  Eskimo  could  have  established  hiuiself  iu  the 
reeions  of  the  frozen  North. 

In  contrast  to  this  it  is  noticeable  that  the  pure  American  race  in  no 
part  of  the  continent  domesticated  any  animal  for  draught  or  burden,  none 
for  its  milk,  and  even  the  dogs  which  were  often  found  in  their  possession 
were  rather  for  food  than  to  aid  in  the  chase.  The  feeble  llama  of  Peru 
was  the  only  animal  of  any  importance  which  was  known  as  a  domestic 
beast,  and  it  was  limited  to  a  very  narrow  geographical  area.  The  pas- 
toral life,  with  its  flocks  and  herds,  its  notions  of  personal  property,  and 
its  humanizing  care  for  the  lower  animals,  was  unknown  throughout  the 
American  continent,  as  it  was  throughout  Australia  and  in  many  portions 
of  Africa  held  by  the  black  race  exclusively. 

Results  of  the  above  Comparisons.  — From  this  review  of  the  various 
plans  proposed  to  classify  the  human  species  into  its  several  races,  it  will 
be  apparent  that  no  one  of  them  is  entirely  satisfactory'.  Taken  alone,  each 
conflicts  with  well-marked  traits  laid  down  by  the  others.  This  is  as  we 
might  expect  from  the  unity  of  the  species.  All  that  we  can  aim  to  do  is 
to  group  under  some  general  and  loose-fitting  subdivisions  those  members 
of  the  species  which  display  the  greater  number  of  similarities. 

For  this  purpose  it  is  doubtful  if  we  can  have  recourse  to  any  better 
s^■stem  than  that  long  since  suggested  by  lyinnseus,  and  arrange  the  differ- 
ent tribes  and  peoples  under  the  great  continental  areas  which  they  mainly 
inhabited  at  the  period  when  they  were  first  known  to  histor}',  or  where 
sound  reasoning  from  other  sources,  as  from  language  (see  p.  52),  would 
place  them. 

In  this  manner  we  may  with  propriety  speak  of  the  American  race, 
which  includes  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  New  World  at  the  period  of  its 
discovery,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Eskimos  ;  the  Oceanic  race, 
which  embraces  the  native  tribes  of  Polynesia,  Melanesia,  Micronesia, 
and  Madagascar,  including  representatives  of  three  stocks,  the  Malayan, 
the  Papuan,  and  the  Australian,  and  numerous  crosses  of  all  these  ;  the 
Asiatic  or  Mongolian,  whose  home  is  or  was  definitely  located  in  Central 
and  Western  Asia  ;  the  African  or  Negro  race,  pure  types  of  which  were 
found  scarcely  anywhere  outside  of  that  continent ;  and,  finally,  the 
European,  which  at  a  period  pre -historic  indeed,  but  easily  traceable  by 
archaeology  and  language,  was  confined  to  Europe,  the  extreme  north  of 
Africa,  and  the  extreme  west  of  Asia. 

Present  Relations  of  Races. 
Obliteration  of  Race  Distinctions. — Within  the  historic  period  the  rise 
of  great  monarchies,  which  enabled  rulers  to  prosecute  extensive  foreign 
conquests,  the  increase  of  commercial  intercourse,  and  the  enlarged  facil- 
ities of  intercommunication  have  tended  to  the  obliteration  of  racial  dis- 
tinctions, partly  by  extensive  migrations,  partly  by  originating  mixed 
races.  When  these  connnixtures  are  of  a  higher  with  a  lower  race,  it  is 
almost  exclusively  of  males  of  the  higher  with  females  of  the  lower,  and 


56  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

the  result  is  that  socially  the  children  of  mixed  blood  sink  to  the  level  of 
their  mother's  race.  This  is  witnessed  in  the  mulattoes  and  in  the  min- 
gling of  Mongolians  and  Negroes.  These  are  also  physically  inferior,  with 
less  energ}'  of  spirit  and  vigor  of  body  to  make  their  way  in  the  world 
and  to  resist  disease  than  the  pure  blood  of  either  stock.  A  striking 
example  of  this  is  the  rapid  decay  of  the  Polynesian  islanders,  the  present 
generation  undergoing  a  steady  diminution,  although  largely  influenced 
by  intermarriages  with  both  the  white  and  yellow  races  ;  the  children 
indicate  a  high  rate  of  mortalit}-,  and  if  they  sur\'ive  to  adult  years  are 
inferior  to  the  pure  Polynesian  stock  in  physical  power. 

The  contrar}'  is  the  case  where  two  races  on  the  same  plane  inter- 
marr}',  possibly  one  reason  being  that  the  women  of  both  races  partake 
in  the  commixture.  Examples  of  this  are  the  Melanesians,  the  product 
of  long-continued  intermingling  of  the  straight-haired  Polynesian  with 
the  woolly-haired  Papuan.  This  has  developed  a  powerful  and  energetic 
stock,  bold  warriors  and  navigators,  superior  to  either  of  the  pure  races 
from  which  the}-  sprang.  The  same  improvement  has  been  observed  in 
the  children  of  marriages  between  the  negro  and  the  Indian  in  America. 
They  are  usually  large-limbed,  muscular,  with  an  extraordinar\-  growth 
of  hair,  and  become  the  leaders  in  the  rude  communities  where  they 
dwell. 

Still  more  strongly  are  the  advantages  of  such  blendings  obser\-able 
when  they  take  place  within  the  limits  of  the  race  itself  Thus,  of  all 
the  Finnish  folk  the  noble  and  chivalric  Magyars  take  the  lead — a  people 
of  ver>'  mixed  descent,  a  cross  between  Finns,  Slavs,  and  Gennans ;  the 
most  progressive  of  the  German  stock  are  those  whose  ancestors  sprang 
from  crossings  either  with  the  Slavs  or  with  the  Romance  nations  of 
Southern  Europe  ;  most  vigorous  and  energetic  of  all  are  the  English, 
and  it  is  more  than  a  coincidence  that  they  are  also  the  product  of  the 
most  numerous  crossings  of  Celtic,   Romance,  and  Teiitonic  breeds. 

Destiny  of  Races. — It  is  probable  that  the  pure  stock  of  all  the  more 
deeply  colored  races,  the  Negroes,  the  Australians,  the  Papuas,  and  the 
American  Indians,  is  destined  gradually  to  fade  out  within  a  few  centuries. 
In  the  United  States  the  mulattoes  already  decidedly  outnumber  the 
negroes  of  pure  blood  ;  on  some  of  the  Indian  reservations  scarcely  a 
single  pure-blooded  child  can  be  found  ;  on  many  of  the  Pacific  islands 
a  real  Polynesian  is  rarely  to  be  seen  ;  and  this  process  is  constantly 
extending  through  the  greater  inducements  offered  by  the  males  of  the 
lighter  races  and  the  marked  se.xual  preference  extended  them  by  the 
females  of  darker  hue.  The  highest  race  will,  however,  always  preserve 
the  purity  of  its  blood — not  owing  to  laws  or  outside  pressure,  but  to  the 
abhorrence  of  its  females  to  mingling  with  the  lower  stock,  and  to  the 
independence  which  modern  life  ensures  them  to  follow  their  instincts  in 
this  respect. 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Plate  i. 


I.  Eye  of  a  Japanese;  2.  Eye  of  a  Corean;  3.  Eye  of  a  Chinese;  4.  Eye  of  a  DyaU  (Borneo).  5.  Foot  of  a  Chinese 
woman.  6.  Sections  of  hair  highly  magnifietl  (after  Pruner) :  a.  Japanese  ;  l>.  German  ;  c.  African  negro ;  <t.  Papuan.  7.  J;i\v 
of  La  Naiilelte,  from  the  Ungual  side:  a.  Lingual  depression;  b.  Lingual  prominence;  <-.  Sublingual  depression,  with  llie 
cavity  of  insertion  of  the  genio-glossal  muscle.  8.  a.  Hand,  li.  Foot,  of  Chimpanzee  (after  Vogt) ;  c.  Hand,  <i.  Foot,  of  man. 
9.  Section  of  negro  sUin,  nuich  magnified  (after  KoHiker) :  a.  Dermis,  or  true  skin ;  /),  c.  Rete  mucosum ;  d.  Epidermis,  or 
scarf  skin.  10.  Neolithic  (later  Stone  Age)  implements:  a.  Stone  celt,  or  hatchet;  b.  Flint  spear-head;  c.  Scraper;  d.  Arrow- 
heads ;  e.  Flint  flake-knives ;  /.  Core  from  which  flint  flakes  were  taken  off;  g.  Flint  awl ;  /;.  Flint  saw  ;  /.  Stone  hammer- 
head. II.  Various  forms  of  human  pelvlses  :  a.  Of  a  young  German  woman;  b.  Of  a  Javanese  woman;  c.  Of  a  negress; 
(/.  Of  a  liu.shwonian.     12.  Palxolithic  (curlier  Stone  Age)  flint  picks,  or  hatchets. 


ANTHRUl'ULOGY. 


Plate  2. 


Crania. — l.  Top  view  of:  a.  Negro  skull  (index  70,  dolichocephalic) ;  /'.  European  skull  (index  80,  mesocephalic) ; 
c.  Samoied  skull  (index  85,  lirachyceplialic).  2-4.  Skull  from  the  N'candcrlhal  (near  Diisseldorf,  Prussia).  5.  Sii'e  view  of: 
n.  .'\uslralian  skull  (proijnalhic) ;  /'.  African  skull  (prognathic);  <■.  European  skull  (orthognathic).  6,  7.  Skull  from  Engis 
(Valley  of  the  Meusc,  IStlgium).  8.  Skull  from  Kotzcbue  Sound  (.Alaska),  g.  ISase  of  skull  of  an  old  Roman.  10.  Tar- 
tar skull.  II.  New  Zcal.iud  skull.  12.  .Mcutian  skull.  13.  Caflir  skull.  14,  15.  Calmuck  skull.  16.  West  Australian 
skull,  with  the  outhncs  of  the  Xeandcilhal  skull. 


PART  II. 
ETHNOLOGY 


ETHNOLOGY  proper  is  distinguished  from  Ethnography.      The 
latter    describes    the   customs,    laws,    and    habits   of  nations ;    the 

former  seeks  for  the  conditions  which  give  rise  to  these  habits,  the 
influence  they  exert  on  the  destiny  of  commonwealths,  and  the  principles 
of  life  which  they  illustrate.  Both  of  them  have  to  do  not  with  races, 
but  with  peoples — with  what  the  Greeks  termed  ethne  {sdnTj),  communities 
bound  together  by  some  common  tie  and  separated  from  other  communi- 
ties by  traits  peculiar  to  themselves. 

Determinative  Elements. — It  is  the  aim  of  Ethnography  {iduo<;^  "a 
people,"  ypdfsiu,  "to  describe")  to  depict,  of  Ethnology  to  explain,  the 
physical  conditions,  the  stage  of  culture,  and  the  social  life  of  the  various 
tribes  of  men,  with  the  final  aim  of  interpreting,  by  a  comparison  of  such 
facts,  the  universal  laws  of  progress  of  the  human  species.  Ethnology 
acknowledges  the  inseparable  relations  of  mind  and  body,  and  that  man's 
grandest  discoveries  and  noblest  impulses  are  the  late  fruits  of  a  long 
series  of  humble  strivings.  Therefore,  its  comparisons  begin  with  the 
most  rudimentary  arts  and  with  the  most  prosaic  and  coarsest  needs  of 
life.  On  the  manner  in  which  these  were  satisfied  depended  in  a  great 
measure  the  position  of  the  community  in  the  scale  of  development 
They  are,  to  use  a  technical  form  of  expression,  the  "  detenninative  ele- 
ments ' '  in  the  growth  and  history  of  nations.  The  most  important  of 
these  elements  may  be  classified  as  follows  : 

I.  The  Food-supply  ; 
II.  The  Sexual  Relation  ; 

III.  Language  ; 

IV.  Technology,  or  the  Arts  ; 
V.  Government  and  Laws  ; 

VI.  Religion  ; 
These,  together,  make  up  the  sum  of  human  life  and  human  histor>-. 
We  shall  take  them  up  one  by  one,  and  point  out  how  they  exercise 
their  influence  on  men  and  nations,  and  how  they  have  moulded  commu- 
nities into  what  they  have  been  and  are. 

Some  philosophers  who  have  analyzed  human  motives  have  traced 

57 


58  ETHNOLOGY. 

them  all  to  two  sources,  so  comprehensive  that  they  embrace  the  ultimate 
springs  of  all  conscious  action  whatsoever.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
instinct  of  self-preservation ;  the  second  is  the  instinct  of  reproduction; 
or,  to  express  them  in  the  more  direct  words  of  a  celebrated  writer,  ' '  the 
sense  of  hunger  and  the  passion  of  love ' '  (Turgueneflf).  These,  there- 
fore, as  the  primary  conditions  of  all  life,  whether  individual  or  national, 
present  themselves  as  the  first  two  elements  for  examination  in  ethnic 
conditions.  The  first  concerns  the  food-supply^  the  second  the  sexual 
relation. 

I.  THE  FOOD-SUPPLY. 

InflueJtce  of  Quality  of  Food. — It  has  been  mentioned  on  a  previous 
page  (20)  that  the  structure  of  the  human  teeth  does  not  authorize  the 
statement  that  either  animal  or  vegetable  food  was  ever  man's  exclusive 
or  ' '  natural ' '  diet.  In  his  different  communities  he  is  found  subsisting 
now  on  one,  now  on  the  other,  generally  on  a  mingling  of  both,  as  oppor- 
tunity ofiers.  Climate  and  facility  of  acquisition  usually  determine  his 
fare.  The  majority  of  men  eat  that  which  is  obtained  with  least  cost, 
whether  it  be  of  labor  or  money.  This  is  a  necessity  with  many,  and 
the  preference  of  others.  The  influence  of  climate  in  this  respect  has 
been  exaggerated.  The  raw  flesh  and  fat  in  which  the  Eskimo  delights, 
and  the  boiled  rice  and  ghee  or  melted  butter  which  is  the  favorite  dish 
of  the  Hindoo,  have  not  been  selected  by  these  peoples  on  account  of  their 
greater  adaptability  to  their  respective  climates,  but  because  they  could 
get  nothing  else  so  easily.  So  it  will  be  found  with  most  national 
djshes. 

The  physiological  theor>'  that  the  foods  richer  in  hydrocarbons  are 
unconsciously  selected  by  the  residents  of  cold  climates,  and  those  defi- 
cient in  them  by  the  natives  of  the  tropics,  is  an  error  in  fact.  Most 
tribes  near  the  equator  are  lovers  of  meat,  and  eat  it  whenever  they  can 
procure  it,  even  consuming  it  when  in  a  nauseating  condition  ;  and  recent 
Arctic  explorers  have  reported  that  the  Eskimos  are  quite  as  greedy  of 
canned  vegetables  as  they  have  been  traditionally  of  tallow  candles.  Nor 
is  the  health  of  a  person  in  the  tropics  injured  by  a  moderate  use  of 
animal  food.  On  the  contrary',  the  experience  of  the  English  in  India, 
and  more  recently  of  the  French  in  Panama,  has  demonstrated  that  such 
a  mixed  diet  in  hot  countries  is  a  safeguard  against  the  diseases  of  the 
abdominal  organs  which  are  so  prevalent  in  those  climates. 

The  doctrine,  long  a  favorite  with  physiologists,  that  man  requires  a 
variety  of  food  for  his  physical  well-being,  is  another  which  has  not  stood 
the  test  of  ethnological  research.  The  roving  Indian  of  the  Plains,  who 
lives  exclusively  on  unsalted  meat ;  the  Polynesian,  who  was  accustomed 
for  eight  months  in  the  year  to  make  his  meals  from  bread-fruit ;  the 
Central  American  natives,  whose  bill  of  fare  scarcely  ever  went  beyond 
the  preparations  of  maize  ;  and  the  Scotch  peasant,  who  in  former  times 
tasted  nothing  except  oatmeal  six  days  out  of  seven, — were  all  examples 


ETHNOLOGY.  59 

of  conspicuous  bodily  vigor  nourished  by  almost  a  single  article  of  diet, 
quite  different  in  each  case  ;  and  many  more  such  examples  could  be 
added  to  this  list.  Such  monotony  would,  however,  be  keenly  felt  if 
adopted  by  one  who  had  long  been  used  to  a  diversified  fare.  He  would 
no  doubt  suffer  in  health  and  strength,  but  not  more  so  than  when  those 
who  have  been  wont  to  subsist  on  one  article  change  their  food.  Alex- 
ander von  Humboldt  observed  that  the  South  American  tribes,  wlio  had 
been  accustomed  to  a  very  limited  range  of  articles  of  food,  suffered 
severely  in  health  when  they  removed  to  other  districts  where  these  sub- 
stances could  not  be  obtained.  The  greater  readiness  with  which  resi- 
dents of  the  temperate  zones  adapt  themselves  to  the  extremes  of  climate, 
and  thus  are  qualified  to  become  the  masters  of  the  world,  is  partly  owing 
to  the  changes  of  the  seasons  to  which  they  are  exposed,  forcing  them  to 
vary  their  diet  at  different  periods  of  the  year,  and  thus  to  strengthen 
their  digestive  powers. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  indirectly,  in  this  and  other  ways,  the 
quality  of  the  food  e.xerts  a  perceptible  influence  on  the  physical  cajjaci- 
ties,  and  therefore  to  a  corresponding  extent  on  the  mental  faculties.  But 
its  influence  in  both  these  respects  has  been  greatly  overestimated  by  many 
recent  writers.  The  distinction  between  "brain  food"  and  "body  food" 
has  little  or  no  foundation  in  fact ;  and  the  notion  advocated  by  the  histo- 
rian Buckle  and  his  disciples  that  the  chemical  constituents  of  the  prin- 
cipal food-supplies  of  a  nation  explain  in  a  great  measure  its  condition  of 
culture  and  the  incidents  of  its  history,  is  entirely  beyond  the  guarantees 
of  sober  science. 

Influence  of  Qiianlity  of  Food.  — The  same,  however,  cannot  be  said 
of  the  quantity  of  food.  It  must  be  maintained  without  reservation  that 
an  abundant  suppl}',  a  quantity  even  more  than  barely  sufficient,  a  slight 
excess,  is  essential  to  the  fullest  development  of  the  human  powers,  be 
they  physical  or  mental.  The  belief  that  muscular  strength  and  endur- 
ance, or  intellectual  clearness  and  grasp,  are  improved  by  persistently 
denying  the  appetite  and  affording  the  body  a  continuous  under-supply 
of  nourishment,  is  a  serious  error,  however  much  it  has  been  endorsed  by 
philosophers,  theologians,  and  athletic  trainers.  Ethnology  can  trace  the 
physical  and  mental  decay  of  whole  nations  to  a  long  course  of  insufficient 
food.  The  Bushmen  of  South  Africa  have  already  been  quoted  as  an 
example  of  the  most  stunted  and  inferior  representatives  of  the  human 
race  ;  but  let  it  be  added  that  this  is  true  only  of  those  who  have  for 
generations  lived  in  a  condition  of  semi-starvation  in  the  unproductive 
wilds  of  the  Kalahari  Desert ;  while  others  of  the  same  stock,  whom 
Livingstone  met  in  the  fertile  districts  south  of  the  Ngami  Lake,  were 
quite  up  to  the  average  stature,  finely  proportioned,  and  nowise  deficient 
in  intelligence.  The  Australians  in  the  well-stocked  liuntiufr-oTounds  in 
the  east  of  that  continent  are  a  type  very  superior  to  the  wretched  speci- 
mens who  eke  out  a  half-famished  existence  in  the  inhospitable  bush  of 
the  west  coast.     The  miserable  Fuegians,  who  are  described  b)-  Darwiu 


6o  ETHNOLOGY. 

as  on  tlie  lowest  plane  of  the  species,  deriving  a  precarious  subsistence  by 
picking  lip  the  shellfish  and  seaweeds  of  their  rocky  shores,  are  a  branch 
of  the  same  parent  tree  which  in  the  rich  forest-lands  of  Chili  produced 
the  bold  Araucanians,  who  for  centuries  have  held  their  own  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  white  man,  and  won  his  respect  by  their  martial 
prowess  and  mental  aptitude. 

Similar  examples  are  common  throughout  historj^  and  all  over  the 
world.  They  teach  that  it  is  not  the  quality  of  food — provided  that  it 
contains  the  elements  of  nutrition — nor  yet  the  monotony  or  diversity  of 
diet,  but  almost  exclusively  its  quantit)-,  that  exerts  an  influence  on  the 
abilities  and  historic  importance  of  a  nation  when  studied  simply  as  a 
question  in  physiology. 

Sources  of  the  Food-Supply. — But  the  food-supply  has  other  very 
important  bearings  besides  the  merely  physiological  one.  Nothing  has 
more  visibly  influenced  the  progress  of  culture  than  the  various  methods 
resorted  to  for  procuring,  preserving,  and  preparing  food  ;  and  to  these 
points,  therefore,  we  must  devote  careful  consideration  in  reflecting  on 
the  principles  of  Ethnolog}'. 

All  communities  obtain  their  food  either  (i)  from  natural  products,  (2) 
from  cultivated  products,  or  (3)  by  exchange  and  commerce,  or  by  a  com- 
bination of  these  methods.  In  proportion  as  one  or  the  other  prevails  or 
becomes  the  sole  method,  all  the  other  characteristics  of  the  community 
become  altered  to  correspond  to  this  primal  condition  of  existence.  We 
will  examine  each  of  them  separately. 

I.  From  Natural  Products. 

The  earlier  and  the  ruder  tribes  have  always  contented  themselves 
with  such  food  as  the  vegetable  and  animal  world  supplied  them  ready 
to  their  hands.  The  fruits  of  the  forest  and  the  denizens  of  the  streams 
and  woods  sufficed  for  their  wants.  Wherever  this  condition  pre^•ails  it 
is  impossible  for  communities  to  be  large  in  size  or  to  have  permanent 
abodes,  for  the  favored  spots  where  Nature  is  lavish  enough  with  her  gifts 
to  support  a  large  population  at  all  periods  of  the  year  are  too  few,  if 
indeed  they  anywhere  exist,  to  be  other  than  rare  exceptions.  Hence,  no 
mere  hunting  tribe  or  race  of  fishermen  has  ever  founded  durable  states 
or  effected  permanent  and  extended  settlements.  They  are  too  unstable 
to  allow  of  the  concentration  of  power,  and  they  are  found  split  up  into 
a  number  of  small  septs  in  a  condition  of  constant  war  with  each  other, 
the  usual  grievance  being  the  encroachment  on  each  other's  rights  to  the 
possession  of  food-localities. 

Although  the  guiding  principle  of  all  the  extensive  and  lasting  migra- 
tions of  the  human  race  is  the  food-supply,  this  is  especially  obvious 
where  this  supply  is  limited  to  the  spontaneous  products  of  nature.  The 
earliest  inhabitants  of  a  district  invariably  confined  themselves  to  that 
portion  of  it  where  their  wants  could  be  most  easily  supplied.  When 
the  population  had  so  increased  that  these  wants  were  in  excess  of  the 


ETHNOLOGY.  6i 

supph',  a  portion  of  the  inhabitants  moved  elsewhere,  seeking  those  spots 
where  food  could  be  obtained  with  the  niininium  of  exertion.  Only  when 
the  localities  abounding  in  fruits,  game,  or  fish  were  forcibly  closed  to 
them  by  stronger  hands  did  they  content  themselves  with  the  insufficient 
nourishment  afforded  by  the  desert  and  the  tundra.  Thus,  the  investiga- 
tions of  Nordenskjold  have  shown  the  Tchuktcliis  of  the  northern  shores 
of  Siberia  to  be  a  conglomerate  of  ethnic  fragments  driven  into  those 
inhospitable  regions  by  the  pressure  of  mightier  nations,  who  dispossessed 
them  of  the  more  genial  hunting-grounds  to  the  south  which  they  for- 
merly controlled.  Such  is  the  history  of  all  tribes  dwelling  in  deserts  and 
infertile  tracts. 

The  long-received  opinion  that  the  race  scattered  from  some  centre 
over  the  earth's  surface  impelled  by  a  desire  of  novelty  or  conquest,  and 
in  accordance  with  definite  plans,  is  now  out  of  date.  The  savage  man 
has  no  ambition  and  no  curiosity,  and  lays  no  plans  beyond  satisfying  the 
immediate  needs  of  his  body. 

Hunting  Weapons. — It  has  been  estimated  that  in  the  temperate  zone 
it  requires  on  the  average  sixteen  square  miles  to  support  one  individual 
by  natural  products  alone.  Although  any  such  calculation  can  only  be  a 
loose  approximation,  this  will  indicate  that  even  in  comparatively  favored 
regions  the  struggle  for  subsistence  is  to  the  savage  a  severe  one.  Hence 
he  was  stimulated  by  the  most  urgent  of  needs  to  develop  those  arts  which 
would  facilitate  him  in  obtaining  his  food — those  relating  to  hunting  and 
fishing.  We  may  suppose  that  at  first  a  club  and  a  stone  were  his  only 
hunting  weapons,  but  he  soon  acquired  more  effective  means  of  securing 
his  prey.  He  leanied  to  sharpen  a  stone  and  affix  it  to  the  end  of  a  stick, 
thus  forming  a  spear  or  javelin  to  throw,  or  with  which  to  thrust.  Nor 
was  it  long  before  he  discovered  that  he  could  greatly  increase  the  force 
of  his  dart  by  using  a  hurling-stick,  as  was  seen  among  the  natives  of 
Central  America  and  elsewhere,  or  by  projecting  it  from  a  piece  of  wood 
bent  by  the  sinew  of  an  animal — the  first  bow  and  arrow.  This  import- 
•  ant  invention  was  made  extremely  early  in  the  life  of  the  race,  in  times 
long  anterior  to  the  beginning  of  histor}-,  and  was  so  widely  known  that 
but  few  tribes  have  been  discovered  entirely  ignorant  of  it.  Until  the 
discovery  of  gunpowder  and  firearms  in  modern  times  nothing  was  devised 
to  surpass  it  as  an  effective  aid  either  in  assaults  on  wild  beasts  or  in  the 
conflicts  of  men. 

By  some  tribes  the  primitive  club  was  ingeniously  bent  into  the  boom- 
erang, a  weapon  capable  of  describing  such  a  curve  that  it  will  return  to 
the  hands  of  a  skilful  thrower  after  it  has  hit  its  object.  Instead  of  throw- 
ing a  stone  from  the  hand,  it  was  observed  that  much  greater  force 
could  be  obtained  by  projecting  it  from  a  strip  of  skin,  and  thus  the  sling 
came  into  use — a  device  independently  originated  in  many  nations  in  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds.  In  different  portions  of  the  tropics,  where  the 
growth  of  long,  straight  hollow  reeds  offered  the  necessary  material,  as 
among  the  Malays  of  Melanesia,  the  tribes  of  the  Upper  Amazon,  and 


62  ETHNOLOGY. 

those  of  Central  America,  the  blow-tube  or  popgun  was  developed  into  a 
formidable  weapon  which  could  hurl  its  poisoned  darts  with  deadly  effect 
to  man  or  beast. 

Traps  and  Calls. — These  and  other  similar  inventions  were  originally 
devised  as  aids  in  hunting.  But  that  pursuit  educated  man  in  many  other 
directions.  He  pitted  his  ingenuit}'  in  a  variety  of  ways  against  the  wary 
senses  and  suspicious  nature  of  the  beasts  of  the  forest.  He  sought  to 
overcome  them  not  merely  b)'  force,  but  by  stratagem.  He  devised  traps 
and  snares  of  many  kinds,  ever  seeking  some  novel  deception  as  the  game 
he  was  after  had  become  too  subtle  for  his  older  wiles.  One  of  the  earliest 
of  these  must  have  been  the  pitfall.  We  can  imagine  no  other  device  by 
which  the  ancient  Cave-dwellers  of  Belgium  could  have  overcome  those 
powerful  Carnivora,  the  cave  bear  and  the  sabre-toothed  tiger,  more  for- 
midable than  an\'  now  on  earth.  That  they  did  so,  and  frequently,  the 
numerous  bones  of  these  animals  in  the  caverns,  cracked  for  their  marrow, 
leave  no  room  for  doubt.  Ingenious  instruments  for  imitating  the  calls 
of  animals  and  birds,  and  thus  attracting  them  within  the  range  of  the 
hunter's  weapons,  are  in  use  among  all  rude  tribes. 

Man}'  travellers  have  recorded  the  surprising  education  of  iJie  senses 
which  the  hunting  life  brings  about.  The  native  eye  can  often  detect 
the  species,  age,  and  size  of  an  animal  from  a  few  tracks  and  signs  hardly 
perceptible  and  absolutely  meaningless  to  the  civilized  senses.  The  pur- 
suit of  wild  food  was  also  the  cause  of  training  certain  animals  to  assist 
in  the  chase — notably  the  dog,  the  hunting-hawk,  and  fishing-heron,  and 
perhaps  the  cat. 

Wherever  fish  abounded  it  formed  an  important  article  of  the  food  of 
primitive  nations.  Indeed,  some  ethnologists,  as  Mr.  Lewis  H.  Morgan,' 
have  maintained  that  this  was  the  main,  and  often  the  exclusive,  diet  of 
pre-historic  nations.  Along  some  watercourses  fish  are  so  plentiful  that 
it  requires  no  address  to  catch  them,  but  usually  some  mechanical  device 
is  essential.  Hence  in  all  countries  and  from  the  earliest  times  nets, 
weirs,  and  dams  have  been  familiar  to  the  fisherfolk.  Spears  and  gigs 
belong  also  to  the  arts  of  the  simplest  tribes.  Even  the  Australians  and 
various  American  tribes  were  familiar  with  the  fish-hook,  manufacturing 
it  out  of  the  claw  of  a  bird  or  the  crooked  bone  of  a  fish.  The  primewal 
Lake-dwellers  of  Switzerland  and  the  anglers  of  ancient  Eg>'pt  used  a 
barbed  bronze  hook  not  unlike  that  which  is  still  in  vogue  among  our- 
selves. 

Both  in  hunting  and  fishing  it  was  comm.on  for  a  large  number  of 
persons  to  unite  their  efforts  in  carrying  out  a  general  battue  or  in  driving 
fish  up  a  stream  or  into  a  dam.  In  this  manner  men  were  taught  the 
advantages  of  association  for  a  common  end  and  the  wisdom  of  carrying 
out  matured  plans.  Travellers  also  state  that  such  nations  are  usually 
quite  jealous  about  their  rights  over  their  fishing-  and  hunting-grounds, 
thus  showing  that  their  mode  of  subsistence  had  developed  their  ideas  of 
property  rights  and  of  geographical  relations. 


ETHNOLOGY.  6^ 

From  this  survey  it  is  quite  apparent  that  although  the  dependence  on 
natural  products  for  food  had  certain  grave  disadvantages,  it  was  by  no 
means  deficient  in  stimuli  urging  man  to  the  acquisition  of  new  powers. 

Anthropophagy. — An  exception  to  this  should  probably  be  entered 
with  regard  to  anthropophagy.  There  is  no  doubt  that  cannibalism  pre- 
vailed extensively  down  to  a  quite  recent  epoch.  The  loathing  which 
it  inspires  is  not  ancient  nor  was  it  widespread.  The  ancestors  of  the 
nations  of  Europe  were  cannibals  at  no  ver)'  remote  epoch,  as  the  remains 
in  the  barrows  of  Germany  testify,  as  do  also  the  early  traditions  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  Throughout  America  it  was  met  with  constantly 
in  one  fonn  or  another,  reaching  its  acme  among  the  Caribs,  who  smoked 
and  dried  the  arms  and  legs  of  their  enemies  for  provisions  on  their  voj'- 
ages.  It  is  still  carried  on  to  a  hideous  extent  in  some  parts  of  Africa, 
even  the  bodies  of  those  dying  of  sickness  being  consumed  ;  while  the 
Malay  race,  as  the  Feejeeans  and  New  Zealanders,  were  long  notorious  as 
the  most  familiar  examples  of  man-eaters. 

This  custom,  so  rejDugnant  to  the  feelings  of  modern  life,  is  not  neces- 
sarily associated  with  a  condition  of  extreme  debasement.  The  Aztecs 
fattened  and  ate  prisoners  in  great  numbers,  and  went  to  war  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  capturing  this  kind  of  game,  but  they  ranked  in  culture  among 
the  highest  of  the  native  Americans.  The  Maoris  of  New  Zealand  were 
among  the  finest  specimens  of  the  Polynesian  race.  The  Dyaks  of 
Borneo  are  described  as  a  noble-hearted,  hospitable,  and  intelligent  peo- 
ple ;  they  are  qiiite  literary',  all  of  them  knowing  how  to  read  and  write, 
and  treasuring  their  books  among  their  most  prized  articles  ;  yet  they  are 
cannibals  of  the  most  pronounced  type,  not  only  eating  their  captives 
taken  in  war  and  the  criminals  who  are  condemned  to  death  by  their 
laws,  but  even  killing  and  eating  their  own  relatives  when  they  fall  sick 
or  grow  old.  It  is  a  matter  of  histor\'  that  about  the  eleventh  century 
the  taste  for  human  flesh  had  gradually  increased  to  such  an  extent  in 
Egypt  that  it  was  sold  openly  in  the  cities,  and  the  traflic  could  only  be 
broken  up  by  the  most  stringent  measures.  This  seen:s  to  bear  out  the 
popular  belief  that  a  taste  for  this  food,  once  acquired,  becomes  an  over- 
mastering appetite. 

National  culture  takes  a  long  stride  in  advance  when  the  food-supply 
is  drawn  no  longer  from  the  sparse  and  uncertain  resources  of  the  forests, 
but  is  secured, 

2.  From  Cultivated  Products. 

These  may  be  derived  from  either  the  animal  or  vegetable  world. 
The  latter  gives  rise  to  agriculture,  the  former  to  the  breeding  of 
domestic  animals. 

Agriciilliirc.—h.w.  ethnologist  of  ability,  ]\Ir.  Charles  Pickering,  has 
maintained  that  the  history  of  the  progress  of  mankind  can  be  distinctly 
traced  by  the  extension  of  the  areas  of  cultivated  plants  ;  and  the  learned 
work  which  he  published  to  support  this  opinion  presents  an  astonishing 


64  ETHNOLOGY. 

mass  of  testimony  to  the  influence  which  a  knowledge  of  such  plants  has 
exerted. 

Age  and  Disii-ibution  of  Food-Plants. — The  beginnings  of  agriculture 
are  lost  in  antiquity.  Of  many  of  the  plants  cultivated  for  food  we 
know  neither  the  original  habitat  nor  the  wild  form.  Rice,  for  example, 
was,  .according  to  the  annals  of  the  Chinese,  extensively  cultivated  by 
them  two  thousand  eight  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era  ;  barley 
was  familiar  to  the  Egyptians  before  the  earliest  recorded  dynasties  ;  rye 
was  sowed  and  reaped  during  the  remotest  epochs  of  the  Age  of  Bronze 
in  Europe.  These  grains  must  have  been  cultivated  food-plants  long 
before  the  earliest  of  these  dates,  as  they  had  already  been  trained  to  a 
character  quite  different  from  that  natural  to  them,  and  had  been  carried 
long  distances  from  their  native  homes.  So  in  America  the  Zca  Mays 
was  found  by  the  first  explorers  from  lat.  45°  N.  to  lat.  45°  S.,  }-et  the 
only  plant  from  which  it  could  have  been  derived  by  cultivation  is  a 
native  of  Guatemala. 

Certain  food-plants  have  so  long  been  propagated  in  an  artificial  man- 
ner that  they  have  lost  all  power  of  independent  reproduction,  their  seeds 
having  disappeared  or  changed  into  fleshy  fibres.  This  is  the  case  with 
most  varieties  of  bananas  and  with  l\\&  Jatropha  Matiilwt^  which  furnishes 
the  cassava  bread.  They  must  be  propagated  by  cuttings,  having  no 
lono-er  the  power  of  developing  seeds.  This  is  almost  the  case  with  the 
date-palm  of  the  Sahara  Desert ;  it  has  still  the  capacity  to  produce  seeds, 
but  has  lost  that  of  sexual  union,  and  to  assure  a  crop  the  male  and  female 
flowers  have  to  be  brought  together  by  human  agency. 

Such  facts  as  these  testify  to  the  great  antiquity  of  the  agricultural 
arts.  They  are  also  more  widely  distributed  than  many  have  supposed. 
It  is  rare  to  learn  of  any  tribe  wholly  without  some  cultivated  plant. 
Most  of  the  so-called  hunting  tribes  of  America  were  agricultural  to  a 
limited  degree,  maize,  beans,  and  pumpkins  being  known  widely  over 
the  continent. 

Agricultural  Arts. — The  pursuit  of  agriculture  even  in  the  most  sim- 
ple manner  involves  a  variety  of  minor  arts.  Implements  must  be 
invented  for  clearing  the  field,  for  turning  up  the  soil,  for  weeding,  for 
cutting  the  stalk,  curing  the  grain,  and  for  grinding  or  otherAvise  pre- 
paring it  for  use.  Something  equivalent  to  the  hoe  occurs  far  back  in 
the  Stone  Age.  Broad  and  well-chipped  hoe-blades,  intended  to  be 
fastened  to  wooden  handles,  were  in  use  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  many 
ages  ago.  The  brush  was  frequently  burned  from  the  ground  and  the 
soil  scratched  by  means  of  a  wooden  stick.  A  crooked  branch  of  a  tree 
was  no  doubt  the  primiti\'e  form  of  a  plough.  Dragged  at  first  b}-  a  man 
or  two,  the  fanner  soon  learned  to  utilize  for  this  purpose  the  greater 
strength  of  the  horse  or  the  ox  where  these  animals  were  known.  Wher- 
ever the  cereals  were  cultivated  the  sickle,  the  flail,  and  the  corn-mill 
were  soon  invented  for  the  preparation  of  the  grain.  Corn-crushers  of 
stone  are  among  the  most  numerous  relics  of  the  Neolithic  Age,  and 


ETHNOLOGY.  65 

large  stone  mortars,  in  wliicli  the  grain  was  reduced  to  coarse  meal,  are 
seen  in  most  cabinets.  The  application  of  water-power  to  niachiner)-  was 
probably  first  devised  to  lighten  the  labor  of  grinding  corn,  and  was  grad- 
ually improved  and  extended  to  other  purposes. 

Domesticated  Ani)iials. — Many  tribes  draw  their  food-supply  chiefly 
from  domestic  animals,  some  being  nomadic  herdsmen  wandering  from 
pasture  to  pasture,  like  the  Tartar  hordes  of  the  Oriental  steppes,  others 
remaining  stationary  and  storing  up  the  food  for  their  animals  against  the 
cold  or  dry  seasons.  We  can  easily  overlook,  in  the  midst  of  our  varied 
food-supply,  the  enormous  importance  of  his  flocks  and  herds  to  the  early 
man.  But  if  we  turn  to  the  pages  of  the  Zend  Avesta  or  to  the  songs  of 
the  Rig  Veda,  we  appreciate  how  all-absorbing  to  those  primitive  herds- 
men was  the  care  of  their  cows.  The  gods  were  likened  to  them,  and  in 
Egypt,  India,  and  elsewhere  the  animals  themsel"\-es  were  deemed  divine. 
They  constituted  the  principal  form  of  personal  riches,  and  the  Latin 
word  for  money,  peeiinia,  ren:iains  to  testify  that  they  were  the  measure 
of  value  of  possessions  of  all  kinds.  In  the  Veda  "the  cowherd"  is  a 
royal  title. 

Cattle,  horses,  dogs,  goats,  and  sheep  were  tamed  in  Europe  and  Asia 
at  a  period  too  distant  for  calculation.  In  what  is  known  as  the  Age  of 
Solutre  in  France,  remote  in  the  Quaternary  epoch,  the  remains  of  horses 
are  exceedingly  numerous,  the  bones  of  at  least  twenty  thousand  having 
been  discovered  at  the  station  of  that  name,  all  of  whom  had  been  arti- 
ficially dismembered  and  evidently  slain  for  food.  This  has  led  archreolo- 
gists  to  the  belief  that  they  were  tamed  at  that  time.  The  kitchen-mid- 
dens of  Denmark  disclose  the  remains  of  no  domestic  animals  but  dogs. 
The  old  coast-dwellers  probably  raised  them  for  the  purpose  of  eating  rather 
than  hunting,  as  did  the  American  Indians.  But  the  relics  of  the  pile 
dwellings  on  the  Swiss  lakes  and  on  the  plains  of  the  river  Po  contain 
abundant  bones  of  all  the  other  species  of  the  above-named  animals. 

Swine  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Avesta  or  the  Vedas  ;  therefore  it  is 
not  likely  that  they  were  familiar  to  the  Aryans  of  the  earliest  times;  but 
in  the  Homeric  poems  they  are  freqiiently  referred  to;  in  Egj'pt  thej'  were 
tamed  in  the  first  dynasties  ;  and  the  Mosaic  prohibition  in  reference  to 
their  flesh  indicates  that  they  had  at  that  date  long  been  an  article  of  food 
in  common  use.  They  constituted  the  main  flesh-diet  of  ancient  Italy, 
and  in  different  varieties  have  been  and  are  extensively  bred  by  the  Mon- 
golian and  Malayan  nations. 

Bees  and  fowls  are  of  much  later  introduction.  The  honey  with  which 
the  old  Gei^nans  fermented  their  mead  was  collected  from  wild  swarms  ; 
but  the  natives  of  Yucatan  had  learned  to  gather  the  swarms  at  the  proper 
time  and  place  them  in  hives.  Tlie  honey  and  the  wax  from  these  domesti- 
cated bees  were  among  tlie  leading  articles  of  commerce  of  these  nations. 

Influence  of  Agricttlliire. — The  influence  which  the  cultivation  of 
products  for  food  exerted  on  the  national  life  was  most  profound.  Except 
among  the  nomads  of  the  Steppes,  it  promoted  a  settled  disposition,  the 

Vol.  I.— 5 


66  ETHNOLOGY. 

permanence  of  houses,  the  habits  of  regulated  labor  and  of  foresight,  and 
the  preference  of  peace  to  war,  government  to  anarchy.  By  removing 
man  from  the  necessities  of  the  constant  conflict  of  the  chase  and  its  pre- 
carious results,  he  was  led  to  rely  on  the  fixed  order  of  nature,  to  take 
advantage  of  it,  and  to  note  seasons  and  their  changes.  It  allowed  the 
congregation  of  large  communities,  and  ensured  the  leisure  which  was 
necessary  to  higher  intellectual  cultivation. 

The  tenure  of  arable  land  led  to  methods  for  its  mensuration  and 
regulations  for  its  ownership  and  transmission.  Undoubtedly,  the  first 
problems  of  geometry  were  solved  for  the  piirpose  of  guarding  the  rights 
of  cultivators.  The  period  when  each  adult,  or  perhaps  only  each 
woman,  was  obliged  to  labor  in  the  fields  soon  passed,  and  captives  were 
employed  as  field-hands  or  persons  for  hire.  In  IMexico  and  Central 
America  many  who  reaped  the  benefit  of  their  agriculture  operated 
entirely  through  gangs  of  slaves  and  hired  laborers.  The  patriarchal 
habits  recorded  in  the  Pentateuch  and  the  pictures  on  Egyptian  tombs 
prove  that  four  or  five  thousand  years  ago  the  gradation  of  classes  was 
firmly  established  in  agTicultural  communities. 

No  doubt  at  first  only  the  most  fertile  spots  were  selected  for  cultiva- 
tion, and  others  chosen  when  these  showed  signs  of  exhaustion,  as  is  still 
the  case  with  the  improvident  farmers  of  new  countries.  But  the  advan- 
tages of  fertilizing  and  dampening  the  soil  from  time  to  time  were  not 
long  in  receiving  recognition.  The  enonnous  works  constructed  for  irri- 
gation in  ver}'  ancient  times  in  the  valleys  of  the  Nile  and  Euphrates  and 
by  the  Incas  of  Peru  have  no  equals  in  modern  times.  They  testify  an 
appreciation  of  agricultural  interests,  and  an  intelligence  in  fostering 
them,  wliich  we  are  unaccustomed  to  witness  in  governments  now-a- 
days. 

The  third  method  of  obtaining  the  food-supply  we  have  stated  to  be, 

3.  By  Exchange  and  Commerce. 

Long  before  the  time  when  Jacob  sent  his  sons  into  Eg^'pt  to  bu}'  corn 
the  purchase  and  sale  of  food  had  been  a  recognized  branch  of  human 
industn,-.  It  required  no  protracted  observation  to  discover  that  the  hun- 
gn,'  man  or  community  will  part  with  his  or  their  choicest  treasures  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  the  appetite. 

Arts  Necessary  to  Commerce. — To  carr}'  out  this  industry  many  arts 
must  be  developed.  Not  only  a  surplus  of  food  must  be  raised,  but  it 
must  be  preser\-ed  from  decay,  means  of  storing  it  must  be  devised,  and 
its  transportation  to  a  considerable  distance  must  be  provided  for.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  purchasers  must  be  prepared  with  desirable  objects  to 
offer  in  exchange  for  food.  Residents  in  infertile  districts  are  forced  to 
develop  what  resources  they  have,  to  delve  valued  metals  or  stones  from 
the  mountains,  to  collect  shells  and  amber  from  the  seashore,  or  to  create 
manufactures  which  will  enable  them  to  obtain  by  exchange  the  suste- 
nance which  their  own  acreage  refuses  them. 


ETHNOLOGY.  67 

Influence  on  Social  Life. — A  developed  and  permanent  system  of  pro- 
curing food  b}'  exchange  permits  men  to  gather  together  by  millioi:s  in 
great  cities,  where  all  are  dependent  on  the  distant  agricnltnrist,  thou- 
sands of  miles  away  perhaps,  for  their  daily  bread.  Vast  masses  of  men 
are  born  and  die  in  such  centres  who  would  not  know  a  field  of  wheat 
were  thej'  to  see  it.  But  their  time  is  employed  not  less  usefully  than  that 
of  the  farmer,  following  as  they  do  one  or  another  of  those  multifarious 
vocations  demanded  by  the  complicated  existence  of  modern  society. 
The  great  standing  armies  of  modern  times  have  only  been  possible  by 
the  increased  facilities  of  transporting  food — a  relation  well  understood 
by  the  military  sagacity  of  the  ancient  Romans,  who  extended  their 
admirable  system  of  road-making  to  the  farthest  limits  of  the  empire. 
The  impetus  given  to  the  growth  of  cities  in  the  present  century  is 
directly  attributable  to  the  successful  application  of  steam  to  the  trans- 
portation of  food.  When  in  New  York  fresh  beef  is  sold  which  was 
slaughtered  a  thousand  miles  away,  the  food-supply  seems  to  have 
reached  a  maximum  of  perfection. 

The  ordinary'  dinner-table  offers  articles  of  food  from  every  zone  and 
all  continents,  the  cultivation,  preparation,  and  transportation  of  which 
have  required  the  development  of  an  extraordinary  number  of  arts, 
sciences,  and  mechanical  inventions,  the  underlying  stimulus  of  all 
being  to  satisfy  the  appetite. 

This  system  of  obtaining  food  has  worked  a  most  desirable  improve- 
ment in  human  history  in  one  direction  ;  and  that  is,  in  checking  the 
appearance  of  those  destructive  famines  which  in  former  ages  periodically 
scourged  the  world.  At  j^rcsent  no  such  widespread  misery  could  occur, 
as  in  all  years  the  average  crop  of  the  world  will  support  its  population, 
and  the  present  facilities  for  its  distribution  would  permit  no  permanent 
want  to  continue. 

4.  Stimulants  and  Narcotics. 

The  mere  gratification  of  their  physical  wants  by  food  and  drink  has 
never  satisfied  the  appetites  of  men.  They  have  unceasingly  sought  some 
substance  which  would  act  more  directly  on  the  nervous  system,  exciting 
its  sensory  powers  or  modifying  the  brain  action  ;  and  in  spite  of  the  many 
and  grievous  injuries  which  this  yearning  has  entailed  upon  mankind 
at  various  times,  it  has  also  been  a  most  potent  incentive  to  productive 
exertion. 

Both  the  animal  and  vegetable  worlds  supply  such  nervines.  From 
the  milk  of  his  mares  the  Tartar  prepares  his  mildl)-  intoxicating  koumiss, 
and  from  the  honey  of  his  bees  the  Teuton  warrior  obtained  the  foaming 
mead  wherewith  to  fill  his  horn  ;  the  ' '  barley  brew ' '  was  famous  in 
ancient  Eg>'pt ;  the  pulque,  from  the  fermented  juice  of  the  aloe,  was 
only  too  popular  among  the  Mexicans  long  before  Columbus  ;  palm  wine 
is  the  beverage  of  Central  Africa  ;  beers  from  millet,  rj-e,  rice,  and  other 
grains  where  these  are  raised  ;  and  cider  and  perry  from  apples  and  pears. 


68  ETHNOLOGY. 

Tlie  fniit  of  the  vine  has  yielded  its  ruddy  liquor  to  man  in  Eastern  Asia 
from  ages  long  before  the  beginning  of  history.  Those  nations  who  had 
discovered  no  alcoholic  beverage  sought  nervines  from  other  chemical 
series.  The  Kamchatkan  steeps  a  poisonous  fungus  in  water,  a  draught 
which  drives  him  into  frenzy  and  unconsciousness  ;  the  Creek  Indians 
collected  the  emetic  and  drastic  roots  of  the  cassine  or  blue  flag  and  by 
violent  vomiting  and  purging  produced  a  hebetude  of  the  intellect ;  the 
California  tribes  had  discovered  how  to  disorder  their  brains  with  the 
chucuaco  ;  while  tea  from  China,  coffee  from  Arabia,  coca  from  Brazil, 
opium  from  India,  and  tobacco  from  America  have  made  the  conquest  of 
the  world.  The  distillation  of  alcohol  merely  flavored  with  the  organic 
elements  of  plants  led  to  the  wholesale  introduction  of  the  numerous 
"spirits"  which  now  exert  such  a  disastrous  effect  on  the  lives  of  millions 
of  the  highest  races. 

Apart  from  such  examples  of  notorious  abuse  of  these  accessories  to 
food,  physicians  are  not  of  one  mind  as  to  their  effect  on  the  race  at 
large,  although  it  is  one  of  the  most  vital  questions  of  modem  life.  The 
absolute  prohibition  of  alcoholic  drinks  by  the  great  religions  Brahmanism, 
Buddhism,  and  Mohammedanism  has  driven  their  votaries  to  indulgence 
in  hasheesh,  opium,  and  tea,  nor  has  it  elevated  them  to  an  equality  with 
the  adherents  of  Christianity,  which  teaches  temperance  in  all  things,  but 
not  abstinence  from  anything.  The  theory  that  wine,  tea,  or  coffee  by 
stimulating  the  brain-power  has  assisted  the  forces  of  modern  civilization 
has  no  serious  arguments  in  its  favor  ;  indeed,  more  can  be  said  for  the 
reverse  opinion,  that  the  extended  introduction  of  tobacco  during  the  last 
three  centuries  has  deteriorated  the  nervous  systems,  aggressive  powers, 
and  vital  energy  of  the  nations  most  addicted  to  it,  as  the  Spanish  Amer- 
icans and  the  Hollanders. 

So  strong,  however,  has  been  the  attraction  of  these  articles  to  the  race 
that  their  cultivation,  preparation,  and  sale  have  been  among  the  most 
urgent  motives  of  agriculture,  arts,  and  traffic.  Tobacco  was  known  among 
the  American  Indians  from  Chili  to  Canada.  It  was  a  favorite  object  of 
barter.  The  pipes  in  which  to  smoke  it  were  elaborately  carved,  and 
evidently  prized  as  treasured  possessions,  among  the  mysterious  Mound- 
builders  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  history  of  wine,  its  manufacture  and 
sale,  the  planting  of  vineyards,  the  introduction  of  the  grape  in  other 
lands, — all  this,  if  fully  set  forth,  would  be  a  picture  in  little  of  the  course 
of  Ar\-an  civilization.  The  culture  of  coffee  has  led  to  the  reclaiming 
of  millions  of  acres  that  would  otherwise  still  be  covered  with  tropical 
forests. 

5.  The  Preparation  of  Food. 

Many  of  the  natural  products  used  as  foods  are  not  found  in  the  pre- 
cise condition  in  which  they  can  be  eaten.  A  striking  example  of  this  is 
the  cassava,  ManiJiot  ntiHssiiua,  which  furnishes  the  staple  article  of  diet 
for  many  South  American  tribes.     As  the  roots  are  dug  up  in  the  woods 


ETHNOLOGY.  69 

they  are  so  far  from  edible  that  it  is  a  wonder  how  these  wild  people  ever 
discovered  the  tedious  process  by  which  they  become  so.  The  root  must 
first  be  peeled,  then  grated,  and  then  hung  up  in  nets  to  allow  the  poison- 
ous juice  which  it  contains  to  drain  off.  The  product  is  then  dried, 
beaten,  and  sifted  to  the  condition  of  a  coarse  meal,  which  is  cooked  in 
thin  cakes.  The  time  of  the  women  is  principalh'  occupied  in  this  toil- 
some drudgery. 

The  agent  which  man  has  most  constantly  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  his  food  is  fire.  He  is  essentially  a  cooking  animal.  When  he  dis- 
covered this  serviceable  element  is  unknown.  No  tribe  has  ever  been 
found  ignorant  of  it.  Probably  it  was  one  of  his  very  earliest  acquisitions. 
In  the  bone-caves  of  Belgium,  in  the  river-drift  of  France  in  strata  dating 
from  the  period  when  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros  made  that  land  their 
home,  are  found  fire-cracked  flints  and  charcoal  from  the  primitive  hearths 
(Mortillet).  The  wide  diffusion  of  fire  shows  that  it  was  not  so  much  prized 
for  its  warmth  as  for  other  us^s.  Most  savage  races  are  little  sensible  to 
cold,  and  in  the  tropics  its  importance  in  this  respect  was  slight.  Its  chief 
purposes  were  to  give  light  and  to  cook  food.  An  aversion  to  raw  flesh  is 
common  among  the  rudest  people.  The  Australians,  who  are  often  quoted 
as  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale,  prefer  to  cook  the  worms  and  reptiles  they 
are  willing  to  eat.  The  wild  hunting  tribes  of  Eastern  Canada  distin- 
guished the  shore-dwellers  as  Eskimos,  which  means  "raw-fish  eaters" — 
a  term  of  opprobrium  because  they  did  not  cook  the  fish  they  caught.  All 
the  cultivated  cereals  require  the  use  of  fire  in  their  preparation,  and  many 
of  the  roots,  leaves,  and  fruits  of  the  forest  first  become  nutritious  to  man 
when  they  have  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  this  element. 

Roasting  over  the  fire  and  bur)ing  in  hot  ashes  are  the  simplest  forms 
of  cooker}',  and  doubtless  were  the  earliest.  Seething  in  heated  water 
could  only  be  accomplished  when  appropriate  vessels  were  at  hand. 
These  might  be  made  of  wood  or  fine  network  of  grass,  as  is  seen  among 
the  Indians  of  the  Plains,  the  water  being  heated  by  dropping  in  hot 
stones.  Vessels  could  be  chipped  out  of  soft  stones,  as  the  soapstone  pots 
of  California  and  elsewhere  ;  and  that  a  main  incentive  to  the  discovery 
and  improvement  of  potter>'  was  a  desire  for  more  serviceable  cooking 
utensils  is  obvious  from  their  character. 

II.  THE  SEXUAL  RELATION. 
Origin  of  Sex. — The  bisexual  division  of  the  species  into  male  and 
female  is  by  no  means  universal  among  animals.  Some  of  these,  in  a 
rather  high  stage  of  development,  have  but  one  sex.  Wh\'  the  distinc- 
tion of  the  two  sexes  arose  has  not  been  fulh-  exjjlained  b\'  naturalists. 
Spencer  and  Darwin  suggest  that  the  vitality  of  a  species  is  strengthened 
by  the  crossing  of  blood.  It  is  doubtless  a  part  of  that  general  special- 
ization of  function  which  we  witness  in  tracing  the  e\-olution  of  organic 
forms  ever>'where.  The  important  process  of  reproduction  is  more  thor- 
oughly performed  by  a  division  of  labor. 


70  ETHNOLOGY. 

Primilive  Rclatioti  of  the  Sexes. — The  relation  of  the  sexes  in  tiie 
primitive  condition  of  the  human  species  has  been  supposed  by  several 
later  writers  to  have  been  one  of  promiscuit}' — that  called  "communal 
marriage, ' '  where  no  tie  stronger  than  caprice  existed  between  the  sexes. 
As  Darwin  has  pointed  out,  however,  this  is  contrary  to  the  analog}'  of 
many  species  of  animals,  particularly  the  highest  mammals.  They  are 
generally  either  monogamous  or  polygamous,  and  the  males  wage  bitter 
conflicts  to  retain  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  females.  Nor  do  the 
latter  seek  other  males. 

The  emotions  of  modesty  in  woman  and  jealousy  in  man,  which  are 
usually  found  fully  developed  in  savage  tribes,  indicate  that  chastity  and 
fidelity  are  traits  of  the  race.  In  such  communities  adultery  is,  as  a  rule, 
severely  punished,  though  it  may  be  differently  understood  than  as  among 
us.  Among  a  certain  community  of  Nubian  Arabs  the  wife  is  held  to  a 
rigid  fidelity  three  days  out  of  four,  while  on  the  fourth  she  is  free  to  act 
as  she  likes.  During  some  religious  festivals,  even  among  civilized 
nations,  the  bonds  of  marriage  have  been  released  bj'  a  common  consent. 
The  Dogrib  Indian  is  of  a  jealous  disposition,  and  will  brutally  beat  his 
wife  whom  he  suspects  of  improprieties,  but  he  will  loan  her  temporarily 
to  a  guest  without  hesitation.  In  all  such  cases  the  theory  of  morals 
of  a  community  must  first  be  understood  before  we  pronounce  on  their 
views  of  the  sexual  relation. 

Undoubtedl)-,  the  most  usual  form  of  marriage  has  alwaj'S  been  polyg- 
amy. The  male  chose  two  or  more  females  as  his  companions,  and  did 
his  best  to  prevent  any  relations  arising  between  them  and  other  males. 
The  number  lie  chose  was  limited  only  by  his  ability  to  support  and  pro- 
tect them  against  his  fellows.  Such  was  marriage  throughout  most  of 
the  ancient  world,  and  also  as  it  exists  now  in  nearly  all  non-Christian 
nations.  It  is  the  rare  exception  to  find  either  the  law  of  the  land,  the 
prejudices  of  societ)',  or  the  dogmas  of  religion  pronounce  against  it. 
Darwin  relates  that  an  intelligent  Kandyan  chief,  brought  up,  of  course, 
in  the  polygamous  notions  of  his  tribe,  was  quite  scandalized  at  the 
barbarism,  as  it  appeared  to  him,  of  living  with  only  one  wife  until  sep- 
arated by  death.  "Why,"  he  exclaimed,  "it  is  just  like  the  wanderoo 
monkeys  !"  The  large  and  generally  intelligent  body  of  the  Mormons 
in  the  midst  of  the  monogamous  population  of  the  United  States  cling 
tenaciously  to  their  polygamous  doctrines  and  practices,  and  defend  them 
with  earnest  arguments.  Their  position  may  be  regarded  as  a  reversion 
to  the  fonnerly  universal  practice  of  the  race. 

Polyandry. — A  stranger  form  of  marriage  is  polyandry,  where  the 
woman  has  several  husbands  living  peacefully  together.  Although  this 
is  comparatively  rare,  some  ethnologists  have  assigned  it  a  high  import- 
ance, and  asserted  that  at  one  time  it  was  the  prevailing  custom  with  the 
race.  These  writers  (McLennan,  Lubbock,  etc.)  argue  that  at  first  the 
relation  of  the  sexes  was  that  of  promiscuity,  to  this  followed  polyandr}', 
and  after  that   either  poh-gamy  or  monogamy.     Their   order  of  social 


ETHNOLOGY.  71 

development  is — first,  the  tribe  ;  second,  the  gens  or  household  ;  and, 
last  of  all,  the  family.  The  household  consisted  of  one  wife  with  her 
various  husbands.  These  husbands  were  sometimes  unrelated  men  who 
agreed  among  themselves  to  this  arrangement,  or  they  were  brethren  or 
near  of  kin.  The  latter  form  of  polyandry  appears  in  greatest  perfection 
in  some  tribes  in  Thibet,  where  all  the  brothers  of  a  family  have  but  one 
wife  in  common  ;  and  a  closely  similar  arrangement  prevailed,  according 
to  Csesar,  among  the  Britons  of  his  time,  and  continues  to-day  in  the 
Neilgherry  Hills,  India,  and  with  the  Herero  tribe  of  vSouth  Africa. 

Among  some  of  the  Eskimos,  Aleutians,  and  Kclushcs  of  the  north 
and  north-west  coasts  of  America  a  married  woman  is  the  wife  of  all  the 
married  men  of  the  tribe,  and  each  married  man  is  husband  of  all  the 
married  women  ;  but  this  does  not  prevent  the  distinctions  between  the 
married  and  unmarried  from  being  rigidly  observed. 

Polyandry  can  become  the  prevailing  form  of  marriage  only  where 
there  is  a  great  scarcity  of  women,  as  it  is  certainly  contrary  to  the  feel- 
ing of  proprietorship  and  the  emotion  of  jealousy  seen  in  all  races.  Its 
origin  was  from  the  custom  of  exposing  female  infants  at  birth  or  of  sell- 
ing them  as  slaves.  As  in  all  lands  and  all  conditions  of  society  the 
births  of  the  two  sexes  are  about  equal,  and  as  the  male  child  soon 
becomes  able  to  assist  in  defending  and  supporting  the  family,  he  was 
preserved  and  the  female  child  destroyed.  It  is  also  obvious  that  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  it  is  easier  for  three  men  to  support  one  woman, 
than  for  one  man  to  support  three  women,  with  the  children  that  result 
from  the  union. 

]\Ionogainy. — Strictly  monogamous  tribes  among  the  ruder  races  of 
mankind  are  rare,  but  not  unknown.  The  Veddahs  of  Ceylon  are  an 
example.  Each  male  takes  but  one  wife,  and  is  true  to  her  alone  until 
separated  by  death.  The  same  has  been  said  of  some  American  tribes — 
the  Seminoles  and  Chetimashas — but  the  evidence  is  not  conclusive. 

Monogamy  was  the  law  among  the  ancient  Romans,  but  its  diffusion 
over  the  world,  and  the  recognition  of  its  position  as  the  only  relation  of 
the  sexes  consistent  with  the  highest  development  of  the  race,  are  due  to 
Christianity.  In  the  early  Church  a  canonical  law  dating  from  400  A.  d. 
pronounced  a  marriage  indissoluble  ;  and  this  is  still  the  doctrine  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  ;  but  most  other  Christian  communities  under- 
stand that  monogamy  means  merely  to  live  with  one  wife  or  liusband  at 
one  time,  and  permit  divorce  and  the  selection  of  other  mates  for  reasons 
sufficient  to  satisfy  the  law  of  the  state  where  one  is  resident. 

Forms  of  Marriage. 

The  ceremonies  attendant  on  wooing  and  wedding  are  indicative  of  the 
position  of  woman  in  a  community  and  of  the  influence  she  exerts  over 
national  life. 

Marriac;c  by  ]'inlcncc. — It  has  been  maintained  by  some  writers  that 
in  primitive  society  women  were,  as  a  rule,  stolen,  and   that  what  the 


72  ETHNOLOGY.       ■ 

Scotch  and  English  borderers  called  "bride-lifting"  was  the  customary 
method  of  securing  a  wife.  The  clan  being  small  and  marriages  within 
its  limits  being  prohibited,  or  the  available  females  having  been  already 
monopolized  by  the  system  of  polygamy,  prompted  by  the  zest  of  nov- 
elty the  youth  would  sally  forth  to  snatch  a  bride  from  the  enemy's 
camp.  The  old  Roman  stor>'  of  the  rape  of  the  Sabines  seems  to  point 
to  such  a  usage,  and  to  this  day  it  is  common  among  the  natives  of  Aus- 
tralia. When  one  of  these  wishes  a  mate  he  looks  about  the  camp  of 
some  hostile  tribe  until  he  sees  a  girl  whom  he  fancies.  At  night,  when 
she  is  sleeping  by  the  fire,  he  creeps  near  and  winds  the  point  of  his  long 
spear  in  her  hair.  By  gently  drawing  it  toward  him  she  is  wakened  to 
discover  herself  his  prisoner.  She  knows  that  at  the  least  outcr>'  the 
spear-point  will  be  driven  into  her  neck  and  the  daring  brave  will  escape 
in  the  darkness.  Therefore  she  follows  without  a  murmur.  Such  is  the 
account  given  by  some  travellers,  but  others  say  that  no  such  bloody 
intention  is  present — that  this  midnight  assault  is  merely  symbolic,  and 
to  gratify  the  coquettishness  of  the  dark-skinned  belles,  who  are  not  will- 
ing to  yield  except  to  this  pretence  of  violence  ;  just  as  the  Tartar  must 
win  his  bride  by  overtaking  her  when  in  full  gallop  on  her  palfrey,  or  as 
in  more  refined  society  the  ladies  wish  to  be  long  wooed  before  they  are 
won. 

Of  course,  here  and  there  in  the  world  there  are  instances  of  kidnap- 
ping girls  or  stealing  women,  but  it  is  rare  indeed  that  this  was  the 
accepted  fonn  of  securing  a  mate.  The  symbolic  ceremonies  which  have 
been  adduced  to  prove  that  at  one  time  it  was  the  universal  custom  are 
not  survivals  of  an  ancient  method,  but  are  to  be  understood  as  salves  to 
the  modesty  and  coquettishness  of  maidens — qualities  which  are  marked- 
ly prominent  in  the  females  of  many  of  the  lower  species.  So  far  are 
the  Australians  from  being  an  example  in  point  that  Mr.  Huth,  who  care- 
fulh-  investigated  the  subject,  says  in  his  work  on  marriage  that  in  Aus- 
tralia the  old  men  secure  most  of  the  girls  and  the  young  men  have  to  put 
up  with  the  discarded  wives  of  their  elders. 

Marriage  by  Purchase. — ^What  is  called  marriage  by  purchase  is  the 
most  frequent  of  all,  though  in  most  instances  this  is  not  a  correct  name 
for  it.  The  examples  are  rare  where  an  out-and-out  sale  is  effected.  The 
Circassian  girls  were  deliberately  sold  by  their  families  to  the  Persians  and 
Turks,  and  in  various  patriarchal  tribes,  where  the  father  was  vested  with 
absolute  rights  over  his  children,  he  disposed  of  his  daughters  to  the  high- 
est bidder  with  as  little  compunction  as  he  would  one  of  his  domestic  ani- 
mals. This  is  often  said  to  be  the  habit  of  most  American  tribes  ;  but 
Dr.  Matthews  and  other  obser\-ers  who  have  had  opportunities  to  examine 
their  social  life  closely  state  that  the  articles  of  value  paid  to  the  parents 
of  the  girl  are  not  considered  as  a  price  for  her,  but  as  a  pledge  that  she 
will  be  properly  treated  and  as  a  proof  that  the  aspirant's  affection  for  her 
is  ardent.  They  often  also  require  evidence  that  he  is  a  skilled  hunter  or  a 
valiant  warrior,  thus  securing  the  safety  and  sustenance  of  their  daughter 


ETHNOLOGY.  73 

to  the  extent  of  their  power.  Through  a  misunderstanding  of  the  purpose 
of  these  customs  they  have  been  represented  as  of  a  more  debased  cha- 
racter than  they  really  are. 

Other  Forms  of  Marriage. — In  some  tribes,  as  among  the  Shawnees, 
Osages,  and  Creeks  in  America,  the  girl  made  her  own  selection  of  a  hus- 
band without  consulting  her  family.  She  bargained  for  the  gifts  she  was 
to  receive,  and  rejected  such  suitors  as  did  not  please  her.  Frequently  it 
was  a  matter  of  negotiation  between  the  elders,  very  much  as  it  is  to-day 
among  the  noble  families  of  Europe,  and  with  a  like  disregard  of  the  feel- 
ings of  the  parties  concerned.  Mr.  Sanborn  states  that  in  ancient  times 
among  the  Iroquois  the  old  women  selected  wives  for  the  5'oung  men,  and 
married  them  with  painful  uniformity  to  women  several  years  their 
seniors.  Among  the  Aztecs  there  was  a  special  class  of  matchmakers 
who  negotiated  unions  between  the  scions  of  noble  families,  and  some  of 
their  cut-and-dried  orations  which  have  been  preser\'ed  to  us  by  Sahagun 
would  not  sound  amiss  in  our  best  society  to-day. 

The  highest  form  of  marriage,  and  the  one  which  alone  should  obtain 
in  enlightened  communities,  is  that  which  is  based  on  personal  acquaint- 
ance and  intelligent  affection.  Such  a  marriage  becomes,  in  the  words 
of  an  eloquent  writer,  "  the  loftiest  earthly  illustration  of  crowned  and 
completed  love,"  and  is  most  certain  to  increase  the  happiness  of  the 
individuals  and  to  develop  the  noblest  qualities  of  the  race. 

Limitations  of  Marriage. 

Prohibitions  of  Marriage. — The  various  prohibitions  and  limitations 
of  marriage  have  exercised  a  marked  effect  on  the  condition  and  history 
of  nations.  There  is  probably  little  scientific  ground  for  any  of  these 
restrictions.  They  seem  all  to  have  arisen  either  from  superstitious  fears 
or  from  political  and  social  considerations.  Absolute  prohibition  of  the 
sexual  relation  has  been  the  rule  of  some  communities  gbligatory  on  all 
members.  Necessarily,  either  this  had  to  be  modified,  or  the  connnuuity 
depended  solely  on  new  recruits  for  its  continuance.  Several  religious 
associations  in  the  United  States  have  been  commenced  on  this  plan. 
Many  creeds  enjoin  complete  or  partial  abstinence  on  their  ministers  of 
both  sexes.  The  "medicine-men"  of  the  Manhattan  Indians  were  so  rigid 
that  not  only  did  they  refrain  from  all  contact  with  women,  but  they 
would  not  partake  of  a  dish  prepared  by  one  of  that  sex.  The  "Virgins 
of  the  Fire  "  in  Yucatan,  and  those  of  the  Hearth,  or  the  Vestals,  of 
ancient  Rome,  were  condemned  to  perfect  chastity  on  pain  of  death. 
The  Buddhist  priesthood,  numbering  hundreds  of  thousands  in  Central 
Asia  and  Thibet,  are  under  vows  of  continence;  and  it  need  scarcely  be 
added  that  the  nuns  and  priests  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  are  sub- 
jected to  equally  absolute  restrictions  in  this  respect. 

Restrictions  through  Kinship. — Even  among  savage  tribes  the  objection 
to  marrying  near  of  kin  is  curiously  pre\-alent.  It  obtains  in  an  exagge- 
rated degree  among  civilized  nations,   and  it  has  received  the  strongest 


74 


ETHNOLOGY. 


support  from  both  religious  and  political  authorities.  In  a.d.  741,  Pope 
Zacharias  iuforined  King  Pepin  of  France  that  marriage  was  forbidden  by 
the  Church  wherever  any  relationship,  no  matter  how  remote,  could  be 
traced.  Although  this  has  not  been  maintained  in  its  stringency  in 
modern  countries,  the  civil  law  prohibits  marriages  between  certain 
degrees  of  relationship,  and  sometimes,  as  in  England,  where  the  marriage 
with  a  deceased  wife's  sister  is  illegal,  with  connections  which  are  not 
consanguine. 

The  origin  of  such  prejudices  is  difficult  to  explain.  They  could  not 
have  arisen  from  the  obser\'ed  ill  effects  of  consanguine  unions,  for  even 
with  the  facilities  of  modern  investigations  physicians  are  far  from  united 
in  the  opinion  that  such  marriages  exert  any  ill  effect;  and  if  the}'  do,  it 
is  from  exaggerating  an  inherited  tendency  to  disease,  to  counteract  which 
the  prohibition  should  be  not  of  marriage  of  kin,  but  of  marriage  between 
persons  with  such  tendencies.  Moreover,  there  are  many  well-known 
instances,  both  of  families  and  tribes,  where  close  interbreeding  has  devel- 
oped a  ver}-  high  standard  of  physical  perfection.  It  is  sufficient  to  men- 
tion the  Polynesians  of  the  small  islands  of  the  South  Sea  forced  hy  their 
insular  position  to  marry  near  relatives  for  man}-  generations;  yet  all 
writers  agree  in  assigning  to  them  a  marked  pre-eminence  in  physical  con- 
formation, rivalling  indeed  the  finest  statues  of  antiquity. 

The  conclusion  reached  by  Mr.  Huth  in  his  work  on  marriage  is  to 
the  effect  that,  "as  far  as  a  deduction  may  be  trusted  from  the  general 
customs  of  men,  no  marriage  is  prohibited  by  nature  unless  the  parties 
are  of  an  age  unsuited  to  each  other."  The  suggestion  is  made  by  Darwin 
that  the  objection  to  such  unions  arises  from  the  sexual  indifference 
with  which  }oung  persons  who  have  been  brought  up  in  the  same  house 
regard  each  other,  and  the  instinctive  desire  of  novelty  which  prompts 
the  youth  to  seek  a  companion  elsewhere  than  in  his  own  home-circle. 
This  feeling,  without  much  rational  foundation,  became  increased  by 
descent,  and  finally  took  the  form  of  the  pronounced  aversion  so  generally 
current  at  present  to  marriages  called  incestuous. 

Irrational  Examples  of  Marriage. — That  it  has  little  rational  founda- 
tion is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  degrees  of  affinity  are  calculated 
entirely  differently  in  different  nations,  as  in  the  English  case  above 
referred  to,  and  in  Gennany,  where  it  is  quite  customary  for  the  uncle  to 
marry  the  niece,  which  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States  would  be  illegal. 
Moreover,  the  prejudice  against  close  intermarriages  has  been  by  no  means 
universal.  In  ancient  Persia  it  was  esteemed  not  merely  proper,  but 
meritorious,  for  a  man  to  marr}-  his  sister  or  his  widowed  mother.  The 
Ptolemies  of  Eg}pt  and  the  Incas  of  Peru  were  wedded  to  their  sisters  for 
reasons  of  state,  and  there  are  numerous  similar  examples. 

Where  the  system  of  clan-relationship  prevails  the  prohibition  based 
on  relationship  often  extends  to  ever\'  member  of  the  clan,  even  where 
the  individuals  may  be  members  only  by  adoption,  and  therefore  no  kin 
whatever.     In  China  there  are  some  villages  of  about  five  thousand  souls 


ETHNOLOGY.  75 

who  are  all  considered  akin,  and  no  unions  between  their  members  are 
permitted.  The  clans  of  many  American  and  Australian  tribes  are  equally 
exclusive.  Quite  in  contrast  to  this,  the  Druses  of  Mount  Lebanon  are 
said  always  to  marry  cousins,  and  have  observed  this  rule  since  about 
1020  A.D. ;  and  yet  they  are  celebrated  as  a  vigorous  people  and  the  males 
as  brave  warriors.  There  is,  therefore,  no  evidence  that  the  restriction 
of  naarriage  on  the  mere  ground  of  kinship  arose  from  observations  of  its 
deleterious  effects,  but  rather  out  of  superstitious  reasons  or  the  love  of 
variety. 

In  highly-civilized  communities  there  are  always  a  large  number  of 
unmarried  persons  of  both  sexes  who  are  impelled  to  the  single  life  by 
social  considerations.  They  are  the  "  old  maids"  and  "old  bachelors" 
who  have  not  had  an  opportunity  to  marry  to  their  liking,  and  hence  have 
refrained  from  the  act  altogether.  This  class  is  entirely  iniknown  in 
savage  life,  and  almost  so  in  the  lower  strata  of  civilized  society  ;  as,  for 
instance,  among  the  colored  population  of  the  United  States.  It  increases 
with  wealth  and  luxury  and  the  competition  in  social  life.  Juvenal  noted 
it  as  one  of  the  signs  of  decay  in  ancient  Rome,  and  it  is  a  potent  element 
in  bringing  about  the  extinction  of  prominent  families. 

Effects  on  Population. 

Some  writers  have  maintained  that  the  form  of  marriage  in  vogue  in  a 
nation  exerts  an  influence  on  the  sex  of  children;  that  in  polygamy  more 
females,  in  pol)-andry  more  males,  are  born,  and  that  thus  the  average  of 
sexes  in  a  community  becomes  adapted  to  the  prevailing  customs.  This 
has  been  disproved  by  statistics  from  Oriental  harems,  where  the  births 
are  found  to  bear  the  same  proportion  of  sexes  as  in  monogamous  coun- 
tries. The  scarcity  of  women  where  polyandry  is  the  rule  has  been  shown 
to  arise  from  the  destruction  of  female  infants  and  the  selling  of  the  girls 
to  other  tribes  at  a  tender  age. 

The  apparentlx-  diminished  fecundity  of  savage  races  is  partly  apparent 
only,  the  small  fiamilies  observed  being  attributable  to  large  infant  mor- 
tality, which  is  often  the  deliberate  result  of  the  neglect  and  exposure  of 
infants,  often  the  consequence  of  ignorance  and  unsanitary  conditions. 
But  there  are  also  certain  causes  at  work  in  the  ruder  states  of  society 
which  directly  tend  to  limit  the  size  of  families  and  react  injuriously  on 
the  race.  One  of  the  most  potent  of  these  is  premature  marriage. 
IMothers  of  the  age  of  thirteen  }ears  are  not  uncommon  among  the  Hot- 
tentots, and  with  the  Australians  wives  as  young  as  twelve,  eleven,  and 
even  nine,  years  are  frequently  seen.  Such  premature  demands  upon  the 
sexual  function  lead  to  its  equally  premature  exlianstion,  and  the  woman 
loses  all  appearance  of  youth  before  she  has  reached  middle  age.  Giving 
birth  to  children  before  she  has  attained  her  own  full  de\-elopment  and 
stature,  it  is  impossible  that  the  mother  can  transmit  to  them  either  the 
full  physical  or  mental  average  of  the  race,  and  the  consequence  is  that 
very  early  marriages  tend  to  deteriorate  tlie  stock.     It  is  not  an  accidental 


76  ETHNOLOGY. 

coincidence  that  these  two  races,  among  whom  travellers  report  the 
custom  of  excessively  early  marriages,  stand  at  the -bottom  of  the  scale 
of  humanity. 

Scarcely  less  injurious  is  the  early  marriage  or  the  precocious  licen- 
tiousness of  the  males.  Either  brings  with  it  sexual  exhaustion  and  a 
lowering  of  the  vigor  of  mind  and  body.  The  truth  of  this  was  a  matter 
of  observ^ion  among  even  savage  nations.  The  most  warlike  tribe  of 
North  America,  the  Iroquois,  required  their  braves  to  remain  not  only 
single,  but  chaste,  up  to  the  age  of  thirty  years;  the  Abipones  of  the  Gran 
Chaco  of  South  America,  also  celebrated  for  their  hardihood,  did  not  per- 
mit marriages  until  both  sexes  had  reached  full  growth  ;  and  the  edicts 
of  the  Incas  of  Peru  prescribed  twenty-four  as  the  proper  age  at  which  a 
man  should  contract  marriage. 

Early  marriages  also  tend  to  depreciate  the  mental  culture  of  a  com- 
munit)'  by  abbreviating  the  period  which  can  be  devoted  to  education. 
The  cares  and  the  support  of  a  family  are  thrown  upon  young  parents 
who  have  not  had  the  time  to  equip  themselves  in  the  most  effective  man- 
ner for  the  battle  of  life.  This  fact  makes  itself  so  apparent  in  the  com- 
plex society  of  civilization  that  a  steady  rise  in  the  ages  of  those  marrying 
is  observable  in  enlightened  countries.  This  may  proceed  too  far,  and 
produce  either  a  postponement  of  marriage  beyond  its  most  fitting  phys- 
iological period,  or  an  aversion  to  the  duties  which  the  bearing  and 
rearing  of  children  entail.  This  seems  to  have  become  the  case  w-ith 
the  white  race  whose  families  have  for  generations  lived  in  the  East- 
ern United  States.  Statistics  show  that  in  the  present  day  the  average 
number  of  children  to  each  marriage  is  materially  less  than  it  was  in  the 
last  century.  Physicians  attribute  this  to  the  over-development  of  the 
brain  and  nervous  system,  to  the  habit  of  late  marriages  in  both  sexes, 
and  to  a  repugnance  to  the  annoying  cares  inseparable  from  a  family  of 
children. 

Laws  of  Descent. 

Matriarchal  System. — With  rare  exceptions  the  white  race  have  from 
the  earliest  historic  times  traced  relationship  principally  through  the 
father's  line.  His  name  is  borne  and  property  descends  through  him. 
Even  where,  as  in  Spain,  the  mother  as  well  as  the  father  transmits  her 
family  name  to  the  children,  that  of  the  father  has  the  pre-eminence. 
Herodotus  mentioned  it  as  a  remarkable,  and  indeed  "imparalleled,  custom 
of  the  Eycians  that  they  traced  descent  through  the  mother's  line  only. 
Later  observation  has  discovered  that  this  prevails  extensively  in  quite 
diverse  races,  especially  among  the  Australians,  Americans,  and  Malay- 
ans. Pjy  their  laws  a  man  must  seek  his  wife  in  some  other  clan  than  his 
own,  and  the  children  born  to  the' pair  belong  not  to  the  clan  of  tlie  father, 
but  to  that  of  the  mother.  They  bear  the  name  of  her  family,  are  subject 
only  to  its  laws,  and  if  slain  the  duty  of  blood-revenge  devolves  upon  the 
mother's  kindred,  not,  as  a  rule,  on  the  father  or  his  clan.     Theoretically, 


ETHNOLOGY.  yj 

they  arc  not  related  to  him,  and  he  has  no  right  to  punish  them  for  dis- 
obedience. The  property  and  the  hereditary  honors  belonging  to  the 
father  do  not  pass  to  his  sons,  but  to  his  own  brothers'  or  sisters'  children. 
Hence  he  may  find  himself  opposed  to  his  own  children  in  the  conflicts 
of  clans,  and  filial  affection,  as  we  understand  it,  has  no  place  in  such  a 
scheme,  any  more  than  paternal  authority. 

This  has  been  called  the  "matriarchal"  s}-stem  of  the  family  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  patriarchal.  Though  not  often  carried  out  to  the  full 
extent  above  depicted,  it  exists  in  principle  very  widely.  In  their  specu- 
lations on  the  origin  of  what  seems  so  unnatural  a  system  of  relationship 
ethnologists  have  usually  attributed  it  to  the  uncertainty  of  paternity  in 
savage  communities.  They  have  adduced  it  as  a  proof  of  the  general 
promiscuity  of  unions  in  remote  times,  and  have  sought  to  show  that  at 
some  epoch  it  was  common  throughout  the  world.  More  probably  it 
was  based  on  the  plain  facts  that  the  mother  brings  the  child  into  the 
world,  nourishes  and  cares  for  it  during  infancy,  and  throughout  life 
watches  it  with  a  stronger  affection  than  the  father.  Hence  it  was  nat- 
ural for  her  to  be  regarded  as  more  directly  its  parent  than  the  father. 

Patriarchal  and  Agnatic  Systc^ns. — The  system  of  "agnation,"  in 
which  the  relationship  is  counted  through  the  father's  side  only,  as  it  pre- 
vailed in  ancient  Rome  and  in  the  patriarchal  communities  of  the  East,  was 
also  found  in  a  few  of  the  hunting  tribes  of  North  America.  Its  tendency 
was  to  place  the  woman  on  a  lower  plane.  She  was  regarded  as  little 
better  than  a  chattel  and  the  slave  of  her  husband.  In  the  Roman 
agnatic  family  the  woman  was  always  in  a  state  of  tutelage,  whether 
married  or  unmarried — in  the  latter  case  from  her  father,  in  the  former 
from  her  husband.  The  American  tribe  in  the  area  of  the  United  States 
which  has  been  said  to  show  the  most  brutal  treatment  of  wives  is  the 
Dakota,  among  whom  there  are  few  clans  reckoning  kinship  through 
the  females. 

Social  Position  of  Woman. 

The  position  of  woman  as  the  representative  of  the  clan,  and  as  the 
only  parent  through  whom  kinship  is  traced,  necessarily  confers  upon  her 
prerogatives  which  she  would  not  otherwise  enjoy.  Property  rights 
become  vested  in  her,  and  the  possessions  acquired  by  her  husband  are 
more  hers  than  his.  This  has  been  noticed  with  some  astonishment  by 
travellers  who  did  not  understand  this  feature  of  savage  society.  A  mis- 
sionary among  the  Shawnee  Indians  writes  :  "  The  women  are  the  only 
drudges,  and  yet  they  own  all  the  property."  Captain  Gregg  remarks  of 
the  Osages  of  the  Western  Plains  that  the  "oldest  daughter  on  her  mar- 
riage comes  into  possession  of  all  the  family  property." 

Gynocracy  in  Savage  Life. — As  a  general  rule,  the  woman  in  savage 
life  wields  a  greater  influence  than  the  superficial  observer,  who  witnesses 
the  constant  toil  and  frequent  ill-treatment  to  which  she  is  subject,  is  apt 
to  suppose.     What  Captain  W.  P.  Clark  has  remarked  of  the  Indians  of 


78  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  Plains  holds  good  generally  of  the  social  power  of  the  females  in 
uncivilized  communities  :  "Though  not  as  a  rule  permitted  to  be  present 
at  the  councils,  and  not  allovvcd  to  join  the  men  in  the  more  important 
feasts,  the  women  exercise  a  great  influence  over  the  warriors.  Their 
shrill  songs  of  encouragement  urge  on  the  departing  war-party  to  greater 
exertions,  to  braver  deeds,  and  the  same  shrill  voices  give  them  praise  and 
welcome  on  their  return,  and,  should  any  have  fallen,  for  days  their  weird 
chanting  fills  the  air  of  the  camp  with  the  great  deeds  of  those  who  have 
been  slain  ;  and  this  honor'is  dearly  prized  by  the  savage  heart.  In  this 
and  many  other  ways  they  shape  and  control  the  public  feeling  and 
opinion  of  the  camp  ;  and  this  is  the  greatest  force  which  controls  the 
destiny  of  Indian  tribes." 

But  their  power  is  frequently  more  positive  than  this.  Among  all  the 
tribes  of  the  stock  of  the  Iroquois  in  the  New  World,  and  very  generally 
among  the  Tartar  hordes  of  Asia,  the  women  took  part  in  the  councils, 
advised  openly  on  matters  of  public  welfare,  and  often  cast  the  deciding 
voice  on  questions  of  peace  or  war  and  in  the  election  of  rulers.  Nor  is 
it  at  all  an  uncommon  occurrence  to  find  a  female  the  chief  ruler  of  savage 
tribes,  and  all  the  men  belonging  to  it  submissive  to  her  commands.  The 
records  of  the  monarchies  of  the  Old  World  preserve  the  memor)'  of  some 
famous  queens,  as  Semiramis,  Cleopatra,  Zenobia,  and  the  queen  of  Sheba; 
in  Africa,  nations  much  lower  in  the  scale  of  de-\-elopment  than  these  have 
been  found  imder  the  supremacy  of  female  chiefs;  and  in  America  such 
instances  may  be  said  to  have  been  frequent.  Thus,  among  the  earliest 
of  the  historic  figures  of  the  red  race  is  "Anacoana,  queen  of  the  Caribs," 
whose  fate  has  been  chosen  as  the  theme  of  song  and  story  by  more  than 
one  writer  of  the  day;  when  Hernando  de  Soto  plunged  into  the  un- 
tracked  wilderness  to  find  the  Mississippi  River,  he  was  met  somewhere 
near  the  .southernmost  spurs  of  the  ApiDalachian  Mountains  by  the  "  em- 
press" of  a  powerful  native  tribe,  perhaps  the  Uchees;  later,  when  the 
French  explored  the  lower  waters  of  the  Great  River,  they  came  into 
contact  with  the  Natchez,  a  tribe  of  noteworthy  culture,  who  lived  under 
the  rule  of  a  woman  who  bore  the  title  "The  Great  Sun."  Her  power 
was  hereditary,  but  it  did  not  pass  to  the  children  of  her  husband,  but  to 
those  of  her  brothers  or  sisters.  The  annals  of  the  warlike  Aztecs  record 
that  when  one  of  their  emperors  had  died  without  heirs  male,  his  daugh- 
ter ascended  the  throne  and  was  au  acceptable  ruler  over  his  extensive 
domains. 

The  numerous  examples  of  this  character  which  have  been  adduced 
by  travellers  and  historians  go  far  to  modify  the  opinion  widely  enter- 
tained that  the  position  of  woman  in  the  ruder  stages  of  culture  is  always 
one  of  debasement  and  slaver}^  The  most  intelligent  ethnologists  do  not 
entertain  this  opinion.  Thus,  Mr.  Horatio  Hale  says  in  a  recent  work, 
"  The  common  notion  that  women  among  the  Indians  were  treated  as 
inferiors  and  made  '  beasts  of  burden '  is  unfounded  among  all  tribes  of 
which  I  have  any  knowledge.    With  them,  as  with  civilized  communities, 


ETHNOLOGY.  79 

the  work  of  the  community  and  the  cares  of  the  family  are  fairly  divided. 
The  hunting  and  fishing,  the  house-building  and  canoe-making,  fall  to 
the  men.  The  women  cook,  make  clothing,  scratch  the  ground  with 
their  hoes,  plant  and  gather  the  crops,  and  take  care  of  the  children. 
The  household  goods  belong  to  the  woman.  On  her  death  her  relatives, 
and  not  her  husband's,  claim  them.  The  children  are  also  hers;  they 
belonged  to  her  clan,  and  in  case  of  a  separation  they  also  went  with  her. 
Among  the  Iroquois  she  was  really  the  head  of  the  household;  and  in  this 
capacity  her  right,  when  she  chanced  to  be  the  oldest  matron  of  a  noble 
family,  to  select  the  successor  to  a  deceased  chief  of  that  family,  was 
recognized  b}'  the  highest  law  of  the  confederacy." 

The  earliest  missionaries  bear  testimony  to  the  general  correctness  of 
this  opinion.  Thus,  one  of  them  informs  us  that  among  the  Hurons  of 
Canada  thirty  strings  of  wampum  were  generally  considered  sufficient 
satisfaction  for  the  murder  of  a  man  by  one  of  his  fellow-tribesmen,  but 
for  a  woman  forty  strings  were  required,  the  reasons  they  gave  being  that 
a  woman  is  less  able  to  defend  herself  than  a  man;  that  as  her  .sex  is  the 
source  whence  the  land  is  peopled,  her  life  is  of  greater  value  to  the  com- 
monwealth; and  that  her  weakness  should  have  a  stronger  support  in 
public  justice. 

In  most  such  communities  the  affection  of  children  toward  their 
mother  is  stronger  than  toward  their  father.  Among  the  Hereros,  a  Cafifir 
tribe  in  South-west  Africa,  the  traveller  Anderson  states  that  the  most 
solemn  oath  a  native  can  take  is  to  swear  "by  the  tears  of  my  mother;" 
and  Mungo  Park  tells  of  a  Mandingo  boy  who  exclaimed,  "Beat  me  if 
you  wish,  but  do  not  scold  my  mother." 

Impressed  by  facts  such  as  we  have  just  related,  some  ethnologists 
have  gone  to  the  other  extreme  and  brought  forward  the  hypothesis  that 
in  ancient  society  woman  was  the  stronger  sex,  that  she  held  man  in  sub- 
jection, and  that  only  by  a  violent  revolution  could  he  escape  from  her 
bondage!  We  may  pass  this  by  as  one  of  the  vagaries  of  science,  but  it 
is  worth  mentioning,  as  it  indicates  how  numerous  are  the  evidences 
that  the  opinion  of  her  constant  subjection  in  primitive  communities  is 
unfounded. 

The  Grounds  of  Sexual  Attraction. — The  instinct  which  prompts  to 
sexual  selection  and  marriage  is  love.  As  an  instinct  it  is  quite  marked 
in  monogamous  monkeys  and  birds,  and  in  some  of  them  it  is  permanent. 
In  man  it  rises  to  the  dignity  of  a  sentiment — one  that  is  frequenth-  both 
enduring  and  powerful  and  demands  the  attention  of  the  ethnologist. 

What  is  the  foundation  of  the  attraction  wliich  leads  the  male  to  select 
one  particular  female  rather  than  another,  and  which  leads  her,  when  free 
to  act,  to  reciprocate  in  some  instances  and  not  in  others,  has  not  been 
explained.  The  laws  of  sexual  selection  laid  down  by  the  followers  of 
Darwin  as  holding  good  in  the  lower  species  confessedly  fail  when  applied 
to  man.  That  such  mutual  attractions  do  exist,  even  in  the  rudest  con- 
ditions of  society,  cannot  successfully  be  questioned.     There  are  indeed 


8o  ETHNOLOGY. 

some  tribes  of  limited  extent,  and  nsuall}-  corrui:)ted  by  proximity  with 
other  races,  whose  marriages  seem  inferior  to  the  pairing  of  birds;  but 
these  are  exceptions. 

Terms  of  Endearment. — The  absence  of  terms  of  endearment  and 
modes  of  caressing  in  certain  languages  and  nations  is  not  to  be  construed 
into  meaning  that  the  tribes  entertain  no  sentiments  corresponding  with 
these  acts  and  expressions.  Nations,  like  individuals,  vary  widely  in 
their  denionstrativeness,  and  their  terms,  moreover,  may  not  be  similar 
to  those  with  which  the  observer  is  familiar.  Nor  is  there  any  dearth  of 
terms  of  endearment  in  some  of  such  tongues.  The  Nahuatl,  spoken  by 
the  Aztecs  and  allied  tribes  of  I\Iexico,  is  extraordinarily  rich  in  expres- 
sions of  affection,  as  may  be  seen  by  looking  in  the  appendix  of  Olmos' 
Grammar  of  that  idiom.  A  recent  Grammar  of  the  Quichua  language 
of  Peru,  that  spoken  by  the  Incas,  traces  out  and  assigns  the  shades  of 
meaning  to  six  hundred  and  seventy-five  variations  of  the  verb  "  to  love." 
Several  Negro  dialects  are  mentioned  as  quite  rich  in  similar  tenns. 

JModes  of  Caressing. — Modes  of  caressing,  like  methods  of  salutation, 
are  matters  of  local  custom.  Kissing,  so  familiar  with  us,  was  probably 
unknown  throughout  America  before  the  discovery,  as  it  certainly  was  in 
Australia,  the  South  Sea  Islands,  New  Zealand,  and  is  still  in  most  parts 
of  Central  Africa.  An  English  traveller  in  the  last-mentioned  region 
relates  that  he  was  presented  with  a  little  slave-girl  by  one  of  the  chiefs. 
To  signify  his  feelings  of  kindness  for  her,  he  received  her  with  a  kiss, 
but  it  threw  her  into  a  spasm  of  terror.  He  learned  afterward  that  such 
a  mark  of  affection  was  unknown  to  her  people,  and  that  she  had  asso- 
ciated it  with  the  habit  of  the  boa-constrictor  to  lick  its  prey  before  swal- 
lowing it,  and  feared  that  her  new  protector  was  about  to  eat  her! 

Suicide  for  Love. — Positive  evidence  of  the  strength  of  the  passion  of 
love  in  the  lower  races  is  given  b}'  their  readiness  to  destro)'  themselves 
when  they  cannot  obtain  the  object  of  their  hopes.  Of  all  the  aspersions 
which  the  fair  Rosalind  chose  to  cast  upon  the  male  sex,  none  was  less 
true  than  that  "men  have  died  from  time  to  time,  and  worms  have  eaten 
them,  but  not  for  love."  Suicide,  not  unknown  among  the  higher  brutes, 
is  frequent  for  comparatively  trivial  causes  with  some  varieties  of  men, 
and  unrequited  love  is  a  common  motive.  Perhaps  more  frequent  are  the 
suicides  of  females  for  this  cause.  Mrs.  Eastman,  in  her  description  of 
life  among  the  Sioux  Indians,  sa}-s  that  rarely  did  a  season  pass  without 
the  incident  of  some  young  girl  destroying  herself  on  account  of  impedi- 
ments placed  in  the  way  of  her  affections. 

III.  L.'VNGUAGE. 
On  p.  52  the  different  stocks  of  languages  have  been  discussed  when 
considered  as  a  means  of  classifying  the  varieties  of  the  human  race.  We 
turn  in  the  present  section  to  language  in  its  general  sense  as  a  motive- 
power  in  the  development  of  society-,  and  shall  consider  the  influence  it 
wields  over  the  destiny  of  nations. 


ETHNOLOGY.  8i 

Definition. — In  this  sense  language  is  not  confined  to  vocal  utterance. 
It  includes  all  means  by  which  emotions  are  evoked  and  ideas  comnui- 
nicated.  This  may  be  by  signs  or  speech,  and  speech  ma\'  be  inarticulate 
or  articulate;  it  may  be  of  "winged  words"  or  it  may  be  in  written 
records  ;  and  either  of  these  may  in  turn  take  the  form  of  the  measured 
and  intoned  lines  which  we  call  poetry  or  the  plainer  and  colder  garb  of 
prose.  As  a  nation  cultivates  one  or  another  of  these  with  assiduity,  its 
character  is  revealed  and  its  position  in  the  world's  history  is  fixed. 

Language  among  the  Lower  Animals. — In  this  broad  meaning  lan- 
guage is  not  confined  to  man.  Many  of  the  lower  animals  possess  some 
means  of  communicating  information  to  each  other,  and  some  of  them  to 
a  degree  which  it  puzzles  naturalists  to  explain.  Every  one  has  heard 
anecdotes  to  this  effect  of  dogs  and  birds.  The  chirps  and  songs  of  the 
latter  serve  to  warn  the  flock  of  approaching  danger,  to  call  their  mates, 
to  cheer  their  young,  and  the  like.  The  stoiy  of  the  dog  who,  having 
had  his  own  broken  leg  bandaged  by  a  kind-hearted  surgeon,  came  the 
next  day  bringing  a  canine  friend  suffering  from  a  similar  accident,  is 
authentic.  In  some  way  the  first  dog  communicated  a  considerable 
amount  of  information  to  his  friend  in  the  transaction.  It  seems  improb- 
able that  communities  so  well  organized  as  those  of  bees  and  ants  could 
be  carried  on  without  rather  extended  means  of  imparting  knowledge. 

With  the  human  species  language  is  an  essential  bond  of  society,  and 
no  political  organization  of  importance  could  have  come  into  being  until 
men  had  learned  to  talk. 

I.  Gesture-  or  Sign-Language. 

Much  of  the  intercommunication  of  brutes  is  by  gestures.  The  dog 
will  fawn  to  show  his  submissiveness,  jump  and  spring  around  his  master 
to  manifest  his  joy,  catch  and  pull  the  clothing  to  induce  a  person  to  go 
in  a  certain  direction,  and  the  like.  Certain  members  of  the  human  race, 
the  deaf-mutes,  are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  same  means  to  make 
their  thoughts  known.  B3'  judicious  cultivation  they  have  developed  a 
sign-language  which  answers  all  the  purposes  of  ordinary  life,  and  even 
reaches  to  many  higher  topics.  They  can  thus  converse  with  accuracy 
and  rapidity. 

Nor  is  it  confined  to  these  unfortunate  persons.  Some  nations  with 
well-developed  languages  cultivate  out  of  preference  the  use  of  signs  and 
gestures  in  ordinary  intercourse.  The  Neapolitans  and  Sicilians  are  cele- 
brated for  this  peculiarity.  Though  possessing  rich  and  varied  dialects, 
they  constantly  resort  to  gestures  to  give  their  words  emphasis,  and  have 
perfected  these  to  such  an  extent  that  they  can  carry  on  conversation 
without  the  use  of  words.  A  traveller  mentions  that  in  Naples  he  visited 
the  opera  with  a  citizen  of  the  town.  The  latter  recognized  a  friend 
acrcss  the  theatre,  and  exchanged  some  signs  with  him,  by  which,  he 
informed  the  traveller,  he  had  learned  that  this  friend  had  been  absent 
three  years,  during  which  time  he  had  been  married  ;  had  travelled  iu 
Vol.  I.— 6 


82  ETHNOLOGY. 

Austria  and  France  ;  had  been  blessed  with  a  daughter,  whom  he  had  had 
the  misfortune  to  lose;  and  had  returned  the  day  before.  By  subsequent 
inquiry  the  traveller  learned  that  these  were  the  facts  communicated. 

To  some  extent  this  reliance  upon  gestures  to  express  the  meaning  is 
universal.  Even  among  the  studiously  undemonstrative  Englishmen, 
with  whom,  since  the  condemnation  of  them  by  Addison,  it  has  been 
considered  unbecoming  to  employ  gestures  even  in  public  speaking,  one 
will  observe  grimaces  and  movements  of  the  arms  in  moments  of  excite- 
ment. But  probably  its  most  notable  example  is  among  the  Indians  of 
North  America.  They  have  a  sign-language  of  unknown  antiquity, 
understood  over  a  wide  area,  and  in  which  they  are  capable  of  conducting 
protracted  conx-ersation.  To  a  certain  extent,  this  language  is  the  same 
ever\-where.  But  these  identities  are  not  evidences  of  derivation  from  a 
common  centre;  they  merely  show  that  a  number  of  objects  and  actions 
suggest  the  same  simple  and  obvious  signs  for  their  expression.  To 
incline  the  head  and  close  the  eyes,  or  rest  it  a  moment  on  the  hand, 
would  always  suggest  sleep  ;  moving  the  hands  backward  and  forward 
with  the  fingers  extended  is  an  imitation  of  the  motions  of  the  feet,  and 
signifies  walking;  to  imitate  the  bending  of  a  bow  to  shoot  an  arrow  indi- 
cates that  this  weapon  is  meant.  In  these  and  in  ver>'  many  more  signs 
those  current  in  our  educational  institutions  for  the  training  of  deaf-mutes 
are  identical  with  those  in  use  among  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  Western 
Plains.  As  has  been  said  above,  the  obvious  explanation  of  this  is  that 
the  same  signs  suggest  themselves  to  all.  In  this  sense,  and  in  no  other, 
are  we  to  understand  the  expression  of  Dr.  Tylor,  that  "  gesture-language 
is  substantially  the  same  among  savage  tribes  all  over  the  world." 

The  development  of  a  gesture-language  depends  upon  the  genius  of  a 
people  and  upon  the  occasion  it  has  to  communicate  with  those  of  a  dif- 
ferent idiom.  The  old  notion  that  it  indicates  poverty  of  expression  in 
the  spoken  language  is  now  exploded  by  accurate  observation.  The 
Neapolitan  dialect  is  one  of  the  richest  of  the  Italian  group,  yet  those 
who  speak  it  delight  in  gestures.  The  Shoshonees  of  the  Western  Plains 
are  celebrated  for  their  free  use  of  signs,  and  yet  their  vocabulary,  so  far 
from  being  meagre,  is  remarkably  copious.  The  assertion  of  a  Mexican 
bishop  quoted  in  many  books,  and  the  later  one  of  the  same  tenor  pub- 
lished by  Captain  Burton,  the  English  traveller,  to  the  effect  that  there 
are  tribes  in  North  America  whose  tongues  are  so  imperfect  that  they 
cannot  converse  without  the  aid  of  gestures,  and  therefore  cannot  talk  in 
the  dark,  is  an  absurdity.  As  Colonel  ?.Iallery  justly  remarks  :  "All 
theories  based  upon  the  supposed  poverty  of  American  languages  must 
be  abandoned." 

The  value  of  such  a  means  of  exchanging  ideas  between  scattered 
tribes  explains  its  wide  prevalence.  By  its  use  treaties  are  established, 
commercial  intercourse  carried  on,  instruction  imparted  and  received,  and 
the  impassable  barrier  of  an  unknown  tongue  cleverly  avoided.  So  com- 
pletely does  it  answer  the  purpose  that  Captain  Clark  relates  instances 


ETHNOLOGY.  83 

where  Indians  of  different  tribes  had  been  married  for  years  and  had 
never  learned  a  word  of  each  other's  language,  their  comniunicatiou 
being  conducted  entirely  by  signs.  This  excites  the  less  astonishment 
as  parallel  instances  are  frequent  with  deaf-mutes. 

Plan  of  Thought  in  Gesture-Language. — The  study  of  the  plan  of 
thought  in  the  sign-language  is  suggestive  of  that  in  some  of  the  more 
primitive  forms  of  vocal  speech,  especially  the  isolating  languages  (see 
p.  52).  The  articles,  conjunctions,  and  prepositions  are  omitted,  and* 
adjectives  follow  the  nouns.  Verbs  are  given  in  the  present  tense,  and 
both  nouns  and  verbs  appear  only  in  the  singular  number,  the  idea  of 
plurality  being  expressed  in  some  other  way.  Abbreviation  is  constantly 
practised.  To  illustrate  this,  Captain  Clark  gives  the  following  imaginary 
speech:  "I  arrived  here  to-day  to  make  a  treaty.  I  have  with  me  one 
hundred  lodges,  which  are  camped  beyond  tlie  Black  Hills,  near  the  Yel- 
lowstone River.  You  are  a  great  chief  Take  pity  on  me,  for  I  am  poor, 
and  I  have  five  children  who  are  sick  and  without  food.  The  snow  is 
deep  and  the  weather  very  cold. "  The  signs  used  to  convey  this  would 
be  those  for  the    following  words  :   "I  —  arrive  —  to-day  —  make  treaty. 

—  My  —  hundred  —  lodge  —  camp  —  beyond  —  Hills  —  Black  —  near  — 
River —  Elk.      —  You  —  chief  —  great  — to  pity  —  I  —  poor  —  my  —  five 

—  child  —  sick  —  food  —  wiped  out  — .     Snow  —  deep  —  cold  —  strong. ' ' 

2.  Inarticul.\te  Speech. 

The  cries  of  animals  and  the  wails  and  croonings  of  infants  are  exam- 
ples of  inarticulate  speech.  So  also  are  many  of  the  interjections  and 
emotional  expressions  of  adult  men.  The  vocal  sounds  produced  in  ad- 
dressing animals  are  generally  inarticulate  ;  that  is  to  say,  they  are  not 
divided  by  consonants  and  vowels  into  words  arranged  in  grammatical 
sequence.  A  dog  is  called  by  whistling,  swine  by  a  prolonged  vowel- 
sound,  horses  are  urged  to  a  faster  gait  by  vocal  clucks.  The  phonetic 
elements  which  appear  in  inarticulate  speech  may  be  entirely  different 
from  those  in  the  articulate  language  of  the  locality.  Thus,  in  the  United 
States  both  horses  and  dogs  are  admonished  by  vocal  utterances  produced 
by  inspiration,  while  not  a  single  inspirant  occurs  in  any  Aryan  language, 
and  scarcely  in  any  on  the  globe,  e.xcept  the  idioms  of  the  Bushmen  and 
Hottentots  of  South  Africa.  The  half-articulate  baby  language  in  which 
parents  among  the  Iroquois  talk  to  their  very  3'oung  children  contains 
labials,  a  class  of  sounds  wholly  absent  from  the  adult  speech  of  the 
tribe. 

The  spontaneous  expressions  of  the  emotions  are  generally  inarticulate. 
The  scream  of  pain,  the  cry  of  joy,  the  exclamation  of  surprise  or  fright, 
are  not  words,  but  mere  sounds,  corresponding  to  the  utterances  of  ani- 
mals under  similar  conditions.  These  have  already  been  referred  to  as 
one  of  the  possible  sources  of  true  speech  (see  p.  50). 

How  little  even  the  most  cultivated  nations  are  removed  from  those 
"touches  of  nature  which   make   the  whole  world   kiu "  is  seen  in  the 


84  ETHNOLOGY. 

meaningless  chorus  to  many  popular  songs  thrown  in  simply  as  emotional 

stimulants,  as  Shakespeare's 

"  Heigho  ho  !  sing  heigho  ho!     Ho!  the  green  holly," 

or  the  melancholy  Jaques' 

"  Ducdame,  diicdame,  ducdame," 

which  we  may  understand  as  an  intentional  travesty  on  immeaning  cho- 
ruses, and  which  he  explains  satirically  as  "a  Greek  invocation  to  call 
fools  into  a  circle." 

There  is,  however,  a  certain  measure  of  sound  philosophy  in  them. 
The  emotional  nature  more  readily  sways  to  the  gusts  of  passion  when  it 
is  wholly  uncontrolled  by  the  intelligence.  Sounds  which  are  outbursts 
of  feeling  only,  true  "  songs  without  words,"  are  therefore  more  sure  to 
elicit  a  response  in  the  bosom  of  the  audience  than  those  which  are 
framed  in  intelligible  words,  which  occupy  the  intellect  by  communicating 
to  it  definite  ideas.  The  prima  donna  who  sings  wild  notes  of  passion  to 
an  audience  who  do  not  understand  her  language  is  more  popular  than  she 
who  recites  the  noblest  songs  of  the  common  tongue.  The  chants  of  all 
rude  nations  are  largely  made  up  of  these  inarticulate  sounds,  sometimes 
altogether  so.  The  Comanche  dance-song  is  a  monotonous  repetition  in 
the  minor  key  of  the  syllables 

He  ya!  a!  he! 
He  ya!  a !  he ! 
He  ya !     a !     he !  etc. 

The  war-song  of  the  Iroquois  runs — 

We  yo  hi  yo  we  hi  an, 
We  yo  hi  yo  we  hi  an,  etc. 

In  neither  instance  have  the  syllables  any  meaning.  The}'  are  used  solely 
to  excite  and  maintain  a  certain  emotional  condition. 

The  language  of  affection  approaches  this  inarticulate  condition  by 
dropping  or  altering  the  consonants  of  the  usual  speech,  lengthening  to 
an  extraordinary  degree  the  vowels,  and  indulging  in  frequent  repetitions. 
The  most  celebrated  example  of  this  in  the  English  language  is  Swift's 
correspondence  with  "Stella"  and  "Vanessa,"  but  it  is  everywhere 
familiar  to  lovers  and  to  "baby-talk."  Even  among  the  Tchuktchis  of 
Siberia,  Nordenskjold  relates  that  the  girls  when  they  would  show  their 
affection  lisped  in  a  softened  and  altered  speech. 

3.  Articulate  Speech. 

From  the  above  we  have  seen  that  gesture  and  grimace  on  the  one 

hand,  and  inarticulate  cries  on  the  other,  make  up  very  effective  means 

of  communication,  and  that  the  latter  is  in  some  respects  a  more  efficient, 

and  therefore  to  this  day  a  more  popular,  avenue  to  convey  and  excite  the 


ETHNOLOGY.  85 

emotions  than  any  other.  For  a  long  time  probably  they  sufficed  for  the 
wants  of  the  human  race.  But  sign-language  has  one  great  drawback  : 
it  requires  the  light  for  its  exercise,  whereas  it  is  especially  in  the  loneli- 
ness of  the  night  and  darkness  that  man  yearns  for  companionship  and 
the  exchange  of  thoughts.  This  as  much  as  anything  else  was  probably 
the  motive  that  urged  him  to  cultivate  with  particular  assiduity  his  vocal 
organs  and  to  train  them  to  articulate  speech.  As  has  previously  been 
suggested,  this  was  at  first  principally  by  imitation,  either  of  natural 
sounds  or  of  his  own  inarticulate  cries.  An  eminent  authority  on  the 
subject,  I^rofessor  W.  D.  Whitney,  remarks:  "Spoken  language  began 
when  a  cry  of  pain,  wnmg  out  by  real  suffering,  was  repeated  in  imitation, 
no  longer  as  a  mere  instinctive  utterance,  but  for  the  purpose  of  intimating 
to  another  '  I  am  suffering  ;'  when  an  angry  growl,  the  direct  expression 
of  passion,  was  reproduced  to  signify  disapprobation  and  threatening  ; 
and  the  like." 

Articulate  differs  from  inarticulate  speech  both  in  the  phonetic  laws  on 
which  it  is  based  and  in  the  faculties  to  which  it  is  addressed.  Articulate 
sounds  are  made  up  of  a  succession  of  vowels  and  consonants,  the  former 
emitting  a  continuous  sound,  which  the  latter  cut  and  break  in  a  variety 
of  ways,  thus  forming  what  we  call  syllables.  These,  either  standing 
alone  or  combined,  make  up  trords,  each  representing  some  perception  or 
idea  of  the  intellect.  This  is  the  meaning  or  signification  of  the  word, 
and  when  it  is  uttered  the  same  idea  is  evoked  in  the  mind  of  the  hearer, 
provided  he  has  already  been  taught  the  connection  between  the  two. 
In  most  instances,  as  has  been  intimated,  this  connection  is  wholly  arti- 
ficial, and  its  knowledge  is  a  matter  of  education.  The  sound  represents 
the  thought,  but  the  association  is  an  imaginary  and  factitious  one.  Were 
it  otherwise,  were  the  relation  between  the  two  real  and  permanent,  there 
would  be  but  one  language  on  the  globe,  and  it  would  be  unchangeable. 

From  this  statement  it  will  be  apparent  that  while  inarticulate  lan- 
guage addresses  exclusively  the  emotional  nature,  articulate  speech  is 
directed  primarily  and  solely  to  the  intellectual  faculties  ;  and  this  consti- 
tutes a  second  and  fundamental  difference  between  the  two  varieties. 

Influence  of  a  Language  on  /hose  Speaking  it. — The  importance  of  a 
study  of  languages  for  the  purposes  of  ascertaining  their  relationship  and 
tracing  them  to  their  common  ancestral  stock,  and  thus  under  certain  re- 
strictions demonstrating  the  affinities  of  nations,  has  already  been  adverted 
to  (p.  49)  as  a  prominent  branch  in  the  science  of  Ethnology.  But  this 
is  by  no  means  the  only  service  which  linguistics  is  prepared  to  furnish 
that  science,  perhaps  not  the  most  important  one.  The  far  more  abstruse 
but  vital  question  remains  to  be  considered  :  What  influence  has  the  lan- 
guage of  a  nation  on  its  thinking  powers,  and  through  these  on  all  its 
capacities  and  fate? 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  sounds,  the  genius,  and  the  forms  of  a 
language  are  mainly  traditional  and  hereditary  ;  they  are  heirlooms  handed 
down  from   anterior  generations  ;  and  the  national   mind  is  chained  to 


86  ETHNOLOGY. 

them  by  fetters  which  it  cannot  break,  and  does  not  seek  to,  because  it  is 
not  aware  of  their  existence.  All  its  thoughts  are  cast  in  the  moulds 
thus  inherited,  nor  is  it  capable  of  receiving  the  conceptions  of  tongues 
which  have  wider  schemes  of  linguistic  life.  For  example,  in  many 
lower  languages  there  is  no  passive  voice,  and  no  substantive  verb  ex- 
pressing abstracth-  the  notion  "to  be."  It  is  quite  certain  that  individ- 
uals who  have  grown  to  adult  j'ears  in  the  use  of  such  tongues  only,  can 
never  be  brought  to  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  ideas  which  we  express 
by  the  grammatical  forms  mentioned. 

Where  such  differences  between  languages  are  numerous,  and  where 
they  include  conceptions  which  are  essential  to  the  higher  flights  of  the 
intellectual  faculties,  it  is  evident  that  the  nation  lacking  these  qualities 
in  its  language  is  put  to  a  serious  disadvantage  in  the  progressive  march 
of  the  race.  It  may,  in  fact,  be  by  this  condition  absolutely  incapacitated 
from  reaching  the  higher  levels  of  culture  as  long  as  it  preserves  its  nati\'e 
tongue  unchanged.  So  important  did  this  aspect  of  linguistics  appear  to 
one  of  the  profoundest  writers  of  this  century,  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt, 
that  he  devoted  the  last  and  greatest  work  of  his  life  to  a  demonstration 
of  the  influence  which  the  structural  differences  of  human  speech  exert 
on  the  mental  development  of  the  race. 

Copious  l^ocabitlarics  not  a  Proof  of  Excellence. — Although  in  that 
work  Humboldt  laid  down  with  clearness  the  principles  of  this  branch  of 
ethnological  science,  many  erroneous  opinions  still  prevail  on  the  subject. 
Thus  it  is  often  stated  in  writings  of  scientific  pretensions  that  rude  lan- 
guages have  limited  vocabularies,  and  that  a  copious  supply  of  words  and 
synonymous  expressions  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  a  superior  tongue. 
Both  statements  are  quite  erroneous.  One  might  as  well  say  that  the 
interminable  gabbling  of  some  men  is  a  proof  of  superior  intellectual 
gifts.  It  is  usually  just  the  reverse.  So  it  is  with  nations.  Within  the 
range  of  their  ideas  savages  have  frequently  far  more  copious  vocabularies 
than  civilized  nations.  Thus  it  has  been  estimated  that  the  natives  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  one  of  the  lowest  tribes  of  this  continent,  have  a  vo- 
cabulary of  thirty  thousand  words,  but  it  is  all  within  the  limits  of  the 
most  concrete  ideas,  and  is  an  exhausting  catalogue  of  petty  distinctions. 
The  Eskimos  have  twenty  words  to  signify  fishing  for  particular  kinds  of 
animals,  as  seals,  walrus,  whales,  etc.,  but  have  no  word  signifying  "to 
fish"  in  general.  So,  many  American  dialects  possess  words  with  the 
meanings  "to  eat  hard  things,"  "to  eat  soft  things,"  "to  eat  meat," 
"  to  eat  fruit,"  etc.,  but  no  general  word  "  to  eat."  Such  apparent  rich- 
ness is  actual  poverty,  and  the  student  would  be  led  widely  astray  who 
should  quote  it  as  a  proof  of  the  superiority  of  these  tongues.  It  is  not 
the  mere  extent,  but  the  range  and  character  of  the  vocabulary  that  are 
decisive  in  such  cases. 

Regiilarily  of  Structure. — Nor  does  regularity  of  structure  or  an  abun- 
dance of  grammatical  forms  offer  any  guarantee  that  a  language  belongs 
among  those  of  the  highest  rank.     On  the  contrary,  both  these  traits  are 


ETHNOLOGY.  87 

more  common  in  tongues  of  a  low  order  of  development.  Wliere  all 
verbs  are  regular  and  have  but  one  conjugation,  as  is  tlie  case  in  various 
South  American  dialects  and  in  others  in  India,  it  is  indicative  of  a  lack 
of  picturesqueness  and  force  in  the  language  which  reacts  injuriously  on 
its  speakers.  The  very  abundance  of  forms  is  a  clog  to  the  intellect, 
diverting  the  attention  from  the  main  and  central  thought  of  the  proposi- 
tion to  occupy  it  with  a  quantity  of  useless  accessory  details.  This  is 
markedly  the  case  in  many  American  languages.  To  illustrate  it  we  may 
quote  the  example  given  by  Major  J.  W.  Powell  in  his  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Indian  Languages:  "A  Ponca  Indian,  in  saying  that  a  man 
killed  a  rabbit,  would  have  to  say,  '  The  man,  he,  one,  animate,  standing, 
in  the  nominative  case,  purposely,  killed,  by  shooting  an  arrow,  the  rabbit, 
he,  the  one,  animate,  sitting,  in  the  objective  case  ;'  for  the  form  of  a 
verb,  to  kill,  would  have  to  be  selected,  and  the  verb  changes  its  form  by 
inflection  and  incorporated  particles  to  denote  person,  number,  and  gender 
as  animate  or  inanimate,  and  again  as  standing,  sitting,  or  lying,  and  case  as 
nominative,  objective,  etc. ;  the  form  of  the  verb  would  also  express  whether 
the  killing  was  done  accidentally  or  purposely,  and  whether  it  was  done 
by  shooting  or  by  some  other  process,  and,  if  by  shooting,  whether  by 
bow  and  arrow  or  with  a  gtm  ;  and  the  form  of  the  verb  would  in  like 
manner  have  to  express  all  these  things  relating  to  the  oljject  ;  that  is, 
the  person,  number,  gender,  and  case  of  the  object ;  and  from  the  multi- 
plicity of  forms  of  the  verb  '  to  kill '  this  particular  one  would  have  to 
be  selected.  Perhaps  one  time  in  a  million  it  would  be  the  purpose  to 
express  all  these  particulars,  and  in  that  case  the  Indian  would  have  the 
whole  expression  in  one  compact  word  ;  but  in  all  the  remaining  cases  in 
the  million  all  of  these  particulars  would  have  to  be  thought  of  in  the 
selection  of  the  form  of  the  verb,  when  no  valuable  purpose  would  be 
accomplished  thereby." 

Capacity  to  Express  Thojights. — Nor  can  we  accept  the  capacity  of  a 
language  to  express  thoughts  as  an  evidence  of  its  excellence.  It  is  a 
fact  proved  by  the  records  of  missionary  labors  in  savage  lands  that  the 
mysteries  of  religion,  which  are  among  the  most  recondite  of  all  medita- 
tions, can  be  conveyed  in  the  forms  of  any  tongue  yet  discovered,  though 
new  words  may  have  to  be  introduced.  It  is  not  at  all  certain,  however, 
that  those  native  born  to  these  tongues  understand  the  j^hrases  as  do  their 
teachers.  But  the  fact  remains  that  the  forms  of  the  most  barbarous  lan- 
guages are  such  that  they  may  be  developed  to  admit  the  expression  of 
any  kind  of  idea. 

True  Superiority  of  Language. — The  true  superiority  of  a  language  is 
.shown  not  in  one  but  in  several  particulars.  Its  tones,  the  phonetic  ele- 
ments which  make  up  its  aljihabet,  must  be  clear,  positive,  and  harmoni- 
ous; its  grammatical  structure  must  present  the  leading  elements  of  the 
proposition  in  their  simplicity,  unencumbered  by  superfluous  detail,  and 
permit  the  secondary  elements  to  be  grouped  around  them  in  subordinate 
positions  with  a  correct  sense  of  linguistic  perspective. 


88  ETHNOLOGY. 

A  language  which  lias  these  characteristics  will  correspond  most  pre- 
cisely in  its  expressions  with  the  logical  processes  of  thought,  and  will 
thus  favor  clear  and  progressive  thinking  and  prompt  comprehension.  It 
will  therefore  act  on  the  national  mind  as  a  stimulus  and  an  incentive  to 
intellectual  pursuits. 

Progress  of  Language. — Language  being  a  faculty  natural  to  man,  it 
is,  like  all  his  faculties,  capable  of  constant  improvement,  and  has  steadily 
advanced  along  with  his  other  powers.  The  leading  principle  of  its 
growth  and  improvement  is  strictly  ethnological.  It  is  found  in  the  cross- 
ing of  bloods  on  a  large  scale  by  the  repeated  intermixture  of  nations 
speaking  different  tongues.  Those  forms  of  speech  often  looked  upon 
with  contempt,  the  jargons,  dialects,  and  mixed  languages,  are  in  reality 
the  strong  and  healthy  shoots  put  forth  from  an  ancient  stock,  proving  its 
\'igor;  and  in  the  end  these  scions  will  be  green  and  vigorous  when  the 
ancient  tree  is  withering  in  a  dry  rot.  As  an  eminent  linguist  has  elo- 
quently said,  "The  seemingly  aimless  and  confused  intenninglings  of 
primitive  tribes  sowed  the  seed  for  the  flowers  of  speech  and  song  which 
flourished  in  centuries  long  posterior"  (Wilhelm  von  Humboldt). 

Admixtures. — If  it  be  asked  in  what  manner  the  admixtures  of  lan- 
guages lead  to  their  improvement,  the  reply  is,  That  they  are  thus  obliged 
to  drop  all  unnecessary  accessor}-  elements  in  a  proposition;  that  the  rela- 
tions of  ideas  must  be  expressed  by  conventional  and  not  significant  syl- 
lables, thus  defining  the  distinction  between  the  material  and  the  merely 
formal  parts  of  a  sentence;  and  that  the  limitations  of  thought  imposed 
by  the  genius  of  a  language  are  violently  broken  down,  and  the  mental 
powers  are  allowed  full  sway.  Furthermore,  the  vocabular}'  is  en'riched 
by  new  words,  and  with  these  words  come  new  ideas. 

As  examples  to  illustrate  opposite  conditions  of  language  in  these 
respects  we  may  mention  the  Chinese  and  the  English.  The  former 
has  remained  without  crossings  and  without  important  intermixture  for 
four  thousand  years;  the  latter  is  an  extremely  composite  product  of  recent 
growth.  The  Chinese  were  a  civilized  and  literary  people  when  the  ances- 
tors of  the  English  were  wild  savages;  but  the  Chinese,  uninfluenced  by 
external  influence  and  tied  down  to  the  limits  of  a  singularly  inexpressive 
language,  sank  into  a  state  of  mental  torpidity,  until  now  they  have  been 
left  far  behind  by  all  the  more  mobile  nations  of  the  Western  World. 

Undoubtedly,  up  to  a  certain  point  a  tongue  can  be  cultivated  within 
its  own  limits  by  enriching  its  vocabulary,  separating  and  classifying  its 
grammatical  elements,  fixing  the  meaning  of  current  compounds,  and  by 
forming  new  ones  according  to  the  genius  of  its  structure;  but  this  will 
only  earn-  it  a  limited  distance,  where  it  will  lag  and  become  inert  unless 
vivified  by  au  admixture  of  foreign  elements  both  in  words  and  forms. 

4.  Recorded  Speech. 
A  striking  illustration  of  the  influence  which  the  genius  of  different 
languages  has  exerted  on  the  destiny  of  nations  and  their  position  in  the 


ETHNOLOGY.  89 

sca]e  of  civilization  has  been  the  effect  whicli  the  structure  of  idioms  has 
had  on  the  discovery  and  development  of  the  art  of  writing.  We  need 
not  emphasize  what  a  powerful  lever  this  art  has  been  in  lifting  nations 
from  savagery  to  civilization.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  civilization 
in  its  higher  sense  is  impossible  without  it.  History  has  no  existence, 
and  the  brightest  examples  and  noblest  actions  are  soon  lost  in  oblivion, 
except  by  the  intervention  of  this  "art  preservative  of  arts."  Yet  such 
are  the  extreme  difficulties  which  languages  of  the  incorporating  and 
isolating  classes  (see  p.  52)  present  to  the  application  of  a  phonetic  alpha- 
bet, that  it  is  the  opinion  of  most  linguists  that  had  all  tongues  come 
under  these  classes  the  alphabet,  as  we  understand  it,  could  never  have 
been  devised. 

Most  nations,  indeed,  not  on  the  very  lowest  planes  of  savagery,  have 
devised  some  means  of  recording  ideas  for  temporary  and  immediate  ends. 
There  have  also  been  several  independent  discoveries  in  different  parts 
of  the  world  of  what,  using  the  term  in  a  broad  sense,  we  may  call  "writ- 
ing," including  in  this  term  any  method  which  conveys  ideas  by  the  sense 
of  sight. 

Various  Systems  of  Writing. — All  forms  of  writing  come  under  one  of 
two  categories:  (i)  the  thought  is  either  conveyed  directly,  or  (2)  it  is  con- 
veyed by  evoking  in  the  memory  the  sound  of  the  spoken  word  express- 
ing the  thought.  This  leads  to  the  fundamental  distinction  of  "  thought- 
writing"  and  "sound-writing." 

A.  Thought-Writing. — The  oldest  and  simplest  form  of  all  writing  is 
a  picture.  It  is  independent  of  language  and  is  understood  by  all  men. 
An  Indian  once  called  at  a  settler's  house  in  Western  Pennsylvania  and 
asked  for  food.  The  settler  drove  him  away  with  abuse.  In  a  few  min- 
utes the  Indian  returned  with  a  shingle  on  which  he  had  rudely  drawn  in 
charcoal  an  Indian  driving  his  tomahawk  into  the  brain  of  a  white  man, 
the  latter  being  distinguished  by  his  clothes.  The  meaning  of  the  mis- 
sive was  significant  enough,  and  the  son  of  the  forest  promptly  obtained 
his  repast. 

Picture-Writing. — Such  a  method  maybe  called  "writing  with  pic- 
tures." True  "picture-writing"  is  something  much  more  complicated. 
In  it  there  is  no  attempt  to  represent  in  line  and  color  the  transaction  as 
it  did  or  might  take  place,  but  the  figures  are  symbols  only  of  the  ideas 
for  which  they  stand.  While  the  meaning  of  the  picture  is  intelligible 
at  once  to  any  one  who  is  acquainted  with  the  circumstances  to  which  it 
relates,  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  elements  of  picture-writing.  They 
must  be  learned,  and  the  connection  of  the  symbol  with  the  idea  under- 
stood, before  its  meaning  becomes  obvious.  To  take  a  few  examples  from 
the  American  tribes,  we  may  instance  the  sinuous  horizontal  line  among 
the  Mexicans,  which  meant  water.  It  was  intended  to  suggest  the  rip- 
pling surface  of  a  stream  or  pond.  The  picture  of  an  arrow-head  meant 
"warrior;"  of  a  particular  headdress,  "noble,"  bccau.se  only  the  noble 
classes  were  permitted  to  wear  it;  with  the  Algonkius,  a  square  stood  for 


90  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  earth,  because  they  believed  it  to  be  a  vast  square  plain;  a  circle  sig- 
nified a  divinity,  apparently  becaiise  it  is  complete  in  itself;  a  zigzag  line 
was  rain,  because  it  is  often  accompanied  by  lightning,  which  has  that 
form,  etc.  It  will  be  seen  from  these  few  examples  that  the  connec- 
tion between  the  symbol  and  the  idea  is  often  so  remote  that  it  requires 
a  close  knowledge  of  the  customs  and  beliefs  of  the  nation  in  order  to 
discover  it   (see  //.  53,  fig.  9). 

Picture-writing  of  this  general  cliaracter  was  in  common  use  among 
most  of  the  tribes  of  North  America,  and  rose  to  considerable  perfection 
among  the  nations  of  Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  can  also  distinctly 
be  traced  in  the  oldest  inscriptions  of  China  and  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 
Its  separate  figures  are  called  "ideograms,"  and  they  have  never  been 
entirely  superseded  by  any  other  system.  During  the  Middle  Ages  they 
constituted  the  foundation  of  the  heraldic  art,  and  to  this  day  the  Arabic 
numerals,  many  marine  signals,  and  various  conventional  signs  used  in 
commerce  attest  the  recognized  superiority  of  ideograms  for  certain  pur- 
poses. Indeed,  the  numerous  efforts  made  to  invent  a  universal  written 
language,  one  which,  like  the  numerals,  will  be  intelligible  to  all  nations, 
all  agree  in  contemplating  a  system  of  picture-  or  thought-writing  as 
the  ideally  perfect  one. 

Qiiipus. — We  must  include  in  this  form  of  writing  the  plan  pursued 
by  the  ancient  Peruvians  in  their  quipits.  These  were  series  of  knotted 
cords,  var}-ing  in  size,  length,  color,  and  thickness.  Each  of  these  pecu- 
liarities, as  well  as  the  forms  of  the  knots,  had  a  recognized  signification, 
so  that,  the  general  sense  of  the  whole  being  known,  the  details  could  be 
ascertained  from  the  quipu  itself.  Not  only  were  the  accounts  of  the 
kingdom,  the  reports  of  the  taxes,  and  the  number  of  fighting-men  thus 
kept  with  accuracy,  but  also  the  past  history  of  the  nation,  the  verses  of 
songs  and  dramas,  and  the  mj-tlis  of  their  religion.  Although  nowhere 
else  developed  to  such  a  system,  a  similar  method  of  recording  ideas  was 
observed  among  some  of  the  natives  of  Siberia;  and  the  frequent  habit 
with  some  among  ourselves  of  tying  a  knot  in  the  handkerchief  to  recall 
an  idea  or  fact  to  mind  is  a  familiar  proof  of  how  naturally  it  would  sug- 
gest itself  for  the  purpose    (see  pi.  53,  fig.  12). 

B.  Sound-V/riting. — The  progression  from  thought- to  sound-writing 
was  a  gradual  one,  and  was  greatly  favored  by  the  phonetic  constitution 
of  certain  languages.  It  came  about,  in  the  first  place,  by  the  simple 
method  of  the  rebus,  still  familiar  as  a  puzzle  among  the  games  of  chil- 
dren, and  by  the  presence  in  a  tongiie  of  a  number  of  homophonous  words 
— /.  c.  those  having  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  sound,  but  with  different 
meanings. 

The  difference  between  the  rebus  and  picture-writing  is  that  the  former 
refers  to  the  sound  and  the  latter  to  the  idea.  Thus  in  picture-writing  the 
concept  "  pencil "  could  be  conveyed  by  the  actual  picture  of  that  object, 
or  symbolically  by  a  V-shaped  mark,  representing  its  sharpened  point ; 
while  by  the  rebus  we  should  have  the  figure  or  symbol  of  a  pen  and  that 


ETHNOLOGY.  91 

of  a  sill,  these  two,  in  sound,  forming  pen-cil,  although  any  other  relation 
between  a  door-  or  window-sill  and  a  pencil  is  as  remote  as  possible. 

This  method  was  common  in  the  heraldry  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  was 
that  most  familiar  to  the  Aztecs.  The  English  family  of  Bolton  carried 
as  their  arms  the  device  of  a  crossbow  shaft,  a  bolt^  driven  through  a  cask, 
a  titn.  The  complex  figure  by  which  the  name  of  the  emperor  Monte- 
zuma is  represented  in  the  Aztec  codices  is  composed  of  a  part  of  a  trap, 
the  head  of  an  eagle,  a  lancet,  and  a  band.  In  the  Nahuatl  language  the 
words  corresponding  to  these  (their  terminations  omitted)  are  mo-cauh-20- 
via^  which  closely  appro.ximated  the  Nahuatl  pronunciation  of  the  name. 
The  old  hieroglyphic  script  of  Egypt,  which  was  just  emerging  from  the 
condition  of  picture-writing,  displays,  especially  in  some  of  the  cartouches 
recording  proper  names,  a  utilization  of  the  same  simple  device. 

Let  us  proceed  a  step  forward,  and  suppose  that  such  a  method  of 
writing  the  two  sounds  "pen-cil"  had  become  general.  Soon  it  would 
be  noticed  that  the  figure  for  the  sound  pen  represented  as  many  mean- 
ings as  that  sound  had  in  the  spoken  language — in  English  not  only/^v/, 
an  instrument  used  for  writing,  \>vl1  pcn^  a  small  enclosure  for  beasts,  and, 
dialectically,  a  headland.  All  these  would,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  be 
grouped  under  the  same  symbolic  figure.  Where  such  homophones  were 
very  numerous,  as  is  the  case  in  monosyllabic  languages  like  the  Chinese, 
in  which  the  same  syllable  may  have  a  score  of  totally  diverse  meanings, 
sonre  sign  would  be  added  to  designate  which  was  intended.  This  is 
secured  in  the  script  of  that  tongue  b)'  what  are  called  determinatives^ 
accessory  signs  indicating  to  what  class  of  objects  the  main  sign  refers. 

Cliincse  and  Japanese  Systems. — The  genius  of  the  Mongolian  tongues 
did  not  favor  a  further  differentiation  of  their  phonetic  elements.  Those 
idioms  are  largely  monosyllabic  and  isolating,  and  they  distinguish  the 
different  meanings  of  a  monosyllable  by  pronouncing  it  with  a  rising,  a 
falling,  an  intermediate,  or  a  varied  inflection  of  the  voice  not  capable 
of  reproduction  in  an  alphabetic  notation.  Hence  they  never  developed 
an  alphabet,  and  do  not  find  it  convenient  to  employ  any  that  have  been 
proposed.  They  still  content  themselves  with  their  unwieldy  apparatus 
of  nearly  eighty  thousand  characters  (including  the  combinations),  though 
it  requires  a  lifetime  to  learn  tlie  half  of  them. 

When  in  the  third  century  of  our  era  the  Japanese  became  acquainted 
with  the  Chinese  system  of  writing,  the  influence  upon  it  of  their  poly- 
syllabic and  more  or  less  inflected  language  soon  became  evident.  Al- 
though they  retained  a  certain  number  of  its  ideograms,  they  analyzed 
most  of  its  complications  down  to  a  limited  number  of  syllables.  As 
every  syllable  in  Japanese  must  be  "open" — that  is,  must  begin  with  a 
consonant  and  end  with  a  vowel — their  number  was  limited,  especially  as 
the  old  Japanese  had  but  ten  consonants  and  five  vowels.  Omitting  cer- 
tain combinations  which  do  not  occur  in  the  spoken  language,  it  is  found 
that  the  seventy-two  syllabic  signs  which  constitute  the  modern  Japanese 
alphabet  render  the  language  in  an  eutirel)-  satisfactor}'  manner. 


92 


ETHNOLOGY. 


Cuneiform. — Another  form  of  s>-llabic  writing,  independently  devel- 
oped in  all  likelihood,  was  that  preserved  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
of  the  valley  of  Mesopotamia.  The  nation  using  it  was  known  as  the 
Accadian,  but  their  relationship  has  not  been  ascertained.  Some  faint 
resemblances  to  the  Finnish  and  allied  tongues  have  been  pronounced 
inconclusive  by  the  best  authorities.  The  cuneiform  writing  is  extremely 
difficult  from  the  absence  of  fixity  in  the  sounds  represented.  Thus,  a 
sign  may  mean  either  a  closed  or  an  open  syllable  containing  the  vowel 
(/.  c.  one  ending  with  a  consonant  or  a  vowel),  and  it  may  convey  quite 
different  consonantal  values.  For  example,  the  sign  for  the  syllable  kn 
stands  also  for  the  syllables  tits.,  /""',  and  diir ;  the  sign  for  li  \x\z.y  also  be 
pronounced  gip  and  Jiim  (Friedrich  Miiller).  With  such  obstacles  as  this 
to  contend  with,  and  the  language  and  all  its  descendants  being  extinct, 
it  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  modern  science  that  the  study  of  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  has  conquered  so  wide  a  field  of  positive  results  as  has  been 
the  case. 

Ancient  Egyptian. — An  analysis  of  speech  to  its  ultimate  phonetic 
elements — in  other  words,  an  approach  toward  an  alphabet  of  letters — was 
first  achieved  in  ancient  Egypt,  but,  as  we  shall  soon  see,  not  there  in  its 
puritv.  The  Egyptians  began  with  picture-writing,  and  soon  advanced 
to  svllabic  writing.  But,  unlike  the  Chinese,  the  spirit  of  their  language 
did  not  lead  them  to  stop  there.  The  ancient  Coptic  was  a  language  of 
inflection  (see  p.  52);  it  possessed  a  series  of  syllables  which  served  to 
express  the  relations  of  ideas  and  the  position  of  each  idea  with  reference 
to  others.  It  was  also  a  language  possessing  many  homophones.  B\'  the 
latter  it  offered  the  facility  for  extending  the  signification  of  the  figure 
representing  a  sound.  By  the  former  certain  sounds  were  recognized  as 
belonging  to  the  formal  parts  of  the  language,  and  soon  became  separated 
from  the  others.  To  quote  the  example  offered  by  Prof.  F.  IMiiller,  we 
may  take  the  word  for  "brother,"  in  Coptic  son:  son-t.,  sister;  son-u^ 
brothers  ;  pa-son.,  the  brother  ;  ta-son-t,  the  sisters  ;  son-a^  my  brother  ; 
son-k,  thy  brother  ;  son-/,  his  brother  ;  son-a)i,  our  brother,  etc.  These 
suffixes  and  prefixes  are  repeated  with  every  word  as  the  sense  demands, 
and  the  ancient  scribe  would  soon  be  led  to  have  separate  figures  not  only 
for  the  syllables  /(7,  ta,  an,  but  for  the  single  elements  /,  n,  a,  k,  f,  thus 
making  a  long  stride  toward  a  true  alphabet.  He  would  find  that  the 
same  sign  would  answer  for  the  sound  a  whether  it  was  a  prefi.x  or  a 
suffix,  whether  it  was  a  whole  word  or  a  mere  particle  added  or  inserted. 

To  this  extent  the  Egyptians  had  carried  their  system  of  writing  at  an 
early  date,  and  its  different  steps  are  plainly  perceptible  in  their  inscrip- 
tions and  manuscripts.  The  figure  of  a  house,  in  Coptic  per,  stands  for 
the  syllable /cr/  the  figure  of  a  ram,  ba,  for  the  s\'llable  ba ;  and  so  on. 
This  is  indeed  only  a  kind  of  syllabic  picture-writing.  But  in  the  same 
inscription  we  may  find  true  alphabetic  writing,  as  when  the  figure  or 
symbol  of  an  owl,  in  Coptic  nnilag,  stands  for  the  letter  ;;/  /  that  of  the 
mouth,  7-0,  for  the  letter  r ;  of  the  lion,  laboi,  for  the  letter  //  and  the  like. 


ETHNOLOGY.  93 

Afcxicnn  or  Aztec. — The  ancient  Mexicans  had  carried  their  system 
ahnost  to  the  same  extent.  They  not  onh-  had  pictures  expressing  certain 
syllables,  but  some  defining  particular  letters,  and  they  combined  them  to 
spell  words.  Thus,  the  Aztec  hieroglyph  of  the  great  plateau  of  Apan 
was  the  sinuous  line  for  water,  in  Nahuatl  all.,  or,  the  termination  dropped, 
simply  rt',  and  the  figure  of  a  banner,  paiilli  ox  pan.  Here  the  first  repre- 
sented a  single  letter,  the  latter  a  closed  s)llable. 

But  neither  the  Egyptians  nor  the  Aztecs  learned  to  avail  themselves  of 
the  full  advantages  of  the  system  which  they  had  carried  to  this  point  with 
such  inventive  skill.  Alongside  of  these  true  phonetic  elements  they 
retained  many  ideograms,  and  even  actual  pictures  ;  they  made  use  of 
"determinatives,"  as  described  in  the  Chinese  s)'stem  (see  p.  91);  and  they 
did  not  confine  one  sign  to  one  sound,  and  thus  carr)'  a  fixed  phonetic 
principle  through  all  their  system  of  writing.  It  was  reserved  for  other 
groups  of  nations,  under  the  stimulus  of  wideh--difrerent  linguistic  struc- 
ture, to  overcome  these  difficulties,  and  to  give  to  the  method  of  recording 
thought  its  final  requirements  to  adapt  it  to  the  needs  of  civilization. 

Early  Seinilic. — First  of  these  groups  in  point  of  time  were  the  Semitic 
nations,  especially  those  of  Babylonia  and  Phoenicia.  There  can  be  no 
reasonable  doubt  that  their  oldest  scripts  were  learned  from  "the  wis- 
dom of  the  Egyptians"  and  were  syllabic  in  nature.  But  as  such  they 
were  by  no  means  suited  to  the  genius  of  the  Semitic  languages.  These 
have  certain  traits  in  which  they  stand  alone  among  all  languages  of 
men.  They  are  built  on  a  series  of  so-called  "verbal  roots,"  each  of 
which  consists  of  three  consonantal  sounds.  The  changes  of  meaning, 
which  in  most  Aryan  tongues  are  obtained  by  affixes,  are  in  the  Semitic 
dialect  produced  by  altering  the  vowel  inserted  between  these  three  con- 
sonants. To  show  this  by  an  example,  we  may  take  the  three  consonants 
k — / — b.  In  the  Semitic  dialects  this  arrangement  conveys  the  idea  of 
"writing"  or  the  act  "  to  write,"  indefinitely.  Placing  the  vowel  a  after 
each  consonant,  ka  la  ba,  it  means,  "he  has  written  ;"  substituting  an  11 
for  the  first  a — thus,  ku  la  ba — we  have  "  it  has  been  written  ;"  lengthen- 
ing the  first  a  and  alt-ering  the  last  to  an  ?^,  ka  la  bti,  gives  the  present 
participle  "writing;"  and  so  on. 

Evidently,  to  a  nation  with  a  language  fotmded  like  this  upon  conso- 
nants, and  whose  vowels  appeared  or  disappeared  obediently  to  fixed  laws, 
it  was  practically  sufficient  to  express  the  consonantal  soinids,  but  it  was 
most  important  to  accomplish  this  with  the  utmost  precision.  Hence,  in 
modifying  the  Egyptian  writing  to  suit  their  needs  they  rejected  all  its 
vowel  elements,  and  confined  their  borrowing  to  just  enough  signs  to 
express  each  definite  consonant  of  their  tongue.        , 

Such  remained  the  character  of  the  various  Semitic  alphabets  for  many 
generations.  The  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  inscription  on  the  Moab- 
ite  Stone,  and  inscriptions  from  Carthage  and  Phoenicia  and  other  localities, 
were  all  written  in  consonants  only  and  without  marks  for  vowel-sounds. 
Custom,  the  sense  of  the  passage,  and  tradition  were  supposed  to  be  sufli- 


94  ETHNOLOGY. 

cient  to  suggest  the  proper  vowels  to  the  inind.  But  in  time  these  were 
found  to  be  inadequate  to  the  purpose.  The  rendering  of  the  ancient  books 
became  obscured;  even  the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  sacred  name 
Jehovah  fell  into  discussion  among  the  doctors  of  the  law;  so  that  tlie 
employment  of  vowel-sounds  became  indispensable.  They  were  not, 
however,  placed  in  the  word,  on  an  equality  with  the  consonants,  but 
above  or  below  them,  as  of  secondary  importance,  and  were  not  develop- 
ments of  an  ancient  form  of  writing,  but  an  artificial  device  of  scholars. 

Grceco-Italic. — Finally,  the  GrjEco-Italic  nations,  receiving  the  Semitic 
alpliabet  b3'  the  way  of  Phoenicia  and  the  trading  ports  of  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
supplied  it  at  an  earlier  date  than  histor\'  records  with  the  vowels  which  it 
lacked  in  order  to  render  it  a  proper  exponent  of  vocal  expression.  The 
vowel  elements  were  placed,  not  as  inferior,  but  as  equal  to  the  consonants, 
and  inserted  in  the  word  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  heard  by  the  ear. 
This  also  was  a  necessary  step  forced  upon  them  by  the  inflectional  struc- 
ture and  polys}'llabic  character  of  their  languages,  thus  illustrating  again 
the  profound  influence  which  the  diversity  of  linguistic  structure  has 
exerted  on  the  development  of  the  intellectual  nature  of  man. 

5.    Poetry  and  Prose. 

Poetry  has  been  called  "the  nati-\'e  language  of  the  human  race." 
Certain  it  is  that  no  nation  has  been  disco\'ered  so  brutish  or  so  forlorn 
that  it  did  not  stimulate  its  emotions  and  cheer  its  hours  of  gloom  with 
song  of  some  kind.  The  Eskimos  of  the  dark  and  frozen  North  are 
devoted  lovers  of  singing  and  music.  When  one  feels  himself  insulted 
by  another,  he  does  not  seek  some  bloody  revenge,  but  challenges  him  to 
a  combat  of  song,  where  each  sings  satirical  verses  reflecting  on  the  other, 
and  they  separate  with  their  honor  as  well  satisfied  as  two  French  editors 
who  have  met  in  a  duel,  the  sword  having  drawn  from  one  or  the  other 
some  drops  of  blood. 

Poetry  appeals  to  the  emotional,  prose  to  the  intellectual,  nature;  the 
former  aims  to  stir  the  imagination,  the  latter  to  enrich  the  intellect.  As 
one  or  the  other  is  predominant  in  the  spoken  or  written  literature  of  a 
nation,  its  ambitions  and  actions  are  directed  by  cool  calculation  or  by 
passion. 

Poetry  is  intimately  connected  with  the  art  of  music.  The  chants  of 
the  humblest  tribes  are  accompanied  by  some  rude  instruments  which 
serve  to  beat  time;  and  the  latest  analysis  of  the  accents  and  feet  of  the 
lines  of  the  ripest  poets  seems  to  demonstrate  that  they  are  in  accord  with 
the  principles  of  musical  notation   (Sidney  Lanier). 

Rhyme  in  Poetry. — Rhyme  does  not  constitute  a  general  feature  of 
poetry.  In  most  languages  it  is  unknown,  and  in  some  it  would  be 
impossible  or  nearly  so.  It  was  unfamiliar  to  and  disregarded  by  the 
masters  of  verse  in  classical  Greece  and  Rome.  The  quantity  of  the 
vowels  in  their  stately  idioms  was  sufficient  to  their  ears,  although  the 
mediaeval  Latinists  proved  how  readily  that  tongue  lends  itself  to  rhythmi- 


ETHNOLOGY.  95 

cal  effects.  In  modern  times  it  has  different  principles  in  tongnes  of  near 
relationship.  The  charming  assonance  of  the  Spanish  cannot  be  imitated 
in  other  Romance  dialects,  still  less  in  intractable  English.  The  allitera- 
tion which  is  agreeable  in  Anglo-Saxon  is  nnbearable  in  modern  French 
and  distasteful  beyond  very  moderate  limits  in  English. 

These  and  like  peculiarities  depend  upon  the  structure  of  languages, 
and  react  directly  or  indirectly  on  the  life  of  nations.  We  must  be  con- 
tent with  giving  them  a  passing  reference  to  indicate  how  worthy  they 
of  the  attentive  study  of  the  ethnologist. 

IV.  TECHNOLOGY,  OR   THE   ARTS. 

Art  in  its  widest  sense  may  be  defined  as  "  Knowledge  applied  to  the 
modification  of  the  natural  condition  of  objects."  It  has  been  styled 
"the  main  force  ot  culture,"  and  the  endeavor  has  been  made  to  classify 
all  nations  and  to  subdivide  all  history  with  reference  to  industrial  art 
alone  (Hittell).  Though  to  concede  to  it  such  an  all-jjowerful  influence 
as  this  is  to  overlook  the  claims  of  the  other  elements  in  national  life, 
the  condition  of  the  arts  in  any  community  does  indeed  serve  as  a  con- 
venient, obvious,  and  generally  accurate  measure  of  its  advancement. 

Classification. — For  purpo.ses  of  ethnological  study  the  arts  may  be 
classified  luider  three  categories,  with  reference  to  the  object  they  are 
intended  to  produce,  and  the  needs,  real  or  fancied,  of  the  human  mind 
which  promoted  their  development.     These  are — 

1.  The  Utilitarian  Arts; 

2.  The  .5)sthetic  Arts; 

3.  The  Religious  Arts. 

This  arrangement  is  probably  also  that  of  the  order  in  which  they 
arose,  the  demands  of  utility  preceding  those  of  decoration,  and  the  relig- 
ious inspirations  of  art  arriving  subsequent  to  both  the  others. 

I.    THE    UTILITARIAN    ARTS. 

There  could  have  been  no  time  in  the  history  of  the  race  when  man 
was  ignorant  of  all  the  arts,  nor  has  any  nation  been  discovered  which  has 
not  achieved  very  positive  conquests  in  some  of  them.  Indeed,  several  of 
them  are  familiar  to  many  of  the  lower  species,  and  are  practised  either  in 
obedience  to  instinct  or  through  knowledge  to  a  remarkable  degree.  To 
take  familiar  examples:  we  have  all  witnessed  the  judgment  and  skill 
with  which  birds  locate  and  construct  their  nests,  and  the  ability  of  the 
beaver  and  the  ant  in  this  direction  is  proverbial.  The  hog  wallows  in 
the  mire  in  order  to  cover  himself  with  a  coating  of  mud  and  thus  defend 
himself  against  the  heat  and  the  insects,  and  the  native  of  the  Upper 
Amazon  daubs  himself  with  similar  moist  clay,  his  only  clothing,  for  the 
same  purpose. 

Classification  by  Prnrliic/s. — We  may  arrange  the  different  arts  of 
utility  in  a  scheme  which  will  approximately  be  that  of  their  historic 
origin  and  of  their  indispensability  to  man,  as  follows: 


96  ETHNOLOGY. 

1.  Tools  and  Utensils; 

2.  Weapons  of  War  and  the  Chase; 

3.  Buildings; 

4.  Clothing; 

5.  Means  of  Transportation; 

6.  Weights  and  Measures; 

7.  Media  of  Exchange. 

I.  Tools  and  Utensils. 

The  tool  is  not  the  end  or  aim  of  art,  but  its  means;  it  is  a  prerequisite 
to  further  steps  in  the  march  of  invention,  and  is  devised  to  enable  man 
to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  material  which  he  wishes  to  bring  under 
his  control  and  apply  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  wants.  Early  and  rude 
tools  serve  many  purposes.  The  sharpened  flint  of  the  savage  ciits  and 
shapes  his  arrow,  carves  and  skins  the  animal  which  is  slain,  dresses 
its  hide  and  scrapes  its  sinews  into  strings  and  its  claws  into  ornaments, 
and  takes  the  place  of  all  the  thousand  implements  in  modern  work- 
shops. But  here,  as  elsewhere  in  nature,  the  general  law  of  progress, 
which  is  none  other  than  the  application  of  the  principle  of  "differentia- 
tion and  specialization,"  came  soon  into  play,  and  tools  were  devised  for 
limited  and  special  purposes. 

Early  Stone  Tools, — Such  a  sharpened  flint  or  other  hard  stone  was 
probably  the  first  of  tools  fashioned  by  the  pre-historic  man,  and  to  this  day 
has  not  fallen  out  of  use.  As  a  "flesher"  to  flay  cattle  just  such  a  stone 
implement  as  is  excavated  from  the  Ohio  mounds  is  itsed  now-a-days  in 
some  of  the  great  meat-packing  houses  of  the  Western  United  States. 
Nothing  better  adapted  to  perform  the  work  neatly  and  expeditiously 
has  been  devised. 

The  stone  axes,  chisels,  and  celts  of  the  earlier  strata  of  Europe  and 
Asia  approximate  closely  in  form  to  those  in  use  by  the  American 
Indians  at  the  period  of  the  discovery.  This  does  not  demand  for  its 
explanation  that  the  one  nation  borrowed  from  the  other,  but  that  simply 
this  was  the  most  convenient  and  appropriate  shape  of  the  tool,  and  as 
such  it  suggested  itself  spontaneously  everywhere  to  the  primiti\-e  artisan. 
That  these  seemingly  rude  tools  are  more  effective  than  we  are  apt  to  sup- 
pose was  illustrated  a  few  years  ago  by  a  Danish  antiquary,  who  placed 
some  of  these  stone  implements  from  the  Danish  kitchen-middens  in  the 
hands  of  ordinary  workmen,  and  with  them,  the}'  constructed  a  well- 
finished  and  even  picturesque  log  cabin. 

The  Alamifactiire  of  Stone  Tools. — From  some  remains  in  very  ancient 
strata  in  France  the  opinion  has  been  advanced  that  the  first  method  of 
making  such  stone  tools  was  by  placing  large  masses  of  flint  in  the  fire, 
which  would  si^linter  its  surface  into  sharp-edged  spalls  (]\Iortillet).  But 
striking  two  stones  together  to  bring  one  of  them  to  a  cutting  edge  is  so 
simple  a  procedure  that  we  may  well  suppose  it  was  coeval  with  the  most 
primitive  manufacturing.    Only  a  long  time  subsequently  do  we  find  speci- 


4 


ETHNOLOGY.  97 

mens  the  edges  of  wliicli  present  neat  parallel  cliippings  and  symuietrical 
forms.  The  arts  of  grinding,  polishing,  and  boring  came  slowly  into  use, 
but  were  brought  to  a  singular  degree  of  perfection.  They  were  carried 
out  b\-  the  aid  of  sharp  silicious  sand — the  boring  by  twirling  a  hollow 
reed,  its  point  being  supplied  with  this  sand  moistened  with  water. 
These  simple  devices,  backed  by  an  unlimited  supply  of  patience,  enabled 
the  native  artisan  to  turn  out  some  pieces  of  work  which  have  excited  the 
surprise  of  civilized  experts.  Thus,  a  specimen  of  Aztec  work  in  hard 
stone  is  preserved  which  represents  a  coiled  snake,  through  the  length  of 
whose  body,  following  each  sinuosity,  runs  a  clean,  well-cut  i^erforation. 

The  Haiiiiner,  etc. — For  pounding  and  beating,  a  stone  so  shaped  that 
it  could  conveniently  be  grasped  in  the  hand  was  the  implement  offered 
by  nature.  Its  power  was  greatly  increased  by  fastening  it  with  a  withe 
or  cord  to  the  end  of  a  stick  or  perforating  it  with  a  hole  for  the  handle. 
This  formed  the  hammer,  and  so  clearly  is  its  origin  preserved  in  its  name 
that  the  word  hammer^  in  Old  German  hamar,  is  considered  by  some  et}'- 
mologists  a  derivative  of  the  Sanskrit  word  for  stone. 

Knives,  scrapers,  chisels,  hoes,  adzes,  drills,  awls,  gouges,  and  numer- 
ous other  tools  were  deftly  chipped  or  pecked  from  stone,  and  in  Mex- 
ico long,  keen-edged  obsidian  flakes  were  even  employed  as  razors,  and 
answered  the  purpose  quite  well.     (See  Stoxe  Age  and  illus.  Vol.   II.) 

Metal  Tools. — The  discovery  of  metals  was,  however,  that  which  gave 
the  greatest  impulse  to  the  industrial  arts,  especially  the  compound  of 
copper  and  tin  known  as  bronze,  and  later  iron  and  steel.  The  ancient 
nations  fully  appreciated  what  a  wondrous  boon  these  had  been,  and  hon- 
ored correspondingly  the  labor  of  the  surith,  assigning  a  position  among 
the  highest  gods  to  the  patron  and  founder  of  the  art  of  working  metals. 
Thus,  among  the  Greeks  Hephrestos,  among  the  Latins  Vulcan,  and 
among  the  ancient  Germans  Thor,  were  represented  with  their  hammers, 
and  the  myths  related  wonders  of  their  skill  at  the  anvil.  The  old  Norse- 
men dreamed  of  no  nobler  employment  for  their  gods  than  the  creative 
art-work  of  the  smithery.  Thus  their  ancient  song,  the  "  Voluspa,"  tells 
how 

"  The  Aes,Ti'  come  together  on  the  Ida  field ; 

Houses  ami  havings  hiijh  they  heap  up. 

Unearthing  iron,  beating  the  bronze, 

Forge  they  the  forceps  and  the  tough  tools." 

The  earliest  of  the  metals  employed  for  tools  was  generally  copper. 
It  is  abundant,  and  often  found  of  such  purity  that  it  can  be  hammered 
into  shape  without  heating.  Of  such  beaten  native  copper  are  the  knives, 
chisels,  and  scrapers  exhumed  in  quantities  from  the  mounds  of  the  Ohio 
and  IMississippi  Valleys.  For  many  purposes  it  is  too  soft,  but  the  dis- 
covery was  early  made,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  that  a  small 
amount  of  tin,  from  2  to  10  per  cent.,  adds  greatly  to  its  hardness,  fonn- 
ing  what  is  known  as  ttroiize.  Although  tin  is  a  scarce  metal,  there  were 
a  few  localities — notably  Cornwall  iu  England  and  the  province  of  Tlachco 
Vol.  I.— 7 


98  ETHNOLOGY. 

in  Mexico — where  it  was  abundant,  and  from  these  sources  it  was  widely 
dispersed  bj-  commerce,  so  that  bronze  was  common  throughout  Central 
and  Southern  Europe  and  the  Aztec  dominions  of  Mexico  at  the  dawn  of 
history.     (See  Broxze  Age  and  illus.  Vol.   II.) 

Iron,  wliich  has  been  said  to  have  "conquered  the  world,"  although 
so  abundant  in  many  parts  of  America,  had  never  become  known  to  its 
inhabitants  for  practical  uses  ;  whereas  it  was  perfectly  familiar  and  in 
large  use  among  the  Egyptian  and  Semitic  nations  in  the  remotest  ages 
of  which  we  have  any  record.  From  its  names  in  both  these  linguistic 
stocks,  it  appears  to  have  been  brought  originally  from  Persia  (Schrader). 

Bone,  Horn,  etc. — Other  materials  for  tools  were  bone  and  horn,  shells 
and  wood.  All  these  date  back  to  the  highest  antiquity,  and  the  skill 
with  which  they  were  used  would  surprise  the  modern  mind.  So  accus- 
tomed are  we  to  numerous  and  carefully  adapted  tools  that  we  scarcely 
understand  how  much  can  be  accomplished  with  those  of  the  rudest  pat- 
tern. In  a  previous  paragraph  (p.  62)  it  has  been  stated  that  the  Ca\-e 
men  of  ancient  Europe  captured  the  most  ferocious  Carni\-ora  in  pitfalls. 
They  doubtless  excavated  such  in  the  simple  manner  observed  among  the 
Indians  of  Pennsylvania  by  a  traveller  in  the  last  century.  These  selected 
long  poles  and  sharpened  the  ends  in  a  fire.  They  then  plunged  them 
into  the  soil,  and  with  their  hands  scooped  out  the  earth  thus  loosened. 
Repeating  this  procedure,  they  had  soon  excavated  a  deep  pit. 

2.  Weapons. 

These  may  be  classed  as  they  are  designed  for  offensive  and  defensive 
purposes.  Of  offensive  weapons,  the  oldest  are  doubtless  the  stone  and  the 
club,  the  former  for  hurling  from  a  distance,  the  latter  for  the  hand-to- 
hand  conflict  in  which  the  heroes  of  vore  took  grreat  delieht. 

The  Club. — The  club — at  first  the  rough  limb  of  a  tree,  as  that  knottv 
cudgel  of  wild  olive-wood  which,  according  to  Homer,  was  the  mighty 
weapon  of  Herakles — became  later  more  of  the  nature  of  a  hammer,  like 
those  "rough-headed  stones  held  in  iron  swathes  "  which  O'Curr}-  describes 
as  forming  the  war-clubs  of  the  ancient  Celts.  They  were  in  common  use 
far  down  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Froissart  describes  a  doughty  man-at- 
arms  in  Brittany  who  wielded  one  weighing  forty  pounds. 

The  Bow-and-Arrow. — The  bow-and-arrow,  though  demanding  con- 
siderable ingenuity  to  devise,  was  widely  known  in  both  continents  and 
was  invented  far  back  in  the  Stone  Age.  The  "darts  "  or  "arrow-heads" 
chipped  by  the  hunters  and  warriors  of  times  not  long  Post-glacial  are 
exhumed  in  abundance  in  both  Europe  and  America  (see  above,  p.  26). 
Yet  the  cultivated  people  of  Peru,  warlike  as  they  were,  made  little  or  no 
use  of  the  bow.  But  this  may  not  have  been  through  ignorance.  The 
early  Roman  legionaries  rejected  the  bow,  and  relied  exclusively  on  the 
sling,  the  javelin,  and  the  sword. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  bow  developed  into  the  powerful  crossbow  with 
its  short  bolt.     But  to  this  day  the  simple  original  form  is  in  frequent  use 


ETHNOLOGY.  99 

among  the  natives  of  the  American  continent  and  some  parts  of  Asia  and 
Africa. 

The  Spear. — The  spear  was  at  first  merely  a  sharpened  stick  hurled 
point  foremost  against  the  foe.  To  render  it  more  effective,  a  tip  of  horn, 
bone,  or  chipped  flint  was  added.  With  a  short  shaft  it  formed  the  jav- 
elin, a  favorite  missile  in  the  classic  days  of  Greece  and  Rome;  and  with  a 
longer  shaft,  the  lance,  which  the  Northmen  warriors  used  for  both  hurl- 
ing and  thrusting.  Both  varieties  recur  in  America,  the  Iroquois  and 
Algonkins  knowing  only  the  short  spear,  usually  with  stone  tip  and  locust- 
wood  shaft,  while  the  natives  of  Guatemala  fought  with  very  long  lances 
of  straight  reeds  with  copper  and  stone  tips.  The  cavalry  of  some 
European  armies — notably  the  Cossacks — still  prefer  the  lance  for  their 
encounters. 

The  Sivord. — The  sword  gradually  grew  from  the  stone  knife,  as  the 
names  it  bears  testify.  The  "Saxons"  means  the  "swordsmen,"  and 
j("(7.r,  the  name  of  the  sword  in  Anglo-Saxon,  is  akin  to  the  Latin  saxiim^ 
stone.  Like  the  dagger,  like  the  short  sword  of  the  Roman  soldier,  and 
that  still  in  use  for  duelling,  it  was  intended  to  thrust  with.  A  weapon 
swung  like  the  modern  broadsword  was  also  in  early  and  extended  use. 
In  ]\Iexico  the  handle  and  blade  were  of  wood,  the  latter  edged  with  keen 
chips  of  obsidian,  while  in  the  Pacific  islands  the  saw-like  teeth  of  the 
shark  offered  an  equally  appropriate  material  to  render  the  weapon  of 
murderous  efficacy. 

Firearms. — The  discovery  of  gunpowder  revolutionized  the  methods 
of  offensive  warfare,  and  with  it  was  introduced  a  variety  of  new  weapons 
far  surpassing  those  mentioned  above,  which  gradually  have  been  falling 
into  desuetude. 

Defensive  weapons  have  always  kept  pace  with  those  for  offence,  and 
in  some  eras  have  surpassed  them.  Their  beginning  is  seen  in  the 
straight  stick  with  which  the  naked  Australian  wards  off  the  spears  of  his 
assailants.  The  shield  of  leather  or  of  wood  is  referred  to  in  the  earliest 
records  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  The  helmet  and  cuirass,  or  breast- 
plate, were  protections  familiar  to  nations  of  a  riper  cultivation.  In  the 
armies  of  ancient  Asia  they  were  of  leather  or  metal  ;  in  those  of  Central 
America,  of  quilted  cotton,  the  latter  so  thick  and  cumbrous  that  they 
impeded  flight  and  gave  the  Spaniards  easy  victories. 

Ar7nor. — From  these  beginnings  were  developed  the  plate  and  chain 
armor  of  the  INIiddle  Ages  with  its  graceful  outlines  and  artistic  flutings. 
It  reached  perfection  in  the  fifteenth  century,  at  which  date  the  defensive 
weapons  had  so  far  outstripped  those  of  offence  that  it  is  matter  of  history 
that  in  Italy  two  armies  fought  from  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  until 
four  in  the  afternoon  not  only  without  loss  of  life,  but  without  a  wounded 
man  on  either  side  !  The  introduction  of  firearms  .soon  put  a  stop  to  this 
agreeable  but  indecisive  mode  of  war.  So  potent  ha\c  mi.ssiles  now 
become  that  the  reverse  condition  has  been  reached  and  personal  defensive 
armor  of  all  kinds  has  been  thrown  aside  as  useless.     What  is  retained  in 


loo  ETIIXOLOGY. 

some  European  armies — the  helmet  and  tlic  breastplate  of  the  German 
cuirassiers,  for  example — is  for  ornament  only,  a  mere  reminiscence  of 
the  past. 

3.    r.UILDINGS. 

Tlie  structures  which  man  erects  are  intended  to  subserve  one  of  two 
purposes  :  they  are  either  shelters  from  the  weather  or  they  are  defences 
against  his  foes  ;  the  one  or  the  other  character  prevailing  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  decide  on  the  form,  material,  and  location  adopted. 

Primitive  Shelters. — We  may  suppose  there  was  a  period  when  the 
creature  called  man  did,  as  the  poets  would  have  us  believe,  dwell  in 
caves  and  hollow  trees.  But  communities  have  never  been  found  of 
whom  this  was  literally  true,  nor  does  the  analogy  of  nature  require  it. 
Man,  like  the  beaver,  the  squirrel,  and  the  birds,  belongs  to  a  home- 
building  species,  and  probably  always  buildcd.  The  savages  who  peopled 
Buenos  Ayres  when  the  great  ice-sheet  had  scarcely  disappeared  from  the 
surface  of  its  vast  plains,  and  wlio  were  coeval  with  the  fossil  horse,  col- 
lected the  thick  armor-plates  of  glyptodons,  and  with  them  constructed 
shelters  against  the  storms  (Florentine  .^meghino).  The  naked  Botocudos 
of  the  Brazilian  forest  and  the  "  blackmen  "  of  Australia  know  how  to 
bend  saplings  together  and  thatch  them  with  leaves  as  a  protection  against 
the  tropical  sun  and  showers    (see  pi.  5,  Jig.  4;  comp.  //.  45,  Jig.  6). 

It  is  instructive  to  note  how  strongly  nations  differ  in  this  art. 
Some  are  persistent  builders,  utilizing  whatever  material  they  have  at 
hand,  while  others  seem  unable  to  avail  themselves  of  the  most  obvious 
hints  of  nature.  This  is  seen  within  the  limits  of  the  same  race.  Thus, 
the  ancient  Peruvians,  of  different  tongues  but  of  similar  characteristics, 
constructed  edifices  of  wood  and  stone,  of  bricks,  concrete,  and  thatch 
with  equal  facility  as  one  or  the  other  material  was  abundant ;  while  the 
tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi,  several  of  them  of  signal  intelligence,  never 
in  any  instance  rose  to  the  level  of  laying  stones  to  form  a  wall.  In  an- 
cient India  the  Dravidian  tribes  offered  examples  of  the  same  contrast  of 
dispositions.  In  the  Arctic  zone  the  Eskimo  with  admirable  ingenuity 
builds  his  dome-shaped  winter-house  of  blocks  of  snow,  and  reserves  his 
skin  tent  for  summer  ;  but  the  Lapp  and  Samoied  have  for  ages  been 
exposed  to  a  similar  climate  and  never  developed  this  skill. 

A  skeleton  of  poles  covered  with  skins,  leaves,  or  mats  was  in  most 
climates  the  first  artificial  shelter,  and  long  survived  in  the  "osier  huts" 
of  the  English  peasantry.  As  they  were  of  such  perishable  material, 
they  left  no  traces.  Nomadic  tribes  still  cling  to  the  tent  of  skin  or 
woven  stuff,  which  they  can  readily  fold  and  carry  to  their  next  camping- 
ground.  Agricultural  occupations  demanded  more  permanent  residences. 
They  were  at  first  usually  of  wood.  Where  this  was  scarce,  clay  was 
kneaded  and  baked  in  the  sun  to  form  adobes,  or  sun-dried  bricks,  which 
could  be  laid  firmly  in  the  wall  by  a  mortar  of  the  wet  clay  itself  All 
the  so-called  brick  building  in  ancient  America  was  of  this  character. 
Hardening  the  bricks  by   "kiln-drying"  was  unknown. 


ETHNOLOGY.  loi 

Stone  JFalls  without  Mortar. — Stone  walls  were  at  first  "  drv  walls," 
the  separate  pieces  laid  to<,^ether  as  they  would  fit  most  securely.  Such 
were  the  "Cyclopean"  or  Pelasg-ic  walls  of  Greece,  the  constructors  of 
which  are  lost  in  the  night  of  time  ;  and  such  were  the  walls  of  those 
equally  obscure  and  far  more  wonderful  remains  on  Lake  Titicaca  in  Peru. 
Nowhere  else  was  this  system  carried  to  such  perfection  as  in  the  last- 
mentioned  country.  Many  of  the  "  Inca  walls"  remain  as  marvels  to 
this  day.  The  stones,  often  of  gigantic  size,  are  so  accurately  jointed  and 
adapted  one  to  the  other,  without  the  use  of  any  cement,  that  not  even  a 
knife-blade  can  be  inserted  between  them  ;  and  this  after  the  lapse  of  four 
or  five  centuries  since  they  were  laid  in  the  wall    (see  //.  52,  figs.  2,  8). 

Sloue  Walls  with  Mortar. — The  mingling  of  lime — at  first  obtained 
from  burnt  shells — with  sand  to  form  mortar  led  to  a  further  development 
of  building.  It  was  an  independent  discovery  in  different  localities.  In 
America  its  northern  geographical  limit  is  marked  by  the  "cliff-houses" 
of  the  cafious  of  the  Colorado.  These  birdnest-like  dwellings,  perched 
on  the  sides  of  lofty  precipices,  are  of  stones  laid  in  a  gray  and  exceed- 
ingly tenacious  mortar.  In  some  specimens  from  ancient  Eg}'pt  and 
Rome  the  stone  or  brick  itself  will  give  way  before  the  cement  in  which 
it  is  laid. 

Elements  ofi  Architecture. — Of  the  elements  of  architecture,  the  pillar 
and  the  arch  are  the  most  noteworthy.  The  pillar  was  doubtless  sug- 
gested by  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  which  supports  its  branching  foliage,  and 
the  "roof-tree"  was  the  central  object  in  the  halls  of  our  Indo-European 
ancestors,  against  which  the  roof  was  laid  from  the  walls.  Both  square 
and  circular  pillars,  .sometimes  with  developed  capitals,  were  common  in 
Central  American  architecture,  and  occurred  occasionally  in  that  of  Pcni, 
more  rarely  in  Mexico.  In  ancient  Greece,  as  is  well  known,  the  pillar 
attracted  the  most  earnest  attention  of  builders,  and  upon  its  different 
styles  was  founded  their  scheme  of  the  "orders  of  architecture." 

The  arch  was  doubtless  suggested  by  the  lodge-poles,  leaned  one 
against  the  other  and  touching  at  the  top.  This  forms  the  angular  or 
pointed  arch,  and  in  its  likeness  the  most  primitive  stone  arches  are 
formed  by  laying  stones  one  on  another,  each  .slightly  overlapping  or 
"corbelling  inward,"  so  that  ultimately  the  opposite  walls  meet  at  the 
top.  This  is  the  plan  of  the  Eskimo  snow-huts,  of  the  "treasuries"  of 
Mycenae  and  Tiryns,  and  probably  of  all  the  so-called  arches  of  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  Peru.  The  true  arch,  "a  curved  structure  sup- 
ported by  its  own  curve,"  was  probably  not  known  to  any  nation  of  the 
New  World,  nor  to  any  extent  to  the  Eg>ptians,  but  was  a  discovery  of 
the  ancient  Assyrians,  from  whom  it  was  learned  by  the  Etruscans,  and 
through  them  passed  to  the  Romans.  Its  modification  by  the  Lombards 
into  the  Gothic  arch  with  its  flying  buttress  and  rich  decorations  led  to 
the  construction  of  the  most  impressive  monuments  of  man's  handiwork. 

IiifiiiC7ice  of  Domestic  Architecture. — Building  for  shelter — by  which 
term  wc  mean  house-architecture — has   an  ethnological  importance  far 


I02  ETHNOLOGY. 

beyond  its  application  to  elucidate  the  history-  of  culture.  It  stands  in 
intimate  relationship  to  the  institutions,  usages,  and  customs  of  a  people, 
and  is  powerfulh'  instrumental  in  deciding  upon  their  status  in  the  scheme 
of  civilization.  This  has  been  ably  demonstrated  by  an  eminent  Ameri- 
can ethnologist,  Mr.  Lewis  H.  Morgan,  who  has  set  forth  his  arguments 
in  a  work  published  by  the  Government  entitled  Houses  and  House-Life 
of  the  American  Aborigines^  but  intended  in  its  scope  to  be  explicative 
of  the  domestic  relations  of  ancient  society  in  general.  His  view  is  that 
the  primitive  family — using  this  term  to  include  as  many  persons  of  both 
se.xes  as  could  live  together  in  friendship — constructed  and  occupied  one 
large  dwelling,  in  which  they  resided  with  a  community  of  goods  and 
often  with  a  promiscuity  of  sexes.  These  are  called  "communal"  or 
"joint-tenant"  houses.  Good  examples  of  them  are  offered  by  the  long 
cabins,  sometimes  three  hundred  feet  long  by  twenty  wide,  of  the  Indians 
of  New  York  (Iroquois  and  Algonkins),  of  Vancouver  Island  (the  Hai- 
dahs),  and  of  the  Babanus  (the  Arawacks);  by  the  huge  adobe  structures 
of  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  New  Mexico — sometimes  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate five  thousand  souls;  and  by  the  so-called  "palace"  of  the  king 
of  Tezcuco,  more  than  twelve  hundred  feet  square.  j\Ir.  Morgan  even 
carries  his  theory  so  far  as  to  explain  the  religious  structures  of  Central 
America  as  communal  houses. 

Although  it  is  probable  that  in  some  directions  his  explanations  will 
not  be  justified  by  future  research,  his  suggestions  of  the  relations  of 
domestic  architecture  to  social  life  are  most  deserving  the  attention  of 
the  student  of  early  man;  for  upon  these  relations  depend  the  notions 
of  property,  the  system  of  relationship,  the  position  of  the  sexes,  and  the 
form  of  government. 

Buildings  for  Defence. — The  methods  of  building  for  defence  began 
with  the  rude  barricade  of  branches  and  logs  or  of  loose  earth  and  stones 
which  the  savage  drags  or  throws  up  for  a  protection  for  his  house  against 
wild  beasts  and  human  foes.  Such  is  the  humble  origin  which  is  marked 
on  our  word  town^  which  meant  originally  any  place  enclosed  with  a  hedge 
or  branches;  and  when  we  speak  oi political  bodies,  we  employ  a  word  wdiich 
means  a  community  protected  by  a  wall  of  thrown-up  earth  (Schrader). 

Primitive  Furts. — The  simple  forts  of  the  tribes  of  the  eastern  coast 
of  North  America,  as  described  by  early  travellers,  were  circular  embank- 
ments of  earth  a  few  feet  in  height,  upon  which  was  erected  a  palisade  of 
upright  logs  woven  together  with  withes  and  branches  (Ettwein).  This 
description  answers  also  for  the  "  rings  "  of  the  Tartar  hordes  who  invaded 
Europe  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries;  and  the  extensive  embankments 
of  the  Ohio  Valley,  containing  millions  of  cubic  feet  of  earth  and  con- 
structed by  some  long-extinct  nation,  are  finer  examples  of  the  same 
character.  They  bespeak  for  erection  the  labor  of  a  large  body  of  work- 
men directed  to  the  carrying  out  of  a  matured  plan  of  defence. 

Walls  of  Defence. — In  later  and  more  cultivated  ages  the  primitive 
mound,    earth  embankment,    and   external   ditch   were   replaced   by   the 


ETHNOLOGY.  103 

city-wall  of  cut  stone,  with  its  moat,  its  bastions,  and  its  massive  towers 
and  gates.  Sometimes  such  works  were  of  colossal  dimensions,  as  the 
wall  which  Adrian  built  to  keep  at  bay  the  Picts  and  Scots,  or  that  great- 
est of  all  which  for  centuries  protected  the  northern  frontier  of  China 
aeainst  the  hordes  of  Turanian  nomads. 

At  the  period  of  the  introduction  of  gunpowder  defensive  architecture 
was  so  perfected  that  many  a  town  and  castle  could  bid  defiance  to  every 
means  of  capture  save  famine.  The  introduction  and  improvement  of 
cannon  and  the  art  of  springing  mines,  thus  shattering  the  thickest  walls, 
changed  all  that.  Now-a-days  the  great  mediseval  cities  have  razed  their 
walls  and  filled  their  moats;  even  the  massive  fortresses  of  the  last  century 
are  perceived  to  be  of  no  avail  against  modern  ordnance;  and,  by  a  curious 
reversion,  the  most  skilled  military  engineers  have  gone  back  to  the  low 
earth  embankments  of  the  primitive  savage  as  the  surest  defences  in  war. 

4.  Clothing. 

Unlike  all  the  man-like  mammals,  man  himself  is  almost  devoid  of 
any  protection  in  the  nature  of  hair  or  fur  on  his  body.  To  explain  this 
has  been  a  puzzle  to  evolutionist  philosophers,  and  it  must  be  acknow- 
ledged that  they  have  not  offered  any  satisfactory  solution.  Whatever  its 
cause,  one  of  its  consequences  undoubtedly  was  that  very  early  in  his  his- 
tory he  sought  for  some  means  to  "  hide  his  nakedness."  This,  and  not 
protection  against  the  cold,  was  probably  what  prompted  him  first  to 
devise  apparel.  By  custom  man  becomes  exceedingly  indifferent  to 
changes  in  temperature.  Some  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  Canada  went 
nearly  naked  throughout  the  year.  In  the  damp,  cold  climate  of  South- 
ern Patagonia  the  natives  care  little  for  wraps  of  any  kind.  Of  course  in 
warmer  latitudes  they  are  altogether  superfluous.  As  related  in  the  earl- 
iest Hebrew  records,  it  was  the  sense  of  modesty  that  first  prompted 
human  beings  to  frame  for  themselves  garments.  Modesty,  however,  is 
by  no  means  the  same  all  the  world  over:  those  portions  of  the  body  which 
the  people  of  one  nation  consider  the  most  indelicate  to  display  are  by 
others  shown  without  a  thought  of  impropriety. 

Variations  in  the  Feelings  of  Modesty. — Curious  contrasts  exist  between 
nations  in  this  respect.  The  wonren  of  parts  of  Arabia  and  Egypt  do  not 
hesitate  to  bathe  in  public  places  if  only  their  faces  are  veiled;  while  in 
Europe  that  is  the  only  portion  of  her  person  which  a  lady  can  display 
uncovered.  The  Hottentot  women  often  appear  naked  except  the  head, 
which  on  no  account  would  they  uncover;  while  to  remove  the  hat  is  the 
ordinary  salutation  of  a  European  gentleman.  The  natives  of  the  Philip- 
pine and  Navigator  Islands  think  it  most  indecorous  to  allow  the  navel  to 
be  visible,  but  they  attach  no  importance  to  concealing  any  other  part  of 
the  person.  When  Captain  Speke  was  approaching  the  kingdom  of 
Uganda  in  Central  Africa  his  guide  doubted  whether  the  white  traveller 
would  be  admitted  to  His  Majesty's  presence  on  account  of  the  indecent 
attire  of  pantaloons,  the  court  ceremonial  being  absolute  that  every  male 


I04  ETHNOLOGY. 

must  appear,  on  pain  of  death,  in  flowing  garments,  concealing  his  legs, 
although  the  female  attendants  of  the  king  went  naked.  To  speak  of  or 
to  look  at  the  small  foot  of  a  Chinese  lady  is  a  gross  breach  of  decorum; 
and  in  some  Bedouin  tribes  the  most  insulting  request  to  a  woman  would 
be  that  she  should  remove  the  cap  from  the  back  part  of  her  head  (Peschel). 

These  and  other  examples  illustrate  how  artificial  are  the  directions 
taken  by  the  sense  of  modesty;  but  they  also  prove  its  wide  appearance  as 
a  part  of  human  nature.  Few  if  any  tribes  have  been  found  wholly  devoid 
of  it,  and  it  generally  is  directed  to  the  concealment  of  those  portions  of 
the  frame  whose  functions  are  disagreeable  to  others. 

Materials  of  Clothing. — The  first  material  of  clothi:ig  may  have  been 
the  traditional  fig  or  other  leaves,  but  the  skins  of  animals  must  rank 
almost  coeval  with  them.  Far  back  in  the  Stone  Age  we  come  across 
punches  and  awls  evidently  intended  for  perforating  hides  to  allow  the 
insertion  of  strings,  thus  fitting  them  into  garments.  Even  in  the  rein- 
deer caves  of  France  bone  needles  are  found  with  an  eye  in  their  head  for 
carrying  the  thread.  This  was  a  long  step  in  advance  of  the  punch  or 
awl,  though  the  latter  still  holds  its  own  in  the  hand-sewing  of  the  ma- 
terial for  which  it  was  first  invented — skins  or  leather.  Bronze  needles 
of  excellent  workmanship  turn  xip  amid  the  remains  of  the  Swiss  Lake- 
dwellers.  They,  and  with  them  the  art  of  sewing,  remained  practically 
the  same  from  pre-historic  times  to  our  own  day,  when  the  inventive 
genius  of  Howe  took  the  next  stride  in  the  art  of  clothing  by  placing  the 
eye  in  the  point  instead  of  in  the  head  of  the  needle,  and  thus  rendered 
possible  the  completion  of  the  sewing-machine. 

No  long  time  could  have  been  required  for  the  early  tribes  to  note  that 
their  aprons  of  leaves  or  of  bark  depended  for  their  strength  on  the  fibres 
they  contained.  These  could  be  separately  drawn  out  into  strings,  and  a 
bundle  of  such  fastened  to  the  belt  still  constitutes  the  gala  dress  of  many 
an  African  belle.  The  example  of  twisting  the  fibres  to  gain  strength, 
and  of  plaiting  them  to  secure  breadth,  is  offered  by  natural  growths,  and 
probably  suggested  the  simplest  forms  of  spinning  and  zvcaring. 

Felting  is  also  to  some  extent  a  natural  process,  dependent  on  the  close 
curl  and  split  ends  of  the  fibres  of  wool.  It  is  in  a  measure  simulated  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom  by  the  readiness  with  which  the  fibrous  leaves  of 
some  plants — notably  the  aloe  and  the  papyrus — can  when  macerated  be 
beaten  into  a  continuous  sheet.  Such  observations  led  to  the  search  for, 
and  cultivation  of,  fibrous  plants,  as  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  and  jute,  and  the 
domestication  and  breeding  of  sheep  and  goats  ;  as  well  as  to  steady 
improvements  in  the  machinery  for  curing,  spinning,  and  weaving  their 
products. 

Clothing  as  a  Decoration. — A  powerful  lever  was  added  when  clothing 
came  to  be  regarded  not  merely  as  a  satisfaction  to  the  sense  of  modesty 
and  a  means  of  protection,  but  as  a  decoration  and  a  mark  of  distinction. 
This,  more  than  either  of  the  other  two  motives,  has  conceded  it  the 
enormous  influence  it  has  exerted  on  the  development  of  mankind.     Well 


ETHNOLOGY.  105 

might  the  philosophic  author  of  Sartor  Resarlics,  when  he  set  about 
writing  a  summary  of  the  nature  of  man,  name  it  "  a  treatise  on  clothes  "  ! 
The  pomp  and  majesty  of  kings,  the  gallantry  of  warriors  and  the  charms 
of  fair  ladies,  the  insignia  of  rank  and  the  ostentation  of  wealth,  have 
ever  sought  their  chief  expression  in  modes  of  apparel.  Its  gaudy  colors 
have  been  brought  from  the  deep  sea  and  the  far-off  forests  ;  its  designs 
have  tasked  the  genius  of  artists  ;  its  texture  has  been  refined  to  the  deli- 
cacy of  the  spider's  web  ;  and  its  ever- varying  form  and  drajjing  have 
been  the  constant  thought  of  tirewomen.  Intimately  associated  with 
national  life  and  history,  the  apparel  as  oft  betrays  the  ethnic  character 
and  descent  as  it  does  those  of  the  individual. 

5.  Means  of  Transportation. 

Man  surpasses  all  other  land  animals  in  the  perfection  of  his  natural 
means  of  locomotion.  Though  many  surpass  him  for  short  distances  in 
speed,  they  are  sure  to  yield  in  endurance.  He  can  walk  down  the  deer 
and  wear  out  the  horse,  as  has  been  repeatedly  shown  in  long  overland 
journeys.  He  is  far  more  indifferent  than  any  other  animal  to  changes 
in  climate  and  elevation.  The  traveller  in  crossing  the  Andes  must 
change  horses  several  times,  those  of  a  lower  altitude  not  being  able  to 
bear  the  rarefied  air  of  the  upper  levels.  But  the  Alpine  tourist  for  mere 
amusement  scrambles  to  a  far  greater  height  than  even  the  chamois 
ventures. 

With  practice,  man  becomes  scarcely  less  at  home  on  the  water.  Some 
of  the  South  Sea  islanders  have  been  known  to  spend  a  day  and  a  half  in 
the  ocean,  floating  and  swimming  by  turns.  This  natural  facility  he 
learned,  while  still  in  the  rudiments  of  culture,  greatly  to  increase. 
Bladders  and  light  woods  aided  him  in  swimming  ;  to  prevent  his  limbs 
sinking  in  the  soft  deep  snow  he  invented  the  suowshoe,  or,  as  in  Norway, 
the  long  straight  runners  they  call  ski ;  while  the  shifting  sands  of  the 
Landes  of  France  suggested  the  use  of  stilts,  which,  for  some  unknown 
reason,  were  also  in  vogue  with  the  Mayas  of  Yucatan  and  are  j^ortrayed 
in  their  manuscripts. 

The  native  habitat  of  man  was  along  the  shores  and  watercourses. 
The  Darwinians,  indeed,  will  have  it  that  he  is  the  descendant  of  some 
amphibious,  seal-like  ancestor.  At  any  rate,  the  streams  and  lakes  fur- 
nished him  both  food  and  drink,  and  thus  came  to  be  the  highways  of  his 
migration. 

IValcr  Transportation. — Ver\'  early  in  his  life  man  must  have  essayed 
some  plans  of  navigation.  Beginning,  like  the  Australian  savage  of 
to-day,  with  a  simple  log,  on  which  he  was  seated  astride  and  which  he 
propelled  with  his  hands,  the  next  step  would  be  to  tie  two  or  more  logs 
together  and  thus  form  the  raft.  This  elementary  craft  is  still  in  tise  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  The  balsas  of  the  Peruvian  coast  are  formed 
of  five  or  six  logs  lashed  together  with  withes.  They  are  floored  with 
bamboos  or  split  palms,  ujjou  which  huts  are  built,  and  there  the  family 


io6  ETHNOLOGY. 

live  all  the  year  round.  In  the  interior  of  that  country,  on  the  cold  and 
lofty  plateau  around  Lake  Titicaca,  there  are  no  trees  suitable  for  the 
balsas  ;  so,  instead  of  logs,  the  natives  tie  the  rushes  which  grow  along 
the  shores  into  long  bundles,  lash  them  together,  and  thus  have  floats 
sometimes  large  enough  to  accommodate  fifty  or  sixty  persons.  Indeed, 
many  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  lived  altogether  on  these  reed-rafts, 
moving  them  from  place  to  place  on  the  lake  as  their  fancy  dictated 
(Herrera).  The  maritime  Feejeeans  and  other  tribes  who  were  more  desi- 
rous to  accomplish  their  journeys  than  to  live  on  their  crafts,  discovered 
that  two  logs  connected  by  a  raised  platform  could  be  impelled  through 
the  water  more  swiftly  than  a  solid  raft  of  the  same  breadth,  and  tlius 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  invention  of  the  catamaran  and  the  outrigger. 

The  canoe  or  "  dug-out"  is  merely  the  log  hollowed  out.  The  obser- 
vation that  a  concave  and  water-tight  object  of  any  material  will  float  on 
water  could  not  escape  the  least  acute  savage.  Hence  the  canoe  may  be 
supposed  to  have  been  invented  independently  in  many  localities.  Its 
original  construction  was  simple:  a  trunk,  felled  by  the  wind,  was  burned 
across  in  two  places  ;  small  fires  were  built  upon  it  ;  the  charred  wood 
scraped  off  with  stones  ;  and  the  process  rej^eated  until  the  excavation 
was  sufiicient.  The  perfection  of  canoe-building  was  reached  by  the 
natives  of  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  a  region  abounding  in  mag- 
nificent timber.  Some  of  their  canoes,  hewn  out  of  a  single  trunk, 
measure  over  fifty  feet  in  length  and  will  carry  a  hundred  persons. 

Where  trees  were  scarce  or  where  other  materials  offered  themselves, 
the  canoe  was  of  some  water-tight  substance  stretched  over  a  frame. 
Birch  bark  is  admirably  suited  to  the  purpose,  and  the  light  and  graceful 
birch  canoe  of  the  Iroquois  and  Algonkins  is  an  ancient  proof  of  their 
skill.  The  Eskimo's  kayak  is  made  of  the  skins  of  marine  animals  stretched 
over  a  frame  of  whalebone,  and  in  it  he  can  with  safety  ride  out  the  most 
violent  storm  of  the  Arctic  seas.  Much  more  rude  is  the  pclota  of  the 
Patagonian— a  skin  of  a  guanaco  stretched  on  a  square  wooden  frame. 
On  it  he  places  his  portable  property,  and  pushes  it  before  him  as  he  swims 
the  streams.  The  Welsh  coracle  was  also  a  leathern  boat,  in  which  the 
adventurous  fisherman  fared  boldly  out  to  sea. 

Ships. — The  construction  of  vessels  of  split  or  sawed  planks  fastened 
to  ribs  was  unknown  to  the  natives  of  the  New  World,  but  is  portrayed 
on  the  most  ancient  paintings  of  the  Egyptian  artists.  The  Egyptians, 
however,  were  not  sailors.  Their  commerce  was  carried  on  by  the  sturdy 
Phoenicians,  the  mariners  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  who  founded  colonies  far 
west  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  and  beyond.  These  taught  the  Greeks 
and  Etruscans  the  art  of  shipbuilding,  and  converted  the  "barren  biine," 
as  the  sea  was  called  by  the  Homeric  poets,  into  the  poii/os,  the  pathway 
(as  the  word  literally  means),  of  nations. 

We  need  not  follow  the  development  of  marine  architecture  from 
the  beginning  of  history  till  to-day,  when,  singularly  enough,  one  of 
the  least  buoyant  of  all  substances,  iron,  is  the  chosen  material  for  con- 


ETHNOLOGY.  107 

structing  the  gigantic  craft  which  ply  to  and  fro  on  the  ocean-ferries  of 
the  world.  But  it  will  be  profitable  to  glance  at  the  means  of  propulsion 
employed. 

Alcaiis  of  Propulsion. — The  earliest  was  the /o/f ,  with  which  the  raft 
was  pushed  or  very  slowly  impelled  by  dipping  it  in  the  water,  as  is  to  this 
day  the  means  employed  by  the  unprogressive  natives  of  Lake  Titicaca. 
By  expanding  one  or  both  ends  of  it,  we  have  the  single-  or  double-bladed 
paddle,  the  former  that  most  common  in  savage  conditions,  though  the 
latter  is  used  by  the  Eskimo  and  some  others. 

Oars  and  sails  were  late  inventions.  The  oar,  moving  on  a  fulcrum, 
more  noisy  than  the  paddle  (which  in  skilful  hands  is  quite  noiseless),  and 
requiring  the  oarsman  to  look  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  in  which 
he  is  going,  is  unsuited  to  the  requirements  of  savage  life,  and  is  an 
outgrowth  of  a  comparatively  cultivated  condition.  It  was  nowhere 
seen  in  America,  though  it  must  have  been  known  to  the  Aryan  fam- 
ily before  its  disiDcrsion,  for  the  word  oar  is  common  to  all  branches 
of  it. 

The  word  sail.,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  a  joint  possession  of  Aryan 
tongues,  and  therefore  it  is  believed  that  the  invention  of  this  means  of 
propulsion  was  unknown  to  their  common  ancestors;  yet  in  America  it 
was  familiar  to  several  nations.  When  Pizarro  was  approaching  the  coast 
of  Peru  he  encountered  one  of  those  balsas  we  have  described,  with  a  largre 
sail  set  and  bowling  before  the  wind.  Nor  is  this  the  only  instance  of  the 
kind,  as  the  historian  Prescott  thought  it  was.  The  sea-loving  Caribs  of 
the  coast  of  South  America  impelled  their  canoes  with  sails  of  cotton 
cloth;  and,  in  the  Maya  paintings  on  the  walls  of  Chichen  Itza  in 
Yucatan,   barks  under  sail  are  faithfully  delineated. 

The  introduction  of  sails  led  to  the  construction  of  masts  and  spars, 
ropes  and  tackle,  and  the  multifarious  odds  and  ends  of  the  shipwright  so 
mj'sterious  to  the  landsman. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  mariner's  compass  from  the  far  East  in 
the  twelfth  century  transportation  by  water  achieved  an  independence 
of  the  shore  and  the  darkness,  and  the  way  was  open  for  those  wonderful 
discoveries  which  have  led  a  modern  writer  to  declare  that  the  deeds  of  a 
single  navigator  have  had  more  important  consequences  for  human  society 
than  the  creations  of  any  artist,  the  victories  of  any  conqueror,  or  the  doc- 
trines of  any  founder  of  a  religion  (Peschel).  When  the  application  of 
steajH  further  liberated  the  navigator  from  dependence  on  wind  or  cur- 
rent, the  complete  mastery  of  man  over  the  watery  element  was  nearly 
attained. 

Land  Transportation. — Turning  now  to  land  transportation,  man's 
first  recourse  was  to  his  own  back  and  limbs.  Some  nations,  especially 
the  Africans,  carry  their  packs  on  their  heads,  even  heavy,  filled  water- 
jars  being  poised  with  extreme  nicety.  The  Mongolians  load  their  backs 
and  shoulders.  The  natives  of  Mexico  and  Central  America  largely-  made 
use  of  a  bag  or  net  suspended  by  a  band,  the  niccapal,  across  the  forehead. 


io8  ETHNOLOGY. 

Beasts  of  Burden  and  Draught. — Except  fi^tf^.?  in  the  extreme  northern 
portion  of  America,  the  natives  knew  no  beast  of  burden  or  draught  ani- 
mal. This  was  for  tlie  simple  reason  that  there  was  none  suited  for  these 
purposes.  The  horsc^  the  ass.,  the  ox,  the  camel,  the  dro7nedary\  and  the 
elcp/iant,  all  subjected  to  man's  control  and  submissive  to  his  dictates  from 
bej'ond  the  beginnings  of  history  in  the  Old  World,  were  unknown  in 
the  fauna  of  America  even  b}'  any  near  species.  The  part  they  acted  in 
unfolding  the  drama  of  civilization  on  the  great  eastern  continents  was 
of  the  first  importance.  In  war  and  peace,  through  the  desert  and  the 
steppe,  by  caravans  and  trading-trains  or  by  mounted  squadrons  and 
moving  armies,  they  brought  about  that  close  and  constant  commingling 
of  nations  and  languages  on  which,  as  we  have  before  shown,  the  advance 
of  civilization  depends.  If  one  reason  more  than  another  can  be  assigned 
wh\-  the  American  race  was,  as  has  been  stated  by  some  writers,  three 
thousand  years  behind  that  of  Asia,  it  is  that  it  lacked  the  services  of 
beasts  of  burden  and  draught.  This  is  pictured  in  the  languages  of 
Europe,  where  chevalier,  caballcro,  "horseman,"  is  a  title  of  honor  and 
nobility,  and  bayard — literally  the  "oxherd" — is  equivalent  to  that  of 
prince. 

Although  the  horse  was  known  to  the  Indo-European  family  before  its 
separation,  it  was  probably  not  applied  to  domestic  uses  at  that  early  date. 
Riding,  indeed,  was  so  late  an  accomplishment  to  its  members  that  it  was 
unfamiliar  to  the  poets  of  the  Rig  Veda  or  the  Homeric  songs.  The 
heroes  of  the  Trojan  war  are  not  cavalr}-men,  but  go  forth  to  the  con- 
test in  chariots  of  war. 

Leading  authorities  now  are  of  opinion  that  at  least  eight  varieties  of 
the  wild  horse  were  domesticated,  two  in  Asia  and  six  in  Europe  (Pietre- 
ment).  One  of  the  Asiatic  breeds  was  introduced  into  Egypt  by  the 
Shepherd  Kings  (about  2200  B.  c),  and  from  this  all  the  African  horses 
descended.  They  were  soon  highly  prized,  especially  for  the  increased 
efficiency  they  gave  the  armies.  Plutarch  relates  that  the  god  Horus 
was  once  asked  by  his  father  Osiris,  "Which  is  the  most  useful  of  ani- 
mals?" His  reply  was,  "The  horse,  because  it  enables  a  man  to  over- 
take and  slay  his  enemy."  Both  chariots  and  horsemen  are  frequently 
represented  on  Egyptian  monuments  later  than  the  middle  dynasties. 

Ulicclcd  I 'chicles. — The  ox-cart  and  ivar-chai-iot,  ver>-  early  inventions, 
were  familiar  to  the  Assyrians,  Semites,  and  early  Greeks.  The  native 
Britons  encountered  Julius  Ccesar  in  their  esseda,  two-wheeled  war-chariots 
drawn  b)-  fierv  steeds.  This  proves  that  the  application  of  the  mechanical 
principle  of  the  wheel  had  at  that  time  become  the  property  of  many 
nations,  and  with  this  arose  the  necessity  of  bridges  and  of  roads  much 
broader,  more  level,  and  kept  in  better  condition  than  the  trail  which 
•would  suffice  for  the  pedestrian  or  equestrian. 

The  first  wheels  were  a  mere  narrow  section  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree, 
the  axle  turning  with  them  ;  and  it  is  one  of  several  curious  examples  of 
reversion  that  the  most  modern  invention  for  car- wheels,  both  in  plan  and 


ETHNOLOGY.  109 

material,  goes  back  to  this  antique  pattern,  for  it  joins  wheel  to  axle,  ami 
the  wheel  is  of  "paper  pulp,"  principally  consisting  of  wood-fibre. 

It  is  needless  to  specify  in  how  many  directions  the  requirements  of 
transportation  have  developed  the  industrial  arts  as  well  as  the  abstract 
sciences.  They  have  demanded  the  excavation  of  canals  and  docks,  and 
the  construction  of  quays,  harbors,  roads,  and  bridges.  They  have  been 
the  practical  purjjoses  which  have  originated  the  sciences  of  geography 
and  astronomy,  and  they  have  led  nations  to  unite  in  friendly  legislation 
for  the  furtherance  of  common  in.terests  and  for  banishing  banditti  from 
the  highways  and  pirates  from  the  ocean. 

Aerial  Navigation. — The  water  and  the  land  thus  brought  under 
peaceful  subjection  to  man,  the  mountains  perforated  with  his  tunnels, 
and  the  seas  imited  by  his  artificial  water-ways,  the  air  alone  has  resisted 
his  repeated  endeavors  to  render  it  the  medium  of  his  motions.  From 
the  day  that  Da;dalus  fastened  wings  to  his  son  Icarus  and  bade  him  fly 
across  the  Cretan  Sea,  into  which  he  fell  and  was  drowned,  inventor  after 
inventor  has  spent  his  life  on  the  problem  of  aerial  navigation  with  no 
greater  success,  and  often  with  like  unhappy  result.  The  daily  spectacle 
of  the  flying  birds,  however,  proves  that  the  problem  is  no  unsolvable  one, 
and  we  may  confidently  look  to  the  time  foretold  by  the  poet  when  the 
"pilots  of  the  purple  twilight"  shall  "drop  down  with  costly  bales." 

6.  Weights  and  Measures. 

The  extent  of  a  nation's  conquest  over  the  forces  of  nature  is  accurately 
indicated  by  its  system  of  weights  and  measures.  On  these  depend  the 
perfection  of  its  tools  and  the  range  of  its  industrial  activities.  Art  in  all 
its  branches  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  ideas  of  equality  and  pro- 
portion. 

Conceptions  of  Number. — At  the  base  of  these  ideas  are  the  conceptions 
of  niunber.  Nations,  like  individuals,  vary  remarkably  in  their  arithmet- 
ical powers.  It  would  seem  impossible  that  there  should  be  a  language 
without  any  numerals,  yet  such  is  the  Chiquito  of  Eastern  Bolivia.  Count- 
ing is  quite  unknown  to  the  members  of  the  tribe.  The  word  which  is  the 
nearest  to  one  means  "itself"  or  "the  same;"  tzvo  ox  u\ox&  is  indicated 
by  "much  "or  "many."  The  tribes  on  the  grassy  plains  of  Northern 
Buenos  A}Tes,  called  El  Gran  Chaco,  are  scarcely  better  provided  in  this 
resjDect.  A  recent  traveller  (Pelleschi)  relates  that  an  influential  chief  was 
unable  to  count  the  number  of  his  own  fingers.  It  would  be  impossible 
for  tri1:)es  thus  deficient  to  make  any  important  advances  in  the  con- 
structive arts. 

Yet  there  was  a  time  when  none  of  the  human  race  surpassed  them  in 
this  respect.  This  is  proved  by  the  systems  of  numeration  and  the  names 
of  the  units  in  many  languages.  They  are  usually  of  the  quinary-  cha- 
racter; that  is,  they  count  by  fives,  the  second  and  later  series  of  fives 
being  modifications  of  the  first.  This  indicates  that  they  were  first  rep- 
resented to  the  mind  by  counting  the  fingers  of  the  hand.     Sometimes  the 


no  ETIi::OLOGY. 

word  for  five  means  also  ' '  hand, ' '  or  was  derived  from  it.  Tlie  two  hands 
furnished  ten  digits,  and  from  this  arose  the  decimal  system — not  at  all  a 
necessar)'  one,  and  according  to  some  arithmeticians  not  so  convenient  as 
either  that  b}'  eights  or  that  by  twelves  (octals  or  duodecimals).  Adding 
the  number  of  the  fingers  and  toes  together  gives  us  twenty,  and  the  sig- 
nificant name  of  this  number  in  the  ]\Iaya  dialects  of  Central  America  is 
hun  viiiak,  "one  man."  The  IMayas  and  many  other  tribes  chose  this 
number  as  the  unit  for  their  higher  calculations,  relics  of  which  custom 
are  preser\-ed  in  our  own  habit  of  reckoning  by  scores  or  twenties,  and 
in  the  French  numeration  between  sixty  and  a  hundred — soixante-dix- 
neiif^   qiiatrc-viugt^   etc. 

Tlie  Alultiplication  Tabic. — Both  in  Aztec  and  Maya  writing  the  higher 
units,  multiples  of  twenty,  were  indicated  by  special  signs,  and  both 
these  nations  had  invented  a'  multiplication  table  not  more  cumbrous 
apparently  than  that  of  the  ancient  Romans  with  their  alphabetic  letters 
in  place  of  numerals.  The  convenient  notation  of  the  Arabic  numerals, 
so  called  (though  probably  an  East  Indian  invention),  was  rendered  possi- 
ble by  the  introduction  of  the  zero  or  naught  sign,  "0;"  an  invention 
which,  as  Dr.  Tylor  forcibly  remarks,  "was  practically  one  of  the  great- 
est moves  ever  made  in  science."  Simple  as  the  multiplication  table 
appears  to  us,  it  was  brought  about  only  by  the  intense  application  of  the 
brightest  minds  of  many  nations  through  a  long  series  of  centuries.  So 
inapt  is  the  human  intellect  to  frame  clear  ideas  of  number  that  there  is 
perhaps  not  a  single  dialect  of  the  widespread  Malayan  family  which  has 
a  word  for  one.  The  expression  for  it  signifies  "the  same,"  or  something 
of  that  kind,  and  must  be  qualified  with  another  word  to  convey  the  idea 
of  mathematical  unity  (F.  Miiller). 

Classification. — On  these  numerical  conceptions  are  founded  all  those 
comparisons  for  practical  purposes  which  we  call  denominations  of  weights 
and  measures.  We  may  classify  as  follows  those  which  have  the  greatest 
ethnologic  importance  :  Measures  of  Time;  Measures  of  Space;  Measures 
of  Direction;  Measures  of  Gravity. 

Measures  of  Time. — The  alternations  of  light  and  darkness  resulting 
from  the  revolutions  of  the  earth  bring  about  the  division  of  time  which 
most  strongly  impresses  the  human  mind.  Nations,  however,  reckon  it 
differently.  After  the  manner  of  the  ancient  Semites,  the  book  of  Genesis 
speaks  of  "  the  evening  and  the  morning"  as  making  up  the  day.  The 
Indians  of  the  Eastern  United  States  were  wont  to  count  by  nights,  not 
by  days;  those  of  Central  America,  by  "dawns;"  the  astronomer  begins 
his  day  at  midnight,  the  sailor  at  high  noon;  the  New  Englander  at 
sunset ;  elsewhere  the  people  in  the  United  States  at  sunrise. 

Seasons. — In  almost  all  climates  the  year  is  marked  by  the  recurrence 
of  contrasting  meteorological  conditions  defining  it  as  measure  of  time. 
These  are  the  "seasons,"  and  by  one  of  them,  rather  than  by  any  more 
abstract  term,  the  year  is  usiially  spoken  of  in  primitive  dialects.  Thus 
with  the  northern  tribes  of  America  the  years  were  counted  by  winters. 


ETHNOLOGY.  iii 

whereas  in  the  poetic  phraseology  of  our  comfortable  life  they  are  spoken 
of  as  summers.  The  ancient  Aryans  counted  also  by  winters,  and  had  no 
word  for  year  (Pictet).  The  divisions  of  the  seasons  increased  in  number 
as  the  tribes  dwelt  nearer  the  equator  and  the  contrast  was  less  marked 
between  the  extremes.  Instead  of  merely  winter  and  summer,  there  were 
winter,  spring,  summer,  late  summer,  and  autumn  (Grimm).  In  tracing 
their  migrations  this  has  profitably  been  called  in  to  ascertain  the  oldest 
centre  of  a  group  of  languages. 

Months  and  Weeks. — Another  subdivision  of  the  year,  that  into  iiioiitJis 
by  the  waxing  and  waning  of  the  moon,  though  not  universal  is  nearly  so. 
Of  course,  it  lacks  much  of  being  accurate,  and  our  months — nwoucths — 
are  far  from  corresponding  to  the  changes  of  the  eai'th's  satellite.  The 
subdivision  of  the  mouth  into  weeks  of  seven  daj's  no  doubt  was  a  quadri- 
partite division  of  the  lunar  month.  It  extended  over  the  Old  World  from 
the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  monarchies,  and  in  the  New  was  familiar  to 
the  Cherokees,  Peruvians,  and  perhaps  some  other  nations.  The  usual 
American  week  was  of  thirteen  days,  and  this  too  was  probably  derived 
from  the  lunar  month  by  dividing  it  as  nearly  as  practicable  into  halves. 

Calendars. — On  the  divisions  of  time  above  referred  to  were  constructed 
the  calendars  by  which  nations  sought  to  fix  in  time  the  events  of  their 
history  and  to  frame  a  chronology.  One  of  intricate  construction,  but  of 
considerable  accuracy  for  short  periods,  was  the  common  property  of  sev- 
eral Mexican  and  Central  American  nations.  Neither  its  origin  nor  the 
details  of  the  principles  on  which  it  was  applied  have  as  yet  been  fully 
explained  by  archaeologists.  Our  own  calendar  is  the  net  result  of  a 
series  of  approximations  extending  over  several  thousand  years,  and,  though 
sufficiently  accurate  for  practical  purposes,  is  not  precisely  correct. 

Sundials^  e/c. — -The  measurement  of  time  within  the  space  of  the  day 
has  called  forth  some  of  the  most  admirable  results  of  human  ingenuity. 
The  observation  that  the  position  of  the  shadows  indicates  how  far  the  day 
has  advanced  must  have  been  a  primitive  one,  and  have  suggested  the 
earliest  horologe  or  hour-measurer,  giving  rise  to  the  sundial.  Its  origin 
we  do  not  know,  but  from  the  reference  to  "the  degrees  on  the  dial  of 
Ahaz  "  in  2  Kings  xx.  11,  it  must  have  been  familiar  to  the  Hebrews  in 
their  early  da)-s.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  so-called  "sun-pillars" 
and  "sun-circles,"  recurring  with  singular  similarity  of  structure  among 
the  Druidic  remains  of  Western  Europe,  in  Northern  Asia,  in  Peru,  and 
elsewhere,  were  erected  as  a  sort  of  standard  measure  of  the  motions  of  the 
sun  both  in  his  daily  and  )-earl\'  journe}-s. 

Clepsydra  and  Sand-Glass. — An  improvement  on  the  dial,  as  allowing 
the  measurement  of  shorter  periods  of  time,  was  the  clepsydra  or  zvater- 
cloclc^  in  which  the  regulated  dropping  of  water  from  a  vase  checked  off 
the  flight  of  time.  The  sand-glass.,  acting  on  the  same  principle,  was 
not  introduced  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The  burn- 
ing of  candles  was  a  device  of  King  Alfred  for  the  same  purpose;  but  this 
and  all  the  other  expedients  mentioned  have  given  way  in  modern  times  to 


112  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  action  of  a  spring  or  weiglit  exerted  directly  on  the  motion  of  wheels, 
or  through  the  regulated  motion  of  a  pendulum.  The  marvellous  pitch 
of  exactness  to  which  the  recent  methods  of  time-measuring  have  been 
brought  was  the  essential  condition  of  many  of  the  most  valuable  applica- 
tions of  modem  science. 

Measures  of  Space. — Beginning  with  the  simplest  dimension  of  space, 
that  of  length,  we  find  that  the  primitive  linear  measiires  of  all  nations  were 
derived  from  parts  of  the  human  body,  as  our  own  words  "  foot,"  "span," 
"  finger' s-breadth,"  etc.  remain  to  testify.  The  cubit.,  measured  from  the 
point  of  the  elbow  to  the  tip  of  the  outstretched  fingers,  equal  to  20.63 
inches,  was  the  standard  for  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  probably  for  the 
early  Hebrews.  The  ell  (whence  el-bow)  was  the  length  of  the  whole 
arm,  roughly  supposed  to  be  double  the  cubit,  and  probabh-  measured 
from  the  upper  edge  of  the  breastbone.  It  was  in  use  among  most  of  the 
Teutonic  tribes.  The  distance  between  the  extremities  of  the  outstretched 
arms  was  the  fathom,  calculated  as  twice  the  length  of  the  ell.  The  lower 
extremity  furnished  the  foot  as  a  measure  to  many  nations,  which  is  still 
current  among  civilized  communities,  varj-ing  little  in  length  from  that 
in  use  in  Greece  and  Rome.  Applying  to  it  the  quinary  system  of  num- 
bers, the  Romans  reckoned  five  feet  to  a  step  or  pace  (J>assi/s),  and  a 
thousand  of  these  to  a  mi/e  {inillia  passition). 

All  these  and  many  more  measures  derived  from  the  human  body  were 
found  in  current  use  among  the  natives  of  ^Mexico,  Yucatan,  and  Central 
America  by  the  early  explorers.  They  applied  them  in  their  architect- 
ure and  other  arts  of  life,  nor  did  they,  any  more  than  the  Eg3-ptians  or 
Romans,  rest  content  with  the  varying  lengths  which  the  proportions  of 
different  persons  would  give,  but  settled  upon  a  fixed  average  standard,  to 
which  the  government  forced  all  to  pay  respect.  In  the  city  of  Tenoch- 
titlan — as  the  ancient  city  of  Mexico  was  called — and  elsewhere,  officials 
were  appointed  whose  duty  it  was  to  see  that  these  standards,  and  no 
others,  were  used  at  the  fairs  and  markets.  Their  longer  measures  of 
distance  were  estimated  by  "resting-places  ;"  and  here  again  was  a  par- 
allelism with  European  words  and  customs,  for  the  "league,"  equivalent 
to  three  miles  or  thereabout,  is  from  the  same  root  as  to  lay  (German 
liegen),  and  refers  to  the  distance  after  travelling  which  one  should  lay 
himself  down  and  rest. 

The  lineal  unit  is  also  that  for  breadth  and  thickness  ;  in  other  Avords, 
for  all  the  dimensions  of  space.  Applied  to  land  measure,  which  must 
have  been  at  an  early  date  in  the  history  of  agriculture,  it  developed  the 
science  of  geometry — at  first  on  its  purely  practical  side,  that  of  the  men- 
suration of  superficies  ;  later  came  the  theoretical  proofs  of  its  theorems. 
For  the  latter  we  have  to  thank  the  lucid  intelligence  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  ;  for  although  they  themselves  professed  to  have  learned  geometry 
from  the  Egyptians,  modern  research  has  shown  that  the  dwellers  in  the 
Nile  Valley  did  not  go  beyond  the  merely  empiric  demonstration  of  the 
problems  of  plane  geometry. 


ETHNOLOGY.  113 

Measures  of  Direction. — -These  include  those  relating  to  a  person's 
position  and  to  his  horizon.  The  norm  of  the  former  are  the  true  vertical 
and  horizontal  lines,  and  the  usual  instruments  to  determiiie  them  are  the 
phtiuh-line  and  the  Icrcl.  Without  these  it  is  not  possible  to  carrv  out 
the  finer  works  of  architecture  and  engineering.  Yet  there  is  no  evidence 
that  either  of  them  was  known  to  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  America, 
although  they  erected  monuments  of  commanding  size  and  impressive 
designs.  Close  study  of  the  remains  of  these  show  that  their  lines  were 
determined  by  the  use  of  long  and  straight  reeds,  by  the  eye,  and  other 
methods  lacking  in  the  correctness  of  the  plumb  and  level.  The  archi- 
tects of  the  Old  World  had  the  assistance  of  such  contrivances  from  an 
age  coeval  with  that  of  the  older  Egyptian  dynasties. 

Cardinal  Points. — The  measures  of  terrestrial  direction  have  been  the 
same  in  all  ages  and  countries,  though  the  accuracy  with  which  they  have 
been  located  varies  with  the  mathematical  instruction  of  the  people. 
They  are  the  four  cardinal  points.  North,  South,  East,  and  West.  That 
these  four  should  alwa}-s  have  been  selected  depends  on  the  conformation 
of  the  human  body  and  its  necessary  relations  to  its  terrestrial  environ- 
ment. The  anterior  and  posterior  planes  of  the  body,  the  right  and  left 
hands,  suggest  the  fourfold  relation  of  space,  which  is  borne  out  by  the 
celestial  points  defined  by  the  rising  and  the  setting  sun  and  by  the  revo- 
lution of  the  starry  heavens  around  the  fixed  pole-star.  A  wanderer  in  a 
trackless  desert  with  no  guides  but  these,  no  wonder  that  the  primitive 
.savage  took  constant  note  of  their  bearings,  and  as  he  grew  in  wisdom 
was  governed  by  them  in  his  weightiest  undertakings.  This  we  see  the 
world  over  in  the  religions,  the  arts,  the  social  life,  and  the  forms  of  gov- 
ernment of  men.  Long  after  man  had  emerged  from  the  condition  of  sav- 
agery their  influence  remained.  The  ancient  monarchies  of  Egypt,  S^ria, 
China,  Mesopotamia,  and  India  in  the  Old  World,  and  in  the  New  those 
of  Peru,  Araucania,  the  Muyscas,  the  Tlascalans,  and  others,  were  organ- 
ized in  the  form  of  tetrarchies,  divided  in  accordance  with,  and  in  some 
instances  the  divisions  named  after,  the  cardinal  points.  Their  chief 
cities  were  frequently  quartered  by  streets  running  north,  south,  east,  and 
west.  The  chief  officers  of  the  government  being  four  in  number,  the 
whole  social  organization  assumed  a  quadruplicate  form.  The  official 
title  of  the  Inca  of  Peru  and  of  the  emperor  of  China  was  "  lord  of  the 
four  quarters  of  the  earth,"  the  terrestrial  plane  being  conceived  as  a 
vast  level  with  four  sides  and  four  corners. 

Most  of  the  important  monuments  of  ancient  architecture  are  built 
with  careful  reference  to  the  cardinal  points,  their  doors,  their  angles, 
and  their  sides  being  adjusted  by  them.  Often  this  was  connected  with 
religious  sentiments,  as  that  the  temples  should  face  the  rising  sun  or 
look  toward  the  warm  south. 

Geodesy  and  Cartography. — The  earliest  astronomy  was  directed 
toward  finding  accurate  measures  of  direction  for  these  points  on  which 
so  much  else  depended.     The  apparent  motions  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic 

Vol.  I.— 8 


114  ETHNOLOGY. 

cast  an  uncertainty  on  the  precise  location  of  east  and  west  on  the  hori- 
zon to  rectify  which  demanded  long  observation.  In  later  days,  when  the 
magnetic  needle  offered  a  means  constantly  at  hand  to  ascertain  the  north, 
its  local  and  secular  variations  led  to  the  study  of  the  magnetic  meridians 
and  the  phenomena  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  which  has  yet  far  from 
unfolded  its  meanings.  Geodesy  and  cartography  have  only  risen  to  the 
position  of  sciences  since  the  measures  of  direction  invented  within  the 
present  century  have  reduced  to  an  unimportant  minimum  the  errors  of 
observation. 

Measures  of  Gravifv- — To  "heft"  an  object  is  so  natural  a  way  to 
test  and  compare  its  quantity  that  one  is  surprised  to  find  that  even  the 
most  cultivated  nations  of  the  New  World  do  not  appear  ever  to  have  had 
a  recognized  unit  of  weight.  Their  records  speak  of  a  "  load  of  maize," 
as  much  as  a  man  could  conveniently  carry,  but  all  goods  were  sold  by 
bulk  or  number  or  measure,  never  by  weight.  The  balance  and  the  scales 
were  totally  unknown.  Yet  on  very  ancient  paintings  of  the  Egyptians 
the  merchant  is  seen  with  his  scales  carefully  weighing  his  wares,  and  in 
China  they  have  been  in  use  from  the  dawn  of  history.  The  unit  of 
weight  was  frequently  taken  from  a  grain  of  a  cereal,  as  the  word  "grain," 
granuni,  and  the  Old  English  "barleycorn,"  indicate.  The  discovery  of 
specific  gravity,  attributed  to  the  philosopher  of  Syracuse,  Archimedes, 
led  in  later  times  to  many  applications  of  measures  of  gravity  of  high 
importance. 

Alctric  System. — We  need  not  pursue  the  recent  development  of  the 
methods  of  measuring  and  weighing  ;  it  has  been  only  by  their  assiduous 
cultivation,  and  by  the  extraordinary  perfection  which  they  have  in  con- 
sequence attained,  that  modern  science  has  reached  the  height  at  which 
we  see  it.  At  the  close  of  the  last  centur>'  the  French  devised  the  met- 
ric system,  in  which  a  supposed  natural  unit,  a  fraction  of  the  diameter 
of  the  earth,  was  taken  as  the  base.  Later  researches  have  shown  that 
the  computation  was  erroneous,  and  that  the  base  of  the  metric  system 
is  as  artificial  as  any  other.  But  the  convenience  of  its  details  has  led 
to  an  effort  for  its  general  acceptance  by  civilized  peoples. 

Afeasin'cs  of  Force. — Men  of  science  are  well  aware  that  much  still 
remains  to  be  done  in  this  direction.  It  is  only  by  reaching  some  common 
measure  of  all  the  expressions  of  force  that  we  can  hope  to  master  the 
highest  problems  of  physics.  Thus,  expansive  force  can  be  expressed  in 
lineal  measure  by  "  foot-pounds,"  this  being  the  amount  of  force  required 
to  lift  a  poimd  the  vertical  height  of  one  foot.  Heat  is  measured  in  many 
ways,  chiefly  by  its  expansive  action  on  the  column  of  mercim'  in  the 
thermometer.  Light  is  estimated  in  the  photometer  by  "candle-powers," 
and  electricity  by  the  measure  of  its  resistance  to  tension,  as  "ohms." 
The  influence  of  such  studies  in  bringing  the  forces  of  nature  under  the 
control  of  man,  and  thus  shaping  the  character  and  destiny  of  races  and 
nations,  cannot  be  overestimated. 


ETHNOLOGY.  115 


7.  Media  of  Exchange. 

The  advantage  which  an  established  medium  of  exchange  has  proved 
to  the  development  of  nations  has  been  fully  recognized  by  those  who 
have  given  their  attention  to  historical  questions.  Money,  using  the  word 
in  its  widest  sense,  has  been  called  by  one  writer  "the  instrument  of 
human  association"  (Lea),  and  as  such  has  been  stated  by  another  to  have 
been  "  the  means  to  which  modern  life  has  been  indebted  for  its  civiliza- 
tion "  (Storch). 

Earliest  Crtrretta'cs. — The  ruder  forms  of  commerce  can  be  and  are 
carried  on  by  a  system  of  trading  or  barter,  the  surplus  of  one  locality 
being  exchanged  for  the  surplus  in  some  other  line  of  production  of 
another.  The  first  approach  toward  a  currency  was  when  such  products, 
valuable  in  themselves,  but  not  those  desired  by  the  purchaser,  were 
accepted  as  an  equivalent  of  the  value  of  other  goods,  or  were  taken  for  a 
standard  of  comparison,  as  when  the  Newfoundlander,  trading  skins  for 
powder,  estimates  each  as  worth  so  many  codfish,  the  article  which  he 
generally  has  to  sell.  Our  word  peauiiary  refers  in  its  derivation  to  such 
a  condition  of  commerce,  as  it  is  from  pcciis^  cattle,  which  in  ancient 
Italian  days  must  have  been  accepted  as  the  standard  of  value  and  the 
general  representative  of  wealth  in  a  pastoral  people. 

Tradition  says  that  later,  instead  of  sending  the  cattle  bodily,  v/hich 
would  at  times  have  been  inconvenient,  merely  a  piece  of  a  hide  was  sent, 
upon  it  being  painted  or  stamped  the  number  of  head  agreed  upon  ;  and 
hence  the  Latin  name  for  money,  pccunia.  By  presenting  this  voucher 
the  purchaser  could  obtain  the  cattle  themselves. 

This  was  a  wonderful  step  in  advance,  and  established  a  medium  of 
exchange  fulfilling  its  essential  condition — that  its  value  must  not  be 
intrinsic,  but  merely  a  matter  of  agreement  between  the  contracting 
parties.  The  less  its  real  value,  the  more  perfect  a  currency  does  it  become. 
This  was  long  ago  noted  by  Aristotle,  who  defined  money  as  "  that  which 
derives  its  value  through  law  and  custom,  and  not  by  nature  " — a  distinc- 
tion not  unfrequently  overlooked  by  later  philosophers. 

When  the  ancient  Italian  drover  accepted  the  strip  of  painted  leatlier 
for  his  fat  bullocks,  he  exliibited  a  confidence  in  the  uprightness  of  the 
purchaser,  or  a  faith  in  the  laws  of  the  state  to  protect  its  citizens,  in  the 
highest  degree  creditable  to  the  moral  and  social  condition  of  his  day. 
Such  transactions  can  take  place,  such  purely  conventional  values  can 
be  assigned  to  media  in  themselves  of  little  worth,  only  when  men  and 
nations  recognize  and  respect  the  rights  of  others  ;  and  the  more  frequent 
these  transactions,  the  higher  becomes  the  cultivation  of  the  sentiments 
of  justice  and  fiiir  dealing,  the  respect  for  law,  and  the  desire  for  uniform 
and  established  systems  of  government.  To  the  extent  that  such  a  repre- 
sentative of  value  is  accepted  as  good  the  intercourse  of  mankind  is  facil- 
itated, and  those  crossings  of  blood,  language,  and  culture  are  encouraged 
upon  which,  as  we  have  previously  said,  the  intellectual  evolution  of  the 


ii6  ETHNOLOGY. 

species  depends.     Hence  it  is  that  in  ethnology  a  study  of  the  media  of 
exchange  current  in  a  nation  must  always  claim  a  prominent  position. 

These  media  have  been,  and  are,  very  various.  We  have  spoken  of 
the  leather  money  of  ancient  Ital)-,  whence  it  extended  to  the  Carthagin- 
ian provinces  of  Africa  or  else  was  borrowed  from  the  latter. 

Probably  the  substance  which  first  furnished  a  currency  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  word  was  shell.  It  had  no  intrinsic  value,  but  came  into 
notice  as  a  means  of  personal  decoration,  and  from  this  passed  to  a  widely- 
recognized  medium  of  exchange.  The  primitive  Chinese  coins,  dating 
back  perhaps  four  thousand  years  before  our  era,  were  pieces  of  tortoise- 
shell,  which  was  cut  into  slips  or  disks,  perforated,  and  strung  on  strings. 
Shells  of  other  species  of  marine  animals  were  cut  into  pieces  of  uniform 
size,  polished,  and  employed  in  the  same  manner  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Micronesian  Archipelago  in  the  North  Pacific,  by  their  southern 
neighbors  the  Welanesians,  by  the  Indians  of  California,  New  Mexico, 
and  Yucatan,  and  by  those  of  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America. 
Among  the  Algonkin  tribes  of  the  latter  stock  this  native  money  was 
known  as  zcampum^  and  in  the  early  days  of  the  colonies  it  became  the 
accepted  currency  of  the  white  settlers  of  New  England.  In  it  they 
made  their  bargains  and  paid  their  taxes  to  the  government  {pi.  36). 

Small  shells  in  their  natural  fonn,  especially  those  of  the  Cyprca 
nwncia,  have  for  ages  been  the  currency  of  numerous  tribes  in  Southern 
Asia  and  Western  Africa.  Some  conception  of  the  extent  of  their  circu- 
lation may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  not  long  since  the  imports  of 
these  cowrj'-shells  from  India  into  England  for  reshipment  to  the  African 
coast,  where  they  are  used  for  buying  ivory  and  palm  oil,  amounted  to  a 
thousand  tons  a  year.  The  Doitalium^  a  small  shell  found  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  North  America,  is  prized  by  the  natives,  and  has  been 
employed  in  exchanges  so  long  and  over  so  extended  an  area  that  speci- 
mens of  it  have  been  disinterred  from  the  Mound-builders'  constructions 
in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Ohio. 

Alexican  Coins. — In  Mexico  and  Central  America  commerce  was 
active;  every  city  held  its  fairs,  and  the  merchants  were  an  active  and 
most  respected  class,  in  some  districts  (Acatlan)  the  most  successful  trader 
being  elected  as  the  ruler.  Their  principal  m.edium  of  exchange  was 
cacao-beans,  themselves  a  valued  article  of  food,  but  passing  at  a  conven- 
tional value.  They  are  said  by  some  antiquaries  to  have  had  a  copper 
coinage,  thin  plates  of  that  metal,  cut  into  semilunar  pieces  of  equal  size, 
having  sometimes  been  found  in  hoards  in  large  numbers.  If  this  were 
established,  it  would  be  the  nearest  approach  to  a  metallic  currency  known 
among  American  tribes,  although  the  natives  of  Vancouver  Island  and 
the  adjacent  shores  have  for  ages  possessed  plates  of  native  copper,  ham- 
mered into  sheets  six  to  twelve  inches  square,  and  appear  to  recognize 
them  as  units  of  value  in  barter. 

The  Precious  Metals. — What  are  called  the  precious  metals  have,  as 
metals,  a  minor  value  in  the  arts  of  utility.     The  estimate  put  upon  them 


ETHNOLOGY.  117 

from  remote  times  and  in  so  many  nations  is  almost  wholly  artificial. 
That  it  is  ancient,  we  know  from  the  Egyptian  paintings,  where  mercliants 
are  represented  weighing  out  gold  and  silver  in  exchange  for  goods,  and 
from  the  references  in  the  book  of  Genesis  to  Abraham  paying  "shekels  of 
silver,  current  money  with  the  merchant,"  for  the  land  he  bought  (Gen. 
xxiii.).  In  those  days,  and  for  a  long  time  subsequent,  weight  alone  was 
the  measure  of  the  shekels  or  other  units  applied  to  metallic  money. 
Practically,  it  is  so  to  this  day,  as  is  seen  in  the  Bank  of  England,  which 
neither  pays  nor  receives  coins  except  by  weight.  This  method,  however, 
is  so  inconvenient  in  the  pressure  of  ordinary  business  that  some  inven- 
tive genius  in  ancient  Lydia  or  Phrj-gia  bethought  him  of  dividing  the 
metal  into  pieces  of  equal  weight  and  alloy  and  stamping  alike  those  of 
the  same  value.  These  were  the  coins  in  clcclnnii,  five-sixths  gold  and 
one-sixth  silver,  said  to  be  the  first  ever  manufactured.  The  idea  was 
well  received,  and  in  a  few  centuries  had  not  only  extended  throughout 
the  civilized  world  of  that  date,  but  had  been  carried  to  a  degree  of  per- 
fection which,  from  its  artistic  side,  has  never  since  been  equalled.  The 
Greek  coinage  of  the  age  of  the  Macedonian  conquerors  for  beauty  of 
design  and  execution  stands  peerless  in  the  history  of  numismatics. 

Gradually  all  other  metals  gave  way  as  currency  to  those  first  chosen 
by  the  Oriental  coiners — gold  and  silver— or  at  least  became  restricted  to 
narrow,  local  usage.  Tin — which  in  ancient  times  was  coined  among  the 
Romans,  Sicilians,  and  Britons — is  still  emjjloyed  for  small  denominations 
in  Holland.  Leaden  coins,  once  not  uncommon  among  the  Mediterranean 
nations,  now  linger  only  in  the  distant  kingdom  of  Burmah  in  Farther 
India.  Iron,  which  in  the  form  of  spikes  and  bars  was  once  the  coinage 
of  Greece  and  Britain,  no  longer  passes  current  except  among  some  rude 
African  tribes.  In  modern  times  platinum  in  Russia  and  nickel  in  the 
United  States  have  had  limited  application  in  mints,  but  neither  seems 
destined  to  general  popularit)'. 

Paper  Motley. — Gold  and  silver  are,  and  are  likely  to  remain,  the  chief 
materials  of  currency  and  the  standards  of  value.  Although,  as  has  been 
said,  of  no  signal  practical  service  to  man,  they  are  of  some  intrinsic 
worth.  Therefore  it  was  a  decided  advance  in  the  true  theory  of  the 
medium  of  exchange,  although  nothing  more  than  a  re\'ersion  to  the  first 
form,  the  painted  strip  of  leather,  peciiiiia,  when  an  emperor  of  China  in 
the  eighth  century  stamped  a  certain  \-alue  on  a  piece  of  mulberry-bark 
and  issued  an  edict  that  any  of  his  subjects  who  should  refuse  to  accept  it  at 
this  value  should  be  forthwith  decapitated!  This  was  in  strict  accordance 
with  the  Aristotelian  definition  of  money — "something  that  has  its  value 
by  law  and  not  by  nature"  (see  p.  115) — and  is  the  first  historic  example 
o^  paper  money.,  which  has  now  obtained  such  wide  acceptance  throughout 
the  world.  That  medium  of  exchange  will,  however,  be  always  the  stand- 
ard, governing  all  otliers,  which  is  most  widely  recognized  as  suc]i;  and 
therefore  at  present  gold  alone  is  and  must  long  remain  that  by  which 
others  are  appraised.     Paper  money  can  only  be  a  valuable  currency  to 


iiS  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  extent  that  it  can  be  converted  into  gold.     The  idea  of  a  "  national  " 
currency  is  a  delusion  and  an  impossibility. 

Effects  of  the  Love  of  Money. — The  introduction  of  widely-recognized 
media  of  exchange,  like  gold  and  silver,  developed  to  an  extraordinary 
extent  the  notions  of  personal  property  and  individual  ownership — senti- 
ments almost  unknown  to  the  savage  condition,  where  all  property  belongs 
to  the  fanaily.  The  "  thirst  for  gold  "  and  the  "hunger  for  riches "  {aitri 
sacra  fames)  are  frequent  themes  of  reprobation  by  the  writers  in  classical 
ages,  both  sacred  and  profane.  The  "love  of  money"  is  condemned  by 
the  apostle  as  "  the  root  of  all  evil."  In  the  New  Testament  the  chances 
of  the  rich  to  inherit  the  kingdom  of  heaven  are  placed  little  above  zero. 
These  references  prove  that  the  evil  passions  stimulated  by  the  liberty  of 
personal  acquisition  had  deeply  seared  the  ancient  world  at  the  period  of 
the  Roman  empire.  The  prevalence  of  such  passions  in  a  nation,  their 
advantages  and  disadvantages  to  it  and  the  race,  are  the  questions  which 
must  occupy  the  ethnologist  in  his  study  of  this  branch  of  his  subject. 

A  striking  modem  example  may  be  selected  in  the  Spanish  monarchy. 
At  the  period  when  the  discovery  of  Columbus  opened  to  the  Spanish 
nation  the  teeming  storehouses  of  the  New  World  the  final  overthrow 
of  the  j\Ioors  had  left  the  Peninsula  filled  with  brave  and  energetic  sol- 
diers of  one  faith  and  language,  but  cursed  with  a  contempt  for  peaceful 
labor  and  an  insatiable  desire  for  wealth. 

The  hunt  for  gold,  and  no  higher  object,  inspired  Columbus;  and  the 
troops  of  cruel  and  greedy  adventurers  that  descended  like  a  flock  of  vul- 
tures on  the  feeble  communities  of  the  Western  continent  cared  for  noth- 
ing but  to  extort  by  any  and  every  means  this  precious  metal  from  th.e 
wretched  natives.  When  Pedro  de  Alvarado  tore  with  his  own  hands  the 
gold  rings  frona  the  lips  and  ears  of  the  chief  of  the  Cakchiquels,  who  had 
received  him  with  hospitality,  and  the  bleeding  native  prince  wept  before 
him,  it  was  a  picture  of  the  general  attitude  of  the  two  races;  and  when 
the  Nicaragnans  seized  a  Spanish  goldhunter  and  poured  the  molten  metal 
down  his  throat,  it  was  symbolic  of  how  they  regarded  his  nation  and  a 
portent  of  its  fate. 

The  continent  was  ransacked  for  gold  from  Oregon  to  Patagonia;  the 
most  fertile  tracts  were  disregarded,  or  cultivated  only  by  the  cruellest 
exactions  of  slave-labor;  the  mines  were  worked  in  a  manner  equally 
reckless  of  economy  and  human  life.  Illiterate  soldiers  of  fortune,  like 
Pizarro,  destroyed  ruthlessly  the  results  of  centuries  of  nascent  civiliza- 
tion, while  more  scholarly  but  not  more  scrupiilous  adventurers,  like 
Cortes,  could  boast  of  what  "jolly  corsairs"  they  had  been  in  their 
Western  life.  The  fertile  slopes  of  the  Appalachians,  the  green  prairies 
and  rich  bottom-lands  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  now  supporting  tens  of 
millions  of  prosperous  inhabitants,  were  marked  on  the  Spanish  maps 
"lands  of  no  account"  {ticrras  de  ningiiii  provccho),  because  they  yielded 
no  gold. 

And  what  was  the  result?     When  looking  on  a  previous  page  (38)  for 


ETHNOLOGY.  119 

the  most  deteriorated  specimens  of  the  white  race,  we  found  none  others 
so  low  as  the  American  descendants  of  the  proud  Castilians.  Nor  did  the 
gold  they  got  benefit  the  mother-country.  It  is  a  standing  puzzle  with 
historians  how  the  Indies  poured  their  auriferous  stream  for  generations  into 
Spain  and  left  it  as  poor  as  ever — far  poorer,  for  not  only  was  its  currency 
debased,  but  its  ancient  energy,  its  valor,  its  spirit  of  enterprise  and  prog- 
ress, had  been  bartered  and  lost  for  the  gold  which  was  no  longer  its 
own. 

II.    THE    -ESTHETIC    ARTS. 

Classificatio7i. — The  aesthetic  arts  are  those  designed  to  give  pleasure. 
Their  aim  is  primarily  to  affect  the  senses  in  an  agreeable  manner,  and  by 
association  the  emotions  and  the  intellect.  Hence  a  philosophical  exam- 
ination of  them  could  with  propriety  classify  them  in  a  physiological 
scheme  as  they  are  addressed  to  one  or  other  of  the  senses,  sight,  hearing, 
taste,  smell,  or  touch,  in  the  forms  of  color,  tone,  flavor,  odor,  or  tact; 
and  this  has  been  adopted  by  some  writers;  but  for  the  present  study  it 
will  be  more  convenient  to  arrange  them  under  their  objective  expres- 
sions,  as, 

1.  Decorative  Designs  in  Line  and  Color; 

2.  Sculpture  and  Modelling; 

3.  ]\Iusic  and  Musical  Instruments; 

4.  Scents  and  Flavors; 

5.  Games  and  Festivals. 

These  are  the  "arts  of  pleasure"  with  which  man  seeks  to  intensify 
the  sense  of  existence  by  bringing  into  enjo)'able  activity  the  various 
faculties  with  which  he  is  endowed.  The  effort  is  by  no  means  confined 
to  the  human  sj^ecies,  though  in  none  other  does  it  approach  the  devel- 
opment there  observed.  The  germs  of  most  of  the  arts  named  are  easily 
recognized  in  numbers  of  the  lower  animals.  So  many  examples  to  this 
effect  have  been  furnished  by  those  who  have  studied  the  development  of 
mind  in  the  inferior  species  that  it  is  needless  to  go  into  detail  on  this 
point.  The  domestic  cat  illustrates  the  love  of  games  and  frolic  common 
to  the  young  of  most  of  the  higher  animals,  and  in  its  fondness  for  the 
taste  and  scent  of  valerian  it  seeks  a  stimulation  of  its  gustatory  and 
olfactory  nerves  for  the  sake  of  pleasure  only.  Not  only  the  birds,  but 
some  species  of  mice  and  monkeys,  have  a  correct  musical  ear,  and  sing 
in  strict  accordance  to  the  rules  of  harmony.  In  the  homes  of  the  house- 
building rodents  and  the  mud-wasps  there  is  an  attention  to  proportion 
and  to  smoothing  and  trimming  the  outside  of  their  structures  which  has 
no  obvious  impulse  except  in  a  sense  of  the  harmony  of  related  parts. 
Many  quadrupeds  manifest  not  merely  a  perception  of  colors,  but  strong 
preferences  and  aversions  for  them,  as  in  the  common  example  of  the  irri- 
tating effect  of  a  red  rag  on  a  bull.  The  gorgeous  plumage  of  the  peacock 
is  most  obviously  appreciated  by  himself  and  his  fellows;  and  some  of 
the    bower-building    birds   tastefully   ornament    the    "pla\ing-passagcs" 


I20  ETHNOLOGY.      • 

they  construct  by  fastening  bright  feathers  and  gaudy  leaves  along  their 
walls  (Darwin).  The  scent-bags  possessed  by  various  species  of  animals 
emit  odors  agreeable  to  their  own  kind. 

Their  Relation  to  Sexual  Instiitet. — ]Many  of  these  developments  of  the 
sesthetic  powers  are  intended,  according  to  naturalists,  especially  as  allure- 
ments to  the  opposite  sex.  Whatever  their  ultimate  aim,  their  proximate 
object  is  to  excite  pleasurable  sensations  in  the  sense  to  which  they  are 
addressed.  Most  of  the  "arts  of  pleasure"  to  which  man  devotes  himself 
are  also  indirectly  ministers  at  the  same  shrine.  The  ideal  of  beauty 
which  inspires  the  painter  and  sculptor,  the  figures  of  dances,  and  the 
vibrating  tones  of  music  have  most  frequently  direct  reference  to  the  love 
of  man  to  woman,  the  devotion  of  woman  to  man.  They  are  stimulants 
to  the  emotions,  but  they  nearly  all  revolve  around  the  central  emotion  of 
the  sexual  passion. 

Their  Iiifiitoice  on  Social  Life. — It  is  from  this  intimate  natural  and 
genetic  association  with  the  laws  of  the  continuance  of  the  species  that 
they  become  of  such  moment  to  the  stud}-  of  history  and  ethnology.  The 
arts  of  pleasure,  properly  cultivated,  increase  the  happiness  of  a  commu- 
nity and  favor  its  life  and  growth,  but  misapplied,  or  pursued  as  ends  in 
themselves,  bring  about  the  decadency  of  nations.  The  relations  of 
testhetics  to  ethics  are  altogether  too  extensive  to  be  discussed  in  this 
connection;  but  whoever  has  studied  the  history  of  the  fine  arts  must 
acknowledge  that  when  their  products  have  been  signally  impure  it 
was  alwa)-s  during  the  decline  of  national  vigor,  and  that  their  grand- 
est triumphs  have  been  in  nations  struggling  nobly  for  freedom  and 
power. 

Tlie  Tlieory  of  the  Beaittifnl. — The  ethnologist  will  also  note  national 
and  race  characteristics  in  other  tendencies  of  art  than  where  it  touches 
morality.  The  theory  of  the  beautiful  is  not  altogether  one  of  caprice, 
as  some  philosophers  would  have  us  believe.  There  are  certain  laws 
underlying  the  proportions  of  the  human  body  which  define  what  is  sym- 
metry and  what  is  not,  within  close  limits.  They  are  not  inflexible,  like 
those  of  geometry,  but  adaptable,  like  all  those  of  organic  life. 

These  laws  were  intuitively  perceived  in  their  greatest  clearness  by 
the  ancient  Greeks,  and  the  models  of  art  wrought  by  that  nation  have 
ever  served  as  prototypes  to  later  generations.  The  remains  of  their  art 
contrast  forcibly  with  the  products  of  Mongolian  workmen,  usually  inclin- 
ing to  exaggeration  and  caricature  ;  with  the  examples  from  ancient 
Egypt,  characterized  by  conventional  elements  ;  and  with  those  of  most 
uncultivated  peoples,  which  are  generally  aimed  to  incite  terror  or  laughter 
rather  than  to  cultivate  the  conception  of  beauty. 

I.  Decorative  Designs  in  Line  and  Color. 
Probably  the  first  canvas  on  which  man  exercised  his  taste  for  decora- 
tion was  his  own  skin.     To  the  naked  savage,  painting  his  face  and  body 
takes  the  place  of  clothing,  both  in  its  useful  aspect  as  a  protection  against 


ETHNOLOGY.  i2i 

the  weather  and  the  attacks  of  insects,  and  in  its  more  important  purpose 
of  adding  to  his  beauty  and  dignity.  Humboldt  tells  us  that  among  the 
Indians  of  the  Orinoco  their  expression  for  the  most  abject  poverty  is, 
"The  man  has  not  enough  to  paint  half  his  body;"  and  adds  that  their 
more  esteemed  paints  are  so  costly  that  the  wages  of  a  fortnight's  labor 
are  required  to  purchase  sufficient  for  one  toilette. 

The  choice  of  colors  and  the  designs  varied  with  the  nation,  the  age, 
and  the  rank.  The  colors  were  obtained  both  from  vegetable  and  mineral 
sources,  red,  blue,  and  white  clays  being  especially  sought  after.  They 
were  transported  for  long  distances,  and  rubbed  and  mixed  with  great 
pains.  The  numerous  "  mullers "  and  paint-pots  found  among  the 
remains  of  the  Stone  Age  in  all  parts  of  the  world — especially,  perhaps, 
in  America — furnish  abundant  testimony  to  the  zeal  with  which  the  art 
was  carried  on. 

The  custom  was  found  in  every  continent,  and  still  remains  among 
many  uncultivated  tribes.  Survivals  of  it,  indeed,  are  noticeable  in 
nations  of  considerable  cultivation.  Most  of  the  Malays  color  their 
teeth,  others  stain  the  finger-nails,  and  the  belles  of  Paris  and  their 
imitators  dye  their  hair,  tint  the  eyebrows,  darken  the  under  lid,  and  the 
like,  with  the  same  motive  that  the  Mohave  girl  draws  a  broad  band  of 
red  paint  across  her  face    (comp.  //.  12,  Jigs,  i,  2). 

Tattooing. — Closely  akin  to  this  is  the  custom  of  tattooing.  Here  the 
paint  is  fixed  indelibly  in  the  skin  by  pricking  the  surface  with  a  sharp 
thorn  or  needle. .  Scarcely  more  than  a  thousand  years  have  passed  since 
this  barbaric  decoration  was  so  common  in  Great  Britain  that  one  of  its 
native  tribes,  the  Picts  {picti,  "painted"),  is  believed  to  have  derived  its 
name  fron:  the  tattooed  skins  of  its  warriors. 

The  object  aimed  at  is  usually  to  increase  the  personal  impression. 
The  woman  desires  to  make  herself  attractive,  like  the  New  Zealand 
belle,  who  is  considered  repulsive  unless  her  lips  are  carefully  tattooed 
black ;  the  warrior  wishes  to  strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  his  foes  by  his 
grisly  visage.  Accessory  purposes  are,  that  the  tattooed  designs  answer 
for  permanent  records  of  the  individual's  noteworthy  deeds,  or  when,  as 
in  the  South  Sea  islands,  the  figure  of  the  personal  divinity  or  "guardian 
angel"  is  pricked  into  the  skin,  and  is  thus  sure  to  be  always  present  with 
its  protecting  power  (see  pi.  15,  Jig.  5;  pi.  16,  Jg.  3;  //.  19,  Jgs.  7,  9). 

This  custom  is  by  no  means  extinct.  Probably  the  ancient  world 
offered  no  finer  specimen  of  tattooed  skin  than  that  of  the  Albanian  who 
for  a  number  of  years  has  travelled  in  Europe  and  America  exhibiting 
himself.  It  is  curious  to  note  how  the  elaborate  and  artistic  designs  con- 
vey the  effect  of  clothing  and  remove  the  impression  of  nudity.  Sailors 
deljcrht  in  this  decoration,  and  few  will  be  found  who  have  not  designs  on 
their  arms  and  legs.  Indeed,  among  the  minor  industries  of  the  great 
cities  professors  of  the  art  still  flourish,  as  came  prominently  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  public  in  Philadelphia  recently  through  one  of  them  inocu- 
lating about  forty  of  his  patrons  with  a  specific  disease.     He  was  accus- 


122  ETHNOLOGY. 

toined  to  moisten  the  tip  of  his  needles  in  his  mouth  before  inserting 
them,  and  thus  conveyed  the  poison  to  their  systems. 

Art  of  Draxviii^. — Decoration  by  lines  and  the  art  of  drawing  had 
already  attained  considerable  advancement  at  a  period  when  the  reindeer 
and  the  hairy  mammoth  sported  over  the  fields  of  France.  That  region 
was  then  occupied  by  a  nation  of  such  surprising  artistic  capacities  that 
the  remains  of  its  drawings,  scratched  on  bones  and  stones,  excited 
when  first  discovered  the  incredulity  of  antiquaries.  But  later  research 
removed  all  grounds  of  scepticism,  and  we  must  recognize  in  that  early 
folk  a  people  of  about  the  plane  of  culture  and  capacity  of  the  present 
Eskimos. 

Rock-Drawings. — One  of  the  most  common  purposes  of  primitive 
drawing  is  to  convey  information  by  pictures.  The  "  petroglyphs, "  or 
rock-inscriptions,  which  occur  abundantly  in  Northern  Asia  and  in  many 
parts  of  North  and  South  America,  are  drawings,  more  or  less  rude,  com- 
memorative of  the  exploits  of  warriors  or  of  the  migrations  of  tribes. 
Their  general  drift  may  sometimes  be  recovered  by  comparing  them  with 
the  conventional  figures  of  other  nations  in  the  same  stage  of  culture,  and 
with  those  elements  of  the  gesture-language  which  are  the  common 
property  of  the  race    (comp.  //.  32,  fig.  2). 

Decoration  on  Pottery. — When  pottery  was  invented  the  soft  clay 
offered  a  favorable  surface  for  receiving  and  retaining  the  designs  of  the 
native  decorators.  For  the  study  of  the  principles  of  primitive  line-work 
no  class  of  relics  offers  such  a  field  as  a  collection  of  savage  ceramics. 
When  specimens  from  localities  wide  asunder  are  compared,  the  frequent 
similarities  in  the  ornamentation  testify  forcibly  to  the  narrow  limits  of 
man's  inventive  capacity.  The  lines  are  usually  straight,  meeting  at 
angles,  recurring  in  set  patterns,  and  produced  by  similar  agencies,  as  a 
sharp-pointed  stick  or  the  finger-nail.  Curves  are  rare,  and  actual  figures 
belong  to  a  comparatively  late  period.  Greek  patterns,  or  "grecques," 
where  the  lines  are  broken  to  form  angular  figures,  repeated  one  after 
another,  are  to  be  classed  among  the  earliest  compositions.  They  are 
seen  on  the  rough  earthenware  of  the  New  Jersey  Indians,  as  well  as  on 
the  finer  products  of  the  Mexican  ceramists.  Their  utmost  development, 
indeed,  is  preserved  in  the  latter  country  in  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city 
of  Mitla,  where  over  twenty  such  designs  were  counted  on  the  facade  of 
a  single  building  (Ayme)    (see  //.  43,  fig.  8). 

Elements  ofi Drazving. — A  graceful  Greek  story  relates  that  drawing  was 
first  invented  by  a  girl  in  outlining  the  shadow  of  her  lover  as  it  was  cast 
upon  a  wall ;  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  figure  formed  by  the  shadow 
supplied  suggestions  to  the  early  learners  for  perfecting  the  proportions 
of  their  figures  "  in  the  flat."  Certain  it  is,  however,  that  their  progress 
was  very  slow.  Those  indispensable  elements  of  the  higher  pictorial  art, 
perspective  and  chiar-oscuro,  were  unknown  in  ancient  Eg)pt,  in  Bab}'- 
lon,  or  Assyria,  and  are  to  this  day  in  China  and  Japan.  We  need  not  add 
that  no  nation  of  lower  culture  had  achieved  them.     Although  we  have 


ETHNOLOGY.  123 

no  nearer  specimens  of  old  Greek  art  in  this  line  than  some  probably 
third-rate  copies  recovered  from  the  buried  city  of  Pompeii,  yet  they  are 
sufficient  to  show  that  these  principles  were  recognized  by  that  gifted 
people.  Forgotten  in  the  Dark  Ages,  they  were  recovered  at  the  revival 
of  learning,  and  in  modern  times  have  been  cultivated  to  a  degree  of 
mathematical  accuracy. 

Decorations  in  Textile  Materials. — The  invention  of  textile  material 
offered  another  fertile  field  to  the  passion  for  ornamentation.  The  coarse 
rush  mats  which  the  Indian  women  wove  from  the  stalks  and  leaves  of 
the  sweet-flag  and  from  the  split  bamboos  of  the  tropics  bore  generally 
traces  of  designs  and  colors.  When  such  material  came  in  use  as  clotli- 
ing,  its  decoration  was  vastly  richer.  The  mummy-cloth  from  Peruvian 
graves  exhibits  extraordinary  variety  and  intricacy  of  patterns.  To  pro- 
duce and  vary  them  required  a  constant  exercise  of  ingenuity,  an  atten- 
tion to  nice  mechanical  adjustments,  and  to  harmonies  of  proportion  and 
color  which  found  their  ultimate  expression  in  such  wonders  of  taste, 
inventive  genius,  and  patient  endeavor  as  the  Jacquard  loom,  the  Gobelin 
tapestries,  and  the  modern  designs  for  dress  goods. 

The  Color  Sense. — In  connection  with  this  branch  of  our  subject  a 
physiological  question  of  much  ethnologic  interest  must  be  mentioned 
— that  is,  the  development  of  the  color  se/ise.  Many  writers  have  argued 
that  the  perception  of  the  finer  distinctions  of  color  is  quite  a  modern 
acquisition  of  civilized  people,  that  the  savage  races  are  incapable  of  it, 
and  that  even  in  tlie  early  historic  times,  as  at  the  period  of  the  composi- 
tion of  the  Homeric  poems  and  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  many  shades 
now  easily  distinguished  were  confounded.  Neither  in  the  pages  of  those 
early  records,  it  is  argued,  nor  in  the  languages  of  savage  nations,  can 
there  be  found  words  indicative  of  a  developed  sense  of  color  comparable 
to  that  which  we  now  enjoy. 

There  is  a  certain  degree  of  truth  in  this  view.  In  none  of  the  Cen- 
tral American  languages  of  the  Maya  stock,  for  example,  are  there  original 
words  for  blue  and  green.  They  are  designated  by  the  same  word,  with 
modifjing  aflSxes.  Therefore  there  must  have  been  a  period  when  the 
ancestors  of  these  people,  looking  upward,  did  not  distinguish  in  language 
between  the  colors  of  the  green  leaves  of  the  forest  and  tlie  blue  of  the 
sky  beyond.  But  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  they  did  not  have  the 
perception  of  the  difference.  Language  develops  only  as  it  is  required. 
In  many  American  languages  there  are  no  separate  radicals  for  blue  and 
yellm\  so  that  there  must  have  been  a  time  when  these  perceptions  were 
blended  in  language,  however  widely  apart  they  seem  to  us.  The  Nez 
Perci^s  of  the  North-west,  a  rather  unusually  intelligent  tribe,  appear  to 
distinguish  but  three  colors  in  the  rainbow,  as  they  name  only  that  num- 
ber. The  Aryan  tongues  bear  traces  of  a  similar  absence  of  color  nota- 
tion at  some  remote  period.  The  pairs  gray  and  g}'een,  blue  and  black,  are 
derived  each  from  a  single  radical,  so  that  our  Aryan  ancestors  expressed 
no  difference  between  them. 


124  ETHNOLOGY. 

But  such  evidence  is  not  conclnsive.  From  other  aspects  these  dialects 
appear  superfluously  rich  in  words  denoting  color.  In  many  there  will  be 
two,  three,  or  more  for  the  same  tint  as  it  appears  on  different  objects. 
Thus,  in  the  Klamath  there  are  three  radically  different  words  for  blue — 
one  as  it  appears  on  beads;  a  second,  on  flowers;  and  a  third,  on  garments. 
Again  they  will  distinguish  shades  which  are  important  to  them,  as  the 
changing  color  of  game  animals,  with  an  extraordinary  particularity 
which  goes  far  beyond  our  vocabulary.  A  scientific  traveller  who  pro- 
vided himself  with  a  chromatic  scale  of  twenty  colors,  and  discussed  it 
with  members  of  seven  different  tribes  of  Indians  in  the  Western  United 
States,  reached  the  conclusion  that  they  "distinguish  as  many,  if  not 
more,  shades  of  color  than  we  do"  (Gatschet).  This  interesting  ethno- 
logic question  may  therefore  be  considered  one  demanding  further  inves- 
tigation. 

The  Symbolism  of  Colors. — Decorative  tints  must  engage  the  ethnolo- 
gist from  another  direction — that  of  their  meaning.^  the  doctrines  of  color 
symbolism.,  which  presents  many  cujious  features.  In  primitive  art  the 
color  is  more  significant  than  the  design,  and  this  extended  far  down  in 
the  history  of  picture-writing,  as  is  seen  in  the  Aztec  manuscripts.  The 
messages  transmitted  by  belts  of  wampum  and  painted  sticks  between  the 
tribes  of  Northern  America  told  their  story  not  by  their  figures,  but  by 
their  color,  the  meaning  of  which  was  fixed  over  wide  areas.  When  they 
were  intent  on  a  visit  of  peace  to  a  neighboring  tribe,  they  sent  a  blue 
girdle  and  painted  their 'faces  of  the  same  color  (Loskiel);  but  when  the 
message  was  one  of  war,  they  sent  the  belt  of  red  wampum  and  the  ' '  war- 
paint" was  of  red  earth.  "  White,"  says  Adair,  speaking  of  the  Creeks 
and  their  neighbors,  "is  their  fixed  emblem  of  peace,  happiness,  pros- 
perity, and  holiness  ;"  and  the  priests  of  the  pacific  deities  of  Peru  and 
Mexico  clothed  themselves  in  white  robes. 

The  instances  here  cited  from  America  could  be  paralleled  with 
numerous  others  from  ancient  and  modern  art  all  over  the  world  ;  but 
it  will  be  sufficient  merely  to  throw  out  this  suggestion  of  the  important 
bearings  of  this  feature  of  decorative  art. 


-'&'' 


2.  Sculpture  and  Modelling. 

The  earliest  indications  of  the  imitative  art  of  the  sculptor  come  down 
to  us  from  the  "reindeer  period"  of  Western  Europe.  They  are  repre- 
sentations of  this  and  other  animals  rudely  chiselled  from  pieces  of  its 
Korns.  Probably  the  oldest  of  all  known  human  figures  is  a  little  stat- 
uette of  this  material  in  the  collection  of  Vibraye,  and  it  is  significant 
of  the  inspiration  of  art  through  all  time,  to  which  we  have  already 
alluded  (see  p.  120),  that  it  is  the  figure  of  a  female,  so  distinctly  pro- 
nounced that  it  has  received  the  classical  appellation,  "  I'eniis  impiic/iciis.'''' 
The  passage  from  this  rude  and  obscene  little  image  up  to  the  noble  pro- 
portions, the  discreet  drapery,  and  the  godlike  expression  of  the  Venus  of 


ETHNOLOGY.  125 

Milo,  marks  the  progress  of  the  sculptor's  art,  ever  impelled  by  the  hauiit- 
iug  dreams  of  womanly  charms. 

Egyptian  Sculpture. — The  way  was  long,  and  many  cycles  and  many 
nations  had  to  run  their  careers  before  its  goal  was  reached.  Thousands 
of  years  elapsed  before  the  artist  could  free  himself  from  the  fetters  of  the 
material  in  which  he  worked.  The  prohibition  of  innovations  in  ancient 
Egypt  probably  checked  what  would  have  been  brilliant'  progress  there, 
for  the  finest  examples  of  their  work  are  the  oldest.  The  celebrated 
"wooden  man"  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Boolak  is  believed  to  have 
been  carved  nearly  four  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  yet 
the  body  is  admirably  modelled  and  the  head  life-like.  In  later  Egyptian 
works  it  is  not  equalled,  and  although  the  artists  acquired  surprising 
efficiency  in  carving  stone,  the  limbs  of  their  statues  were  not  developed 
as  independent  members,  but  remained  attached  throughout  a  part  or  the 
whole  of  their  length  to  the  body  or  to  the  matrix.  This  is  also  the  cha- 
racter of  the  Assyrian  and  early  Cypriote  work.  Anatomy  was  little 
regarded,  and  grace  of  position  not  at  all.  Only  in  the  hands  of  Greek 
sculptors  did  the  art  reach  the  degree  of  perfection  which  satisfied  the 
trained  aesthetic  sense. 

Native  American  Sculpture. — The  highest  development  of  this  art  in  the 
New  World  did  not  attain  the  level  of  that  of  Egypt  in  its  earliest  recorded 
dynasties.  There  has  been  no  statue  of  any  material  discovered  in  America 
equal  on  its  artistic  side  to  the  "wooden  man"  above  mentioned.  With 
cousiderable  skill  in  technique,  the  Americans  fell  far  away  from  the  higher 
ideals  of  art,  even  when,  as  in  modelling  in  clay,  they  had  entire  command 
of  the  material.  This  is  nearly  as  true  of  the  most  cultivated  nations  as  of 
those  of  ruder  lives.  The  severe  judgment  of  the  Carthusian,  De  Salazar, 
who  spent  several  j-ears  in  Mexico  about  1550,  when  numerous  remains  of 
its  native  arts  were  extant,  is  almost  borne  out  b)'  the  collections  of  archae- 
ologists: "Of  all  the  carvings  and  images  I  saw  among  those  Western  peo- 
ples, whether  in  wood  or  stone  or  gold  or  silver  or  bone  or  any  other  sub- 
stance, I  have  not  seen  one  but  was  disagreeable,  ugly,  and,  to  speak 
plainly,  diabolical;  although  I  am  by  no  means  insensible  to  the  beauties 
of  the  equally  heathen  statues  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans."  When 
in  our  own  century  such  an  eminent  critic  of  art  as  Wilhelm  von  Hum- 
boldt expresses  himself  of  the  Aztec  productions  in  words  almost  as  sweep- 
ing, we  are  obliged  to  deny  to  those  nations  the  gift  of  the  conception  of 
ideal  beauty  and  harmonic  proportion. 

Secret  of  Greek  Art. — Plastic  art,  be  it  remembered,  in  its  highest 
expressions  does  not  mean  mere  superior  technical  skill,  nor  simph'  exact 
and  faithful  imitation  of  nature.  Its  products  must  possess  something 
which  brings  the  observer  into  unison  with  the  mood  of  the  artist  in  his 
moments  of  creation,  thus  establishing  a  sjinpathy  of  soul  based  on  uni- 
versal and  ever-living  sentiments.  This  was  the  secret  of  Greek  art,  and 
this  is  why  it  holds  its  sway  over  the  cultured  mind  when  the  more  math- 
ematically accurate  productions  of  modern  studios  leave  it  cold.     In  the 


126  ETHNOLOGY. 

psycholog}'  of  nations  there  are  few  more  instructive  contrasts  than  are 
presented  by  their  relative  appreciation  of  art  in  this  its  higliest  definition. 
Pi-ohibitions  of  Artistic  Studies. — Plato  tells  us  that  the  Egj'ptian 
designers  "were  forbidden  to  select  any  new  subjects  or  to  invent  any 
new  methods;"  and  we  have  seen  how  completely  these  restrictions 
blighted  the  opening  flowers  of  plastic  and  glyptic  art  in  that  nation. 
But  it  was  not  merely  dwarfed,  it  was  wholly  rooted  out,  in  several  of 
the  most  intelligent  communities  of  the  ancient  world.  The  command, 
"Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  a  graven  image,  nor  the  likeness  of  any 
fonn  that  is  in  heaven  above,  or  that  is  in  the  earth  beneath,  or  that  is  in 
the  water  imder  the  earth"  (Ex.  xx.),  came  to  the  Israelites  with  the  most 
solemn  surroundings  of  a  divine  mandate;  and  though  it  is  not  easy  to  recon- 
cile it  with  the  practice  of  placing  the  figures  of  the  cherubim  in  the  temple 
and  with  the  work  of  artists,  such  as  ' '  Bezaleel  the  son  of  Uri, ' '  cunning  ' '  in 
cutting  of  stones  for  setting,  and  in  carving  of  wood,  to  work  in  all  manner 
of  workmanship"  (Ex.  xxxi.),  unquestionably  this  nation  was  prevented 
from  any  general  practice  of  modelling  or  carving.  The  Persians,  who  also 
regarded  all  images  of  a  religious  character  as  evidences  of  impiety,  retro- 
graded from  the  height  attained  by  the  Assyrian  sculptors,  and  their  pro- 
ductions, always  of  a  secular  character,  were  never  marked  by  taste  nor 
bv  an  improved  technique.  Inheriting  or  adapting  the  Hebrew  hatred  of 
idol-worship,  Mohammed  extended  the  prohibition  against  images  even  to 
painting,  and  throughout  the  varied  nations  which  in  time  adopted  the 
religion  he  founded  there  are  no  representations  of  animal  forms  by  any 
means  known  to  art.  The  iconoclastic  sects  which  have  at  times  arisen  in 
the  Christian  Church,  and  the  influence  of  the  widespread  Greek  ritual 
and  doctrines  forbidding  statues  (although  permitting  pictures),  have 
acted  as  serious  drawbacks  to  this  beautiful  expression  of  the  sesthetic 
sense  exerting  its  legitimate  influence  on  the  development  of  the  race. 

3.  Music  and  Musical  Instruments. 

We  have  previously  referred  (p.  94)  to  the  love  of  singing,  which  is  as 
much  a  part  of  the  nature  of  man  as  it  is  of  some  species  of  monkeys  and 
birds.  To  increase  the  effect  of  the  tones  of  the  voice  even,'  nation,  no 
matter  how  rude,  has  called  in  the  aid  of  some  sort  of  resonant  instru- 
ment. This  brings  about  a  division  of  the  subject  into  vocal  and  instru- 
mental music. 

local  Music. — Nations  are  by  no  means  alike  in  their  singing  powers. 
Even  divisions  of  the  same  nation  differ  widely  in  this  respect.  To  a 
certain  extent,  this  depends  upon  the  language  and  the  dialect.  The 
muffled  and  nasal  sounds  of  the  Otomi  language  could  not  possibly  equal 
in  melody  those  of  its  immediate  neighbor,  the  sonorous  Nahuatl;  the 
harsh  Catalan  dialect  of  Spain  is  of  itself  much  less  musical  than  the 
Castilian;  the  guttural  German  less  than  the  vocalic  Italian.  Long  ago, 
Johannes  Diaconus,  the  biographer  of  Gregory  the  Great,  expressed  his 
de.spair  of  the  Germans   ever   singing   the  Gregorian   chants   to  suit   a 


ETHNOLOGY.  127 

refined  ear;  and,  though  their  instrumental  music  captures  the  plaudits 
of  the  world  to-day,  it  is  Italian  and  not  German  opera  that  holds  the 
r.ta;4e.  A  traveller  of  musical  taste  reports  that  the  singing  of  the 
Chinese  is  jarring  and  cacophonous,  while  that  of  the  Siamese  is  pleas- 
ant to  the  European  ear  (Diefenbach).  The  voices  of  the  Indians  of  the 
Plains  have  in  singing  a  peculiar  metallic  ring  (Clark),  and  those  of  Cen- 
tral America  a  depressing  harshness  (Haefkens). 

The  musical  intonation  of  national  songs  is  a  recognized  expression 
of  the  national  spirit,  as  is  also  the  facility  of  expression  in  verse.  The 
traveller  Laing  relates  that  in  approaching  some  negro  tribes  he  was 
greeted  with  improvised  and  jojous  chants;  and  "merry  England"  re- 
ceived this  title  on  account  of  the  number  of  ballad-singers  who  used  to 
entertain  its  population,  but  whose  vocation  was  destroyed  by  the  gloomy 
religious  sects  which  arose  in  the  sixteentli  and  seventeentli  centuries. 

Instrumental  Music. — Instrumental  music  has  been  divided  into  three 
kinds,  as  it  is  produced  by  vibrating  surfaces,  wind  instruments,  or  those 
sounding  by  strings.  Examples  of  the  two  first-mentioned  varieties  were 
in  use  all  over  the  world.  Some  species  of  sonorous  drum  or  gong  early 
took  the  place  of  the  rattle  or  the  sticks  clashed  together,  which  were 
still  more  primitive  devices  for  making  a  noise.  Almost  any  tube  a  few 
feet  long,  as  the  stem  of  the  cane  or  bamboo,  will  sound  the  successive 
notes  of  the  common  chord  and  furnish  the  most  important  of  the 
musical  intervals.  Such  flutes  or  trumpets  were  popular  with  most 
savage  nations,  and  educated  their  ears  to  the  correct  scale  of  notes. 
The  "Lydian  airs"  played  on  the  pipe  of  Pan  were  in  the  ancient  five- 
note  scale.  Pleasant-sounding  flutes  were  manufactured  in  earthenv/are 
by  the  Mexicans,  and  the  blasts  of  horus  and  conchs  were  frequent  in 
their  ceremonies    (see  pi.  53,  fig.  11). 

Stringed  instruments  do  not  seem  to  have  been  known  anywhere  in 
America,  although  a  certain  Aztec  manuscript  represents  what  appears  to 
be  a  harper  with  his  instrument.  At  least,  they  were  very  rare.  In 
ancient  Egypt  they  were  common,  as  well  as  a  variety  of  other  musical 
contrivances.  Some  have  alleged  that  Pythagoras,  who  was  the  first  to 
teach  the  mathematical  relations  between  the  vibrations  of  strings  and 
the  musical  notes  they  prodiice,  learned  this  from  the  "wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians."  Both  Chinese  and  Siamese  have  from  the  dawn  of  history 
possessed  a  guitar,  whose  soft  sounds  are  in  agreeable  contrast  to  the 
clangor  of  their  general  orchestra. 

Our  musical  notation  is  a  remote  descendant  from  that  of  ancient 
Greece,  but  independent  systems  have  been  devised  by  other  nations; 
as,  for  instance,  the  Abyssinians,  wlio  express  the  notes  by  the  arrange- 
ments of  fifty-three  letters  of  the  Amharic  alphabet. 

4.  Scents  and  Flavors. 
A  passion  for  strong  odors  is  frequently  obser\-ed  among  .savage  tribes. 
Members  of  the  African  race  especially  have  this  taste  developed,  and 


128  ETHNOLOGY. 

c:nploy  various  vegetable  preparations  to  anoint  and  perfurne  themselves. 
The  ancient  Mexicans,  according  to  the  historian  Sahagun,  collected  large 
numbers  of  sweet-scented  flowers  and  aromatic  plants,  which  they  mixed 
with  gimis  and  resins,  and  burned  as  pastilles  or  employed  as  lotions  and 
unguents.  In  that  and  in  many  other  lands  "the  burlaiug  of  sweet 
incense"  was  regarded  as  an  act  particularly  acceptable  to  the  gods, 
and  fonned  a  prominent  feature  in  the  rites  of  the  temples.  The  early 
Egyptians  prepared  perfumes  for  toilet  purposes  and  for  their  process 
of  embalming.  Some  of  them  were  so  pungent  that  they  are  yet  easily 
perceptible  on  mummies  thousands  of  years  old.  Some  of  these  were 
obtained  from  Arabia;  others,  even  at  a  very  early  day,  from  so  remote 
a  country  as  India. 

In  later  days  the  Greeks  became  distinguished  for  their  skill  in  com- 
pounding perfumes,  and  during  the  period  of  the  Roman  empire  most  of 
this  trade  was  in  their  hands.  One  of  the  principal  streets  of  Capua  was 
made  up  altogether  of  shops  devoted  to  this  branch  of  the  arts.  An  idea 
of  the  extent  to  which  it  was  carried  may  be  derived  from  the  Natural 
History  of  the  elder  Pliny,  who  gives  a  full  account  of  the  extraordinary 
number  of  artificial  odors  popular  in  his  day.  They  were  collected  from 
all  parts  of  the  then  known  world,  and  for  many  of  them  fabulously  high 
prices  were  paid  by  the  luxurious  aristocracy  of  Rome. 

Pleasures  of  the  Table. — But  the  extravagance  of  the  wealthy  of  that 
day  found  its  chief  field  in  the  search  for  new  and  pleasing  flavors.  The 
pleasures  of  the  palate  seem  at  all  times  to  have  exerted  a  most  powerful 
attraction  on  the  race.  Merely  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  s}-stem  has  ever 
been  but  a  minor  part  in  the  art  of  preparing  food.  Spices,  condiments, 
and  sweet  and  luscious  flavors  have  in  all  conditions  of  society  urged  men 
to  undergo  unwonted  exertions  for  their  enjoyment.  This  is  prominently 
seen  in  the  use  of  salt.  Though  certain  tribes  have  been  found  who  did 
not  know  it,  as  a  rule  it  is  highly  prized  by  all  races.  Travellers  state 
that  a  child  in  the  Soudan  will  suck  a  piece  of  rock  salt  with  the  same 
zest  that  one  with  us  will  enjoy  a  stick  of  candy.  The  numerous  remains 
of  thick  earthenware  evaporating-pans  around  the  "salt  licks"  of  Illinois 
and  Kentucky  testify  to  the  industries  this  taste  developed  among  the 
aborigines  of  the  United  States.  So  highly  prized  was  it  in  ancient 
Mexico  that  quarrels  about  the  salt-supply  were  frequent  causes  of  war 
between  the  Tlascalans  and  Aztecs  (Jourdanet).  Throughout  tropical 
America  the  red  pepper  was  scarcely  less  esteemed,  and  to  this  day  is  an 
invariable  accompaniment  of  the  native  dishes. 

The  lice  of  Gliittouy. — In  the  Old  World  the  Eg^'ptians,  Greeks,  and 
Romans  were  all  devoted  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table — to  such  an  extent, 
indeed,  that  the  severest  strictures  of  the  ancient  moralists  were  directed 
against  this  form  of  indulgence.  A  Roman  proverb  ran  to  the  efiect  that 
glutton)-  killed  more  persons  than  war — -plus  occidit  gula  quam  gladiiis. 
The  extravagance  of  the  Romans  in  this  respect  knew  no  bounds.  The 
famous  epicure  LucuUus  gave  dinners  to  a  small  circle  of  guests  which 


ETHNOLOGY.  129 

would  cost  as  much  as  $Sooo  ;  but  his  expenditure  was  completely  thrown 
in  the  shade  by  that  of  the  emperor  Vitellius,  who  in  tlie  one  year  in 
which  he  enjo}-ed  the  imperial  dignity  is  said  to  have  disbursed  for  his 
culinary  expenses  alone  nearly  a  hundred  million  dollars,  and  to  have  sat 
down  to  single  dishes  of  meats  so  rare  that  they  cost  forty  thousand  dollars 
apiece. 

It  is  instructive  to  note  that  in  modern  times,  at  least  in  nations  of 
European  descent,  there  has  been  a  steady  decrease  in  the  vice  of  glut- 
tony, although  attention  to  the  rational  pleasures  of  the  table  has  not 
diminished.  As  late  as  the  middle  of  the  last  century  instances  of  excess 
in  eating  must  have  been  frequent,  judging  from  the  denunciations  they 
called  forth.  Now,  however,  in  spite  of  a  more  rigid  code  of  social  ethics, 
condemnations  of  such  indulgence  are  rarely  heard,  because  it  has  almost 
ceased  to  exist. 

5.  G.\MEs  AND  Festivals. 

The  summary  of  the  arts  of  pleasure  is  expressed  in  the  phrase  "to 
play."  It  is  that  alone  which  the  human  being  does  spontaneously  and 
willingly  and  without  ulterior  motive.  The  philosopher  Bain,  in  study- 
ing the  various  manifestations  of  the  will  in  man  and  other  animals, 
found  none  that  does  not  presuppose  a  "controlling  motive"  except  the 
exercise  of  the  muscles  "for  the  fun  of  it,"  as  in  the  gambols  of  lambs 
and  the  sports  of  children.  To  play,  therefore,  is  the  natural  business  of 
man,  and  would  occupy  all  his  waking  hours  were  he  not  driven  by  wants 
and  appetites  to  work.  What  is  it  that  makes  "  the  solemn  brood  of  care 
plod  on  "  ?  The  hope  that  in  time  the  period  of  recreation  may  arrive,  the 
ardently-desired  pla^'time. 

The  Roman  Gi7w«.— Ethnologists  have  rarely  given  to  this  subject  the 
attention  it  deserves.  The  pastimes  of  a  people  are  eminently  character- 
istic of  their  mental  disposition,  and  the  amount  of  time  they  devote  to 
play  and  to  work  is,  it  need  scarcely  be  said,  quite  as  decisive  as  to  their 
destiny  as  any  trait  we  could  name.  When  the  historian  could  write  the 
following  description  of  a  people  it  would  ask  no  prophetic  power  to  fore- 
tell its  fate:  "The  Roman  people  considered  the  circus  as  their  home, 
their  temple,  and  the  seat  of  the  republic.  The  impatient  crowd  rushed 
at  the  dawn  of  day  to  secure  their  places,  and  there  were  many  who  passed 
a  sleepless  and  anxious  night  under  the  adjacent  porticos.  From  the 
morning  to  the  evening,  careless  of  the  sun  or  rain,  the  spectators,  who 
sometimes  amounted  to  the  number  of  four  hundred  thousand,  remained 
in  eager  attention,  their  eyes  fixed  on  the  horses  and  charioteers,  their 
minds  agitated  with  hope  and  fear  for  the  success  of  the  colors  which 
they  espoused  ;  and  the  happiness  of  Rome  appeared  to  depend  on  the 
event  of  a  race  "  (Gibbon). 

The  Olympian  Games. — The  games  of  the  circus  were  those  of  blood 
and  brutality,  and  by  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  early  Christian 
writers  nothing  in  the  economy  of  the  great  city  worked  more  disastrously 

Vol.  I.— 9 


I30  ETHNOLOGY. 

to  corrupt  its  life  and  to  prepare  the  \va}'  for  the  destruction  of  the  mighty 
empire  of  which  it  was  the  heart.  In  contrast  to  these  scenes  of  butchery 
let  us  depict  the  character  of  tliose  games  which  the  Greeks  celebrated 
every  four  years  for  more  than  ten  centuries  in  the  sacred  grounds  of 
Olympia.  No  combats  were  allowed  with  any  kind  of  weapon,  but  only 
wrestling,  running,  leaping,  hurling  the  quoit,  and  competing  in  feats  of 
dexterity  and  strength.  No  one  could  enter  the  lists  whose  lineage  and 
whose  character  were  not  equally  blameless,  nor  until  he  had  taken  a 
solemn  oath  to  deal  fairly  with  his  opponent.  No  reward  of  base  lucre 
was  promised  the  victor,  only  the  wreath  from  the  sacred  olive  tree  ;  but 
that  brought  with  it  glory  that  would  descend  to  and  shed  perennial  lustre 
upon  liis  posterity,  his  name  would  be  inscribed  among  the  heroes  of 
Greece,  and  poets  would  vie  in  singing  the  praises  of  his  prowess.  When 
the  games  were  about  to  take  place  a  month  of  truce  was  declared  through- 
out the  land,  and  any  armed  invasion  was  declared  a  sacrilege.  From  the 
remotest  shores  of  Greece  and  from  the  isles  of  the  sea  princes  and  people 
thronged  to  Elis — poets  to  declaim  their  verses,  sculptors  and  painters  to 
exhibit  the  products  of  their  industry,  philosophers  to  compare  their  solu- 
tions of  the  imiverse.  Who  can  estimate  the  influence  for  good  which  the 
Olympic  games,  conducted  for  more  than  a  thousand  years  in  this  spirit, 
exercised  on  the  mobile  and  receptive  Grecian  mind  ? 

Mexican  Game  of  Ball. — Such  great  national  games  were  by  no  means 
confined  to  the  Aryan  race  or  to  classical  antiquity.  We  may  change 
the  scene  to  the  empire  of  the  Montezumas,  and  we  encounter  in  all  parts 
the  favorite  tlacJttli,  a  game  of  ball.  Every  town  and  city  had  its  court 
with  walls,  nobles  and  populace  were  alike  devoted  to  it,  and  in  the  excite- 
ment of  the  contest  the  most  reckless  wagers  were  offered  and  accepted  on 
the  results.  -Men  would  bet  their  houses  and  lands,  their  children,  their 
own  liberty  ;  it  is  even  said  that  more  than  once  the  emperor  risked  his 
royal  power  on  the  success  of  his  favorite  players    {pi.  38,  fig.  4). 

The  Passion  of  Gaming. — The  passion  of  speculating  on  the  unknown 
result  here  alluded  to  is  one  of  the  strangest  and  also  one  of  the  strongest 
in  human  nature.  With  all  our  boasted  civilization,  it  is  only  by  the  most 
stringent  and  universal  laws  that  it  can  be  prevented  from  working  the 
most  disastrous  consequences  on  the  whole  fabric  of  modern  society.  The 
pleasure  of  the  gambler  cannot  be  explained  by  the  desire  of  gain. 
Charles  James  Fox,  himself  a  famous  example  of  the  class,  well  under- 
stood that  when  he  said,  "The  next  best  thing  to  winning  at  cards  is 
losing."  The  love  of  gambling  is  as  strong  in  the  breast  of  the  savage 
as  in  that  of  the  most  persistent  habitue  of  Parisian  clubs.  The  Indian 
of  the  Plains  will  sit  up  all  night  over  the  sticks  and  pebbles  which  answer 
for  his  cards.  The  ]\Iongolian  coolie  dreams  of  no  higher  delight  than  to 
risk  his  hard-earned  wages  on  his  favorite  game.  Cards  and  chess, 
invented  thousands  of  years  before  the  Christian  era  in  far-oif  Hindo- 
stan,  had  spread  all  over  Eiirope  long  before  any  useful  knowledge  con- 
tained in  the  lore  of  the  Indian  sages  had  reached  their  distant  relatives 


ETHNOLOGY.  131 

on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  Both  were  originally  imitations  of  the 
conflict  of  armies  in  the  field,  but  now  have  become  so  refined  and  so 
remote  from  this  significance  that  few  players  think  of  it. 

In  these  and  in  many  other  respects  into  which  we  have  not  space 
to  go,  the  games,  amusements,  and  festivals  of  nations  merit  the  close 
attention  of  the  ethnolos^ist. 

III.  THE  RELIGIOUS  ARTS. 
In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  classified  the  art-products  of  man  with 
reference  to  the  motives  which  led  to  their  manufacture  and  the  purpose 
for  which  they  were  designed,  whether  for  use  or  to  give  pleasure.  But 
this  arrangement  omits  an  active  branch  of  artistic  industry  which  min- 
isters to  neither  of  these  purposes — to  wit,  the  religious  arts.  These  are 
inspired  by  the  religmis  sentiment^  a  part  of  the  psychological  nature  of 
man  which  will  come  up  for  examination  later,  and  have  throughout  all 
historic  time  and  in  all  branches  of  the  race  claimed  a  larre  share  of  the 

o 

industrial  activity  of  man. 

Their  Early  Appearance. — Although  traces  of  religious  arts  appear  in 
remains  long  anterior  to  the  beginnings  of  recorded  histon.',  they  are  not 
discovered  in  those  of  the  earliest  dates.  Nothing  has  been  exhumed,  for 
example,  among  the  relics  of  the  Drift  men  of  France  and  England  which 
has  any  resemblance  to  an  amulet  or  charm  or  other  religious  object. 
There  is  no  indication  that  they  dispo.sed  of  their  dead  in  any  manner 
which  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  they  were  given  to  the  worship  of 
ancestors  or  expected  a  life  after  death,  ideas  frequent  in  the  rudest 
religions. 

After  these  Drift  n:en,  contemporaries  of  the  mammoth,  had  disap- 
peared along  with  this  huge  animal,  the  Belgian  caves  were  inhabited  by 
a  hardy  race  whom  we  have  referred  to  as  successfullj-  combating  the  cave 
bear  and  the  sabre-toothed  tiger  (see  pp.  38,  62).  Here  we  find  for  the 
first  time  what  may  be  construed  as  indications  of  objects  used  for  relig- 
ious purposes.  There  was  found  among  the  bones,  ashes,  and  stone 
implements  around  one  of  their  hearths,  and  is  still  preserved  in  the 
Royal  Museum  of  Brussels,  the  huge  thigh-bone  of  a  mammoth.  That 
animal  had  long  been  extinct,  and  this  bone  had  evidently  been  found 
somewhere,  brought  to  the  cave,  and  kept  there  for  some  purpose.  It  is 
not  worn  or  chipped,  as  would  have  been  the  case  if  it  had  subserved 
some  useful  end,  as  a  block,  seat,  or  primitive  anvil.  Therefore,  antiqua- 
ries have  concluded  that  it  was  a  "fetich,"  that  it  w^as  revered  as  the 
relic  of  some  mighty  and  divine  Being,  and  was  carried  to  the  cave  to 
become  its  guardian  and  protector. 

Pi'imith'e  Idols. — The  earliest  idols  of  many  nations  were  just  such 
massive  bones  or  some  rough  stone,  which  for  some  peculiaritv  in  color, 
shape,  or  position  had  attracted  the  attention  of  the  horde.  Thus,  until 
a  late  day  the  Egyptians  preserved  certain  bones  at  Sais  alleged  to  be 
those  of  Osiris  (Herodotus),  and  at  Athens  those  of  CEdipus  were  among 


132  ETHXOLOGY. 

the  sacred  treasures.  Saturn  is  said  to  have  been  worshipped  by  the 
Saba;ans  under  the  form  of  a  black  stone  (Gorres),  and  the  Holy  Kaaba 
in  ]Mecca  appears  to  be  nothing  more  than  such  an  unhewn  block.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  Ladrone  Islands  adore  a  prominent  rock  as  the  ancestor 
of  their  race  (Ellis);  and  such  instances  could  be  multiplied  indefinitely. 

These  superstitious  associations  early  led  the  worshippers  to  shaping 
and  adorning  the  "stocks  and  stones"  which  were  or  which  represented 
their  gods.  The  Indians  of  the  United  States  were  observed  by  the  early 
travellers  to  adorn  certain  rocks  with  "crowns  of  oak  and  pine  branches," 
to  daub  them  with  their  paints,  and  sometimes  to  chip  them  with  their 
stone  hammers  into  a  resemblance  of  a  man  or  animal,  at  first  merely 
increasing  an  accidental  similarity  of  shape  (Kendall,  La  Hontan).  This 
was  the  beginning  of  painting  and  sculpture  applied  to  the  religious  arts. 

Charms  and  Amulets. — Among  rude  tribes  many  minor  articles  are 
found  which  have  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  their  makers  with  none 
other  than  a  religious  purpose.  Such  are  the  charms,  amulets,  "medi- 
cine-bags," votive  offerings,  and  fetiches  which  in  some  way  are  supposed 
to  protect  the  wearer  or  to  aid  him  in  his  undertakings.  They  are  often 
among  the  most  elaborate  and  laborious  products  of  native  art. 

Funeral  Objects. — All  objects  connected  with  funeral  ceremonies  or 
used  in  the  disposal  of  the  dead  are  understood  by  antiquaries  to  belong 
to  the  religious  arts.  Were  the  mental  horizon  of  a  nation  absolutely 
bounded  b)-  the  present  life,  there  would  be  no  motive  to  take  the  slight- 
est care  of  the  dead  other  than  for  sanitary  reasons,  which  would  not 
apply  any  more  to  human  bodies  than  to  those  of  other  animals.  But 
almost  universally  the  corpse  is  the  object  of  special  and  often  elaborate 
attentions  on  the  part  of  the  survivors.  Even  when  nothing  more  formal 
in  the  way  of  funeral  ceremony  is  carried  out  than  that  of  a  tribe  of 
Lower  California,  who  were  wont  to  tie  a  pair  of  moccasins  on  the  feet 
of  the  deceased  and  leave  the  body  in  the  woods  (Bogaert),  it  indicates 
that  there  is  some  obscure,  half-recognized  notion  of  a  life  hereafter  and 
a  journey  to  some  other  sphere  of  action.  It  is  the  beginning  of  those 
theories  which  were  so  materially  construed  by  the  Egyptians  and  Peru- 
vians, who  devised  laborious  and  costly  methods  of  preser\-ing  the  body 
against  decay,  and  whose  mummies  by  millions  are  preser\'ed  after  the 
lapse  of  many  generations  as  perfect  almost  as  when  placed  in  their 
tombs    (see  //.  50,  figs.  5-8). 

Tombs. — The  tomb  itself  is  always  a  religious  symbol,  and,  with 
temples,  altars,  shrines,  sacred  enclosures,  and  holy  structures  of  all  vari- 
eties, finds  its  motive  uot  in  the  direction  of  use  or  pleasure,  but  in  the 
satisfaction  of  the  sentiments  of  piety. 

Influence  of  Religious  Sentiment  on  the  Dez'cloptncnf  of  the  Arts. — 
These  sentiments,  as  we  shall  see  on  a  later  page,  differ  both  in  kind  and 
degree  in  races  and  nations,  and  correlatively  with  them  does  the  atten- 
tion paid  to  arts  of  religious  purpose.  The  result  is  conspicuous,  and 
offers  some  extremely  difficult  problems  in  the  study  of  the  evolution  of 


ETHNOLOGY.  133 

the  arts  in  general.  Indeed,  it  has  been,  and  remains,  an  undecided  point 
in  the  history  of  art  whether  its  association  with  religions  aspirations  has 
benefited  or  retarded  it.  On  the  one  hand,  we  liave  the  school  of  those 
who  point  to  the  bloom  of  Greek  Art  in  the  age  of  Pericles  and  of  Mod- 
ern Art  in  the  da\-s  of  Raphael  and  Michelangelo,  and  claim  that  sncli 
work  as  was  then  produced  could  only  arise  out  of  the  deep  aspirations 
of  religion  and  from  meditation  on  glories  and  beauties  beyond  those  of 
earth;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  we  have  the  school  at  the  head  of  which 
stood  the  great  Goethe,  who  proclaimed  that  the  true  impulse  of  art  is  the 
universal  in  humanity^  that  it  is  above  all  state  policy  or  religious  doctrine, 
and  that  it  is  derogatory  to  its  claims  to  bind  it  to  the  promulgation  of 
any  creed  or  theory.  Art  for  its  own  sake,  l^  art  pour  I'' art,  is  the  motto 
of  that  school. 

The  question  is  still  open.  It  cannot  be  decided  by  assertion  or  by  a 
priori  reasoning.  Its  answer  lies  in  the  past  history  of  art  studied  in  the 
light  of  the  psychology  of  races  and  nations.  It  is  with  art  as  it  is  with 
language:  there  are  no  laws  of  its  de\'elopment  which  hold  good  in  all 
ages  and  throughout  all  nations.  Each  instance  must  be  studied  by  itself. 
Associations  which  with  one  nation  advanced  artistic  culture  in  another 
may  have  impeded  it.  Religions — eminently  so  Christianity  itself — 
which  have  at  certain  periods  favored  art  have  at  others  used  their  utmost 
endeavors  to  vitiate  or  destroy  it. 

V.    GOVERNMENT  AND    L.WVS. 

Development  of  Government. — From  the  earliest  period  in  which  men 
lived  together  in  communities  they  must  have  had  some  recognition  of 
each  other's  rights,  some  sort  of  an  expressed  or  tacitly  understood  "social 
contract."  What  this  was  at  the  outset  has  attracted  the  attention  of  anti- 
quaries and  students  of  jurisprudence;  and  the  inquiry  is  not  an  idle  one, 
for  from  this  primitive  compact,  which  it  is  assumed  did  not  differ  very 
widely  among  mankind,  all  later  forms  of  law  and  government  must  have 
slowly  emerged. 

These  researches  have  as  yet  not  led  to  a  unity  of  opinion  as  to  the 
status  of  primitive  society,  or  else  they  force  us  to  the  conclusion  that  no 
such  unity  of  form  as  has  been  assumed  can  be  shown  to  have  existed; 
and  to  claim  that  it  did  so  exist,  and  advance  only  theoretical  reasons  for 
tlie  belief,  is  contrar\-  to  the  methods  of  exact  science  and  sound  historical 
investigatit)n. 

The  Family  and  W'liat  Constitutes  It. — Thus,  wlien  bv  the  aid  of  com- 
parative linguistics  wc  carry  such  researches  in  the  Aryan  funnily  through 
its  most  ancient  representatives,  the  old  Indians  and  Persians,  the  Greeks, 
Italians,  Germans,  and  Slavs,  we  find  that  the  first  and  simplest  com- 
munity revealed  to  us  is  "a  family,"  which  simply  meant  all  living 
together  in  one  dwelling (y?r;«///(?  from  the  Oscan /<"?«/;/«, "house").  They 
were  women,  children,  captives,  and  dependants  of  one  kind  and  another, 
and  were  all  unde^r  tlie  recognized  rule  of  the  "house-master."     Marriajre 


134 


ETHNOLOGY. 


was  a  distinctly  recognized  formality,  and  our  word  "wedding,"  which 
is  almost  the  same  form  as  then  in  use,  preserves  in  its  radical  letters  tlie 
intimation  that  the  bridegroom  went  forth — "wended"  his  steps  else- 
where— to  seek  his  bride  in  some  other  household,  and  brought  her  home 
(Schrader). 

Lubbock'' s  Theory. — We  have  no  means  whatever  of  tracing  the  social 
organization  of  the  Aryan  stem  beyond  this  condition.  But  this  would 
not  at  all  satisfy  the  theories  of  Sir  John  Lubbock,  I\Ir.  J.  F.  McLennan, 
and  others  of  their  school.  As  has  been  mentioned  on  a  previous  page 
(70),  they  claim  that  in  the  order  of  social  development  the  tribe  came 
first,  a  rude  concourse,  where  the  sexes  lived  in  promiscuity;  the  gens  or 
clan  next,  tracing  its  kinship  through  the  female  side,  on  account  of  tlie 
still  prevailing  uncertainty  of  paternity;  and  onl^'  after  these  did  the  fam- 
ily proper  arise,  tracing  its  descent  through  the  male  line,  the  purity  of 
woman  having  become  reasonably  assured. 

Morgan's  TJicory. — An  American  ethnologist  of  eminence,  the  late  Wr. 
Lewis  H.  Morgan,  has  developed  this  theory  with  much  particularity. 
He  undertook  to  demonstrate  that  the  family  had  progressed  in  ancient 
society  through  five  successive  forms,  corresponding  to  as  many  stages  of 
development  of  government  and  lav.'s.     These  were  as  follows: 

1.  The  Consanguine  Family.,  founded  upon  the  intermarriage  of  bro- 
thers and  sisters  in  a  group. 

2.  The  Pttiialuan  Family,  where  several  sisters  marrj^  each  other's 
husbands,  and  all  form  one  household. 

3.  The  Syudyasmian  or  Pairing  Family,  where  there  are  temporary 
marriages  between  single  pairs,  but  no  fidelity  is  observed. 

4.  The  Patriarchal  Family,  where  one  man  takes  several  wives,  and 
claims  their  exclusive  allegiance. 

5.  The  Monogamian  Family,  where  single  pairs  unite,  and  each  party 
claims  the  exclusive  allegiance  of  the  other. 

These  fonns,  I\Ir.  ^Morgan  claimed,  "  sprang  successively  one  from  the 
other,  and  collectively  represent  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  the  family." 

Against  all  such  theorizing  it  may  be  urged  that  neither  in  history  nor 
in  geography  has  any  tribe  been  discovered  living  in  sexual  promiscuit}-, 
and  that  it  is  contrary  to  the  analogy  of  nature  (see  above,  pp.  70,  71); 
that  the  second  and  third  of  ]Mr.  Morgan's  forms  of  family  life  are  only 
exemplified  in  local  customs,  which  are  rather  those  of  authorized  licen- 
tiousness than  of  progress;  and  that  the  uncertainty  of  paternity  need  not 
be  assumed  as  the  origin  of  the  tracing  of  descent  through  the  mother,  as 
that  custom  prevails  in  some  tribes  whose  women  are  conspicuously  vir- 
tuous. Moreover,  these  views  have  not  been  accepted  by  those  most 
friendly  to  such  theories.  For  instance,  Mr.  McLennan,  whose  own  theory 
has  been  referred  to,  mentions  ]\Ir.  Morgan's  work  as  "  that  wild  dream — 
not  to  say  nightmare — of  early  institutions!" 

Grozvth  of  States. — Leaving  mere  hypotheses  aside — which,  however, 
it  seemed  necessary  to  mention  on  account  of  the  attention  they  have 


ETHNOLOGY.  135 

received — the  farthest  pre-historic  period  of  the  i\r}-an  race  to  which  we 
can  attain  by  linguistic  anal)sis  shows  us,  as  above  stated,  the  "family" 
as  a  group  of  related  or  unrelated  persons  under  the  control  of  a  master. 
Several  of  these  families  living  together  for  the  sake  of  protection,  the 
heads  of  each  claiming  relationship  to  the  heads  of  the  others  either 
through  blood  or  usage,  form  the  "clan,"  styled  in  Latin  the  gcns^  this 
word  meaning  "of  common  birth;"  in  Greek,  i\\e  phra/ry  [(/'oi/zola)  or 
brotherhood,  and  in  the  old  Vedic  poems  the  sad//a,  from  which  last  has 
lineally  descended  the  Lombard  and  Saxou-Euglish  "thorp,"  a  hamlet 
or  small  town. 

As  every  such  thorp,  using  the  word  in  its  original  sense,  must  have  a 
ruler,  such  a  one  was  chosen  from  and  b^'  the  heads  of  the  families.  He 
was  called  the  "king,"  which  very  ancient  title  is  not  allied,  as  the  older 
etymologists  thought,  to  the  verb  can,  to  be  able,  or  /:irn,  to  know,  but 
with  jj-cns  (Greek  yevoc),  stock,  descent,  and  meant  one  who  represented 
in  himself  the  whole  and  ptire  lineage  of  the  leaders  of  the  community. 

A  combination  of  several  such  thorps  for  mutual  protection  or  defence 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  tribe  or  city  {tn'biis,  ciz'ilas,  Tiuh:;).  Its  leader, 
chosen  probably  by  election  or  indicated  by  the  history-  of  the  combination 
itself,  was  called  the  ruler — Latin,  rex.  It  was  natural  that  he  should 
often  seek  to  retain  and  strengthen  the  power  during  his  life  and  transmit 
it  in  his  own  clan.  In  this  way  were  formed  the  hereditary  chieftaincies 
which  were  in  vogue  among  the  Aryan  race  when  it  first  came  within  the 
ken  of  history.  The  later  aspects  of  their  governments  belong  to  the  his- 
torian, and  need  not  detain  us  here. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  writers  that  the  development  of  the  principles 
of  government  in  the  Malayan  and  American  races  was  quite  different 
from  this.  But  a  careful  examination  will  disclose  the  fact  that  these 
differences  are  much  less  than  lia\'e  been  supposed.  For  instance,  the  cus- 
tom of  tracing  descent  through  the  female  line  and  the  law  of  marriage 
outside  the  clan  did  not  at  all  impair  the  devotion  of  the  individual  to  his 
clan,  and  left  its  boundaries  just  as  clearly  defined  as  the  patriarchal  system. 
If  we  take  a  developed  American  state  with  a  histon.-,  such  as  the  Quiches 
of  Central  America,  we  can  trace  its  governmental  evolution  through  much 
the  same  stadia  of  growth  as  we  have  depicted  in  the  Proto-Aryans. 

The  Quiches  had  thirteen  clans  or  calpiilcs,  and  the  head  of  each  clan 
was  an  independent  chieftain  within  its  limits,  subject  only  to  such  duties 
to  the  commonwealth  as  ancient  custom  had  laid  upon  him.  The  chief 
power  was  hereditary  in  one  of  the  clans,  limited,  however,  by  the 
national  council,  made  up  of  the  heads  of  all  the  clans  and  certain 
priestly  and  other  officials.  Such  a  social  conformation  strongly  resem- 
bles the  German  gaii  as  it  appears  in  early  mcdiceval  history,  and  in  its 
general  principles  arose  in  all  likelihood  in  a  similar  manner. 

Properly  and  Property  Riglils. — Some  writers  have  assumed  that  the 
idea  of  property  was  very  slowly  formed  in  the  human  mind.  According 
to  Mr.   Morgan,   it  required    "  innnense   periods  of  time   to  devcloji   its 


1^,6  ETHNOLOGY. 


'o 


germ."  But  the  genns  of  the  ideas  both  of  territorial  and  personal  prop- 
erty, and  the  privileges  they  confer,  are  certainly  plainly  evident  in  the 
lower  animals.  The  dog  knows  wdiat  belongs  to  his  master,  and  will  pro- 
tect it  ;  he  will  carr}-  off  and  bnr>'  an  unfinished  bone  with  as  distinct  an 
impression  that  it  is  his  as  has  the  miser  when  he  locks  his  gold  in  his 
strong-box;  and  both  cats  and  dogs  manifest  decided  resentment  at  others  of 
their  species  encroaching  on  the  limits  of  their  territories.  In  their  own 
way,  and  in  matters  which  are  of  importance  to  themselves,  savages  have 
very  positive  ideas  of  property.  One  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  their 
wars  is  the  act  of  trespassing  on  each  other's  lands.  The  assertion  of 
Mr.  Morgan  that  the  consideration  of  a  common  territorial  area  forms  no 
part  of  the  primitive  form  of  government,  but  that  this  derives  its  respect 
solely  from  claims  of  personal  relation,  will  not  bear  examination.  For 
instance,  at  a  certain  treaty  held  in  the  last  century-  in  Pennsylvania  the 
natives  on  one  side  of  the  Delaware  consented  to  the  stipulations  ;  and 
when  the)-  were  reported  to  those  on  the  other  bank  they  were  accepted — 
not  on  the  ground  of  personal  kinship,  but  on  that  of  territorial  unity,  or 
as  one  of  the  chiefs  said,  "  Because  we  drink  of  one  water." 

Personal  Property. — Property  of  any  kind  and  in  all  classes  of  society 
is  held  in  common  so  long  as  it  is  more  than  sufficient  for  all;  but  as  soon 
as  it  falls  short  of  this,  it  is  claimed  by  whoever  can  hold  it;  and  this  alike 
in  all  conditions.  The  real  and  only  difference  is  that  the  savage's  wants 
are  few  and  he  is  indifferent  to  the  future.  Where  scarcity  prevails  he 
shows  the  common  nature  of  man  well  developed  in  this  respect.  A 
traveller  in  the  arid  wastes  of  Australia  stopped  to  drink  of  a  brook,  but 
a  native  hastened  to  warn  him  that  that  portion  of  the  brook  was  his,  and 
that  he  did  not  allow  others  to  drink  there  (Waitz).  The  surliest  English 
landholder  could  scarcely  go  beyond  this.  Among  the  tribes  of  the  Ori- 
noco a  cultivated  field  is  recognized  as  the  private  property  of  the  person 
who  cultivates  it,  but  the  fisheries  and  hunting-grounds  belong  to  the 
tribe  at  large  (Gilii).  A  proof  that  the  most  valued  objects  among  savage 
nations  were  regarded  as  strictly  personal  property  is  given  in  the  wide- 
spread custom  of  burying  such  with  the  dead,  that  he  or  she  may  not  be 
deprived  of  the  use  and  enjoyment  of  them  in  the  other  life. 

Tenure  nf  Land. — Land  as  a  general  thing,  though  b)-  no  means  uni- 
versallv,  was  supposed  to  belong  to  the  clan,  and  later  more  especially  to 
the  head  of  the  clan — not  individually,  but  as  the  representative  of  its 
interest.  He  was  to  hold  it  for  the  common  benefit,  and  as  many  were 
to  live  on  it  as  chose.  From  this  came  the  law  of  primogeniture,  and 
also  the  theory  of  the  Turkish  government  that  the  sovereign  is  the  owner 
of  all  the  land  in  his  realm.  Possession  by  the  village  or  community  as 
a  bod^■,  such  as  exists  with  the  jnir  in  Russia  and  with  many  communities 
in  India,  is  but  another  branch  of  the  same  theory,  only  the  title  is  not 
vested  in  an  individual. 

Where  the  extent  of  land  was  insufficient  not  only  for  the  clan,  but 
even  for  the  famih-  in  its  narrow  sense,  the  opposite  custom  from  primo- 


ETHNOLOGY.  137 

g'eniture  arose — that  termed  in  Great  Britain  borouq-h  English — in  which 
the  older  sons  were  portioned  off  or  went  forth  to  seek  their  fortunes,  and 
tlie  real  property  passed  intact  to  the  youngest  son.  The  hitest  great 
bod}'  of  laws,  the  Code  NapoIco)i^  recognizes  tlie  rights  of  children  to  the 
property  of  their  parents,  and  by  forbidding  the  alienation  of  any  large 
part  of  it  to  other  hands  acknowledges  to  some  extent  the  correctness  of 
the  earlier  theories  of  property  as  not  wholly  of  the  individual. 

Lazes. — Applied  to  social  life,  the  definition  of  a  law  is  "a  rule  of 
action,"  and  it  is  a  serious  error  to  suppose  that  even  the  most  barbarous 
community  does  not  recognize  many  such  rules.  They  are  not  the  edicts 
of  a  master  or  a  governing  body,  but  the  results  of  the  necessary  respect 
for  each  other's  rights  which  have  been  dictated  by  social  contact.  They 
are  the  customs  and  habits,  consiietudincs  ct  mores,  of  the  community, 
and  they  vary  with  the  particular  needs  of  each  tribe.  To  violate  them 
is  deemed  contra  bonos  nioirs,  against  good  habits,   or  immoral. 

At  the  outset  every  civil  law  is  of  this  character,  and  has  a  sufficient 
and  recognized  reason  for  its  existence.  But  this  condition  could  never 
last  long.  Two  causes  have  been  always  at  work  in  every  community  to 
establish  an  artificial  and  unreal  code  of  action,  not  necessary  to  the  com- 
mon welfare  and  often  seriously  opposed  to  it. 

Precedents. — One  of  these  is  the  strength  of  habit  and  the  weight 
of  precedent  in  matters  of  custom.  A  law  originally  established  for  suffi- 
cient cause  continues  to  be  enforced  long  after  the  circumstances  which 
justified  it  have  passed  awa\'.  An  instance  in  point  is  the  surviving  law 
of  primogeniture  in  some  European  countries,  whose  origin  is  explained 
above.  At  present  it  completely  fails  of  its  original  purpose  and  works 
injustice  to  the  children. 

Religions  Infliieucc. — The  second  cause  is  the  claim  of  religions  to 
,  establish  laws  governing  social  relations.  This  extension  of  the  religious 
sentiment  into  the  domain  of  legislation  has  in  many  instances  completely 
overridden  all  other  agencies  affecting  the  social  compact.  The  laws  of 
Mann  in  India,  of  Menes  in  Egypt,  and  of  Minos  in  Crete  (if,  indeed,  the 
three  are  not  reminiscences  of  the  same  mythical  culture-hero)  were  all 
handed  down  as  the  edicts  of  divinity  itself  deciding  on  the  rights  of 
persons.  The  Pentateuch  was  the  "Book  of  the  Law"  governing  the 
tribes'  minutest  social  relations ;  and  at  this  day  in  all  Mohammedan 
countries  there  is  no  other  civil  law  than  the  divinely-inspired  Koran  and 
its  commentaries. 

The  Taboo. — The  beginning  of  this  condition  of  legislation  is  seen  in 
the  capricious  and  insensate  taboo,  or  prohibition,  which  in  the  Pacific 
islands  the  priest  would  lay  upon  certain  places,  things,  articles  of  diet, 
or  persons.  The  natives  fully  believed  that  a  violation  of  it  would  bring 
about  instant  death.  Not  less  influential  arc  the  shamans  of  Siberia  and 
the  so-called  "medicine-men"  among  the  American  Indians.  Their 
commands  were  often  wholly  unreasonable  and  injurious  to  the  tribe,  but 
they  were  obeyed  without  questioning.     Property  was  squandered,   the 


138  ETHNOLOGY. 

tillage  of  the  fields  neglected,  the  virtue  of  women  sacrificed,  at  their 
behests.  Missionaries  and  travellers  are  nigh  unanimous  that  their  influ- 
ence has  been  one  of  the  most  serious  drawbacks  to  the  development  of 
the  red  race. 

Whether  in  the  Old  or  New  World,  the  result  has  been  the  same  when 
founders  of  religions  or  sects  undertook  to  impose  their  own  dreams  or 
theories  on  their  fellows  as  rules  of  action  in  affairs  of  daily  life;  and  it  is 
a  necessary  result.  An  artificial  code  of  morality  was  established,  differ- 
ent and  generally  contradictory  to  that  required  by  the  circumstances  of 
the  comnninit}',  and  a  long  conflict  arose,  ending  either  in  the  gradual 
deterioration  of  the  nation  or  in  the  subversion  or  insensible  alteration  of 
the  religious  code. 

From  these  two  causes  there  are  always  a  number  of  statutes,  written 
or  unwritten,  in  every  commonwealth  which  are  inapplicable  to  the  exist- 
ing conditions,  or  they  are  relics  of  religious  enactments  which  never  had 
a  sufficient  reason.  The  most  cultivated  of  modern  nations  are  far  from 
having  thrown  them  off". 

Blood-Revenge. — In  noting  the  milestones  which  mark  the  positive 
advance  in  legislation  we  may  first  mention  the  abolition  of  blood-revenge. 
In  barbarous  conditions  of  society,  as  among  the  Algonkin  tribes  of  the 
United  States,  when  a  person  was  murdered  the  duty  devolved  upon  his 
clan  to  avenge  his  murder  by  slaying  one  of  the  clan  or  tribe  of  the  mur- 
derer— not  specifically  the  criminal  himself,  but  one  of  his  kin.  This 
miscarriage  of  justice  was  one  of  the  dissolving  elements  of  early  society. 
No  firm  government  over  several  tribes  could  be  established  with  indis- 
criminate assassination  going  on.  For  this  reason  one  of  the  first  steps 
taken  by  the  enlightened  chieftain  who  founded  the  Iroquois  Confederacy 
was  to  abolish  blood-revenge,  and  to  make  murder  an  offence  against  the 
state,  punishable  on  the  murderer  by  the  agents  of  the  state. 

Geographical  Foundation  of  National  Unity. — Another  step  was  the 
general  recognition  of  a  geographical  rather  than  a  consanguine  unity  of 
the  state.  We  have  seen  that  the  germs  of  this  are  found  in  very  rude 
conditions  of  society;  but  it  took  a  long  time  to  secure  legislation  for 
areas,  such  as  counties,  demes,  or  wards,  instead  of  for  certain  families 
or  tribes. 

lyong  after  such  had  apparently  been  the  case,  it  was  so  but  partially. 
The  laws  of  the  district  did  not  apph-  equally  to  all  the  inhabitants. 
There  were  "privileged  classes"  who  were  exempt  from  them  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree;  and  there  were  abject  classes,  such  as  slaves  and 
"  adscripts  of  the  glebe,"  who  were  deprived  more  or  less  of  legal  immu- 
nities and  protection.  When  the  enactments  for  a  legislative  district 
came  to  be  applied  without  distinction  to  its  inhabitants,  when  all  stood 
"equal  before  the  law,"  a  signal  victory  for  justice  had  been  achieved. 
But  over  what  a  small  part  of  the  earth's  surface  is  this  the  case!  And 
how  recent  is  its  advent  there! 

War. — The  usual  condition  of  savage  nations  is  to  be  in  conflict  with 


ETHNOLOGY.  139 

one  another;  nor  can  this  condition  be  said  to  be  confined  to  the  lower 
stages  of  culture.  Long  after  a  considerable  degree  of  cultivation  was 
reached,  it  was  looked  upon  as  a  matter  in  the  ordinary  course  of  events 
for  nations  to  fight  and  men  to  be  warriors. 

Though  the  cruelties  committed  and  the  miseries  inflicted  by  war  have 
been  the  theme  of  innumerable  writers,  and  with  justice,  yet  it  would  be 
unfair  to  leave  out  of  siglit  the  powerful  element  it  has  been  in  estab- 
lishing governments,  instituting  laws,  and  improving  individual  and 
national  life. 

Nations,  like  individuals,  differ  widely  in  valor  and  the  love  of  con- 
tests. In  some  instances  their  timidity  preserves  them,  as  when  they 
submit  without  resistance  to  a  powerful  foe;  in  others  it  leads  to  their 
destruction,  and  they  are  cut  to  pieces  by  a  mei'ciless  enemy.  Either  of 
these  results  may  occur  also  with  a  notably  warlike  people,  but  from  other 
reasons.  They  may  save  themselves  by  a  valorous  defence  of  their  lives, 
or  their  readiness  to  take  up  arms  may  lead  to  their  extermination.  The 
Susquehannocks,  whom  Captain  John  Smith  saw  and  admired  on  the 
Chesapeake  in  1609,  were  a  tribe  of  fine  frame  and  tireless  in  war,  but 
they  were  completely  exterminated  in  a  few  generations,  while  their 
neighbors,  the  peace-loving  Lenape,  still  survive  in  considerable  numbers. 

The  Advantages  of  War. — The  beneficial  influence  of  war  is  seen  both 
on  the  individual  and  the  state.  The  warrior  or  soldier  must  subject  his 
appetites  to  the  rigid  discipline  of  the  camp;  he  must  train  his  muscles 
and  his  senses  to  their  highest  degree  of  efficiency;  he  must  task  his 
inventive  powers  for  means  to  circumvent  his  enemy;  he  must  accustom 
himself  to  act  in  concert  with  others  in  carrying  out  matured  plans;  and 
he  must  learn  the  salutary  lesson  of  prompt  and  entire  obedience  to  orders. 
All  this  is  required  in  the  forays  of  savages  as  much  as  in  the  campaigns 
of  modern  arnries. 

The  guerdon  of  the  successful  warrior  compensates  for  the  toils  of  bat- 
tle. In  all  ages  he  has  been  the  t)-pical  hero  of  the  race.  His  name 
becomes  illustrious,  nations  and  their  kings  delight  to  do  him  honor,  the 
wealth  of  the  world  is  at  his  feet. 

Aside  from  these  potent  incentives  to  self-discipline  and  energy  there 
is  the  delight  in  the  contest  itself.  This  presents  in  its  most  concentrated 
form  the  pleasure  of  games  to  which  we  have  previously  referred  (p.  129). 
Many  of  the  most  popular  amusements  are  imitations  of  the  great  game 
of  war,  but  all  fall  short  of  the  keen  intensity  of  the  reality. 

"  'Twere  woith  ten  years  of  peaceful  life, 
One  hour  of  such  a  day." 

This  applies  more  forcibly  to  the  contests  of  primitive  races,  which  were 
carried  on  man  against  man,  than  to  those  of  our  own  day,  where  hand-to- 
hand  conflict  is  rare. 

The  lujlucnce  of  IVar. — The  influence  of  war  in  developing  the  imen- 
tion  of  weapons  and  the  construction  of  defensive  edifices  has  already  been 


I40  ETHNOLOGY. 

mentioned.  The  nation  at  large,  as  well  as  the  individual,  feels  its  bene- 
ficial effect.  Nothing  so  much  consolidates  a  community  as  the  menace 
of  a  common  foe.  The  earliest  tribes  and  confederacies  had  no  other 
origin.  The  ambition  of  the  conqueror,  which  leads  him  to  gather  war- 
riors from  all  directions,  brings  together  in  a  mutual  bond  diverse  nations 
and  races,  and  lays  the  foundation  for  peaceful  intercourse  in  after  ages. 
And  although  the  track  of  such  a  conqueror  may  be  one  of  blood  and  fire, 
he  brings  about  that  intermingling  of  nationalities  which  is  essential  to 
the  intellectual  growth  of  the  race.  In  a  remarkable  passage  in  his 
Kosmos^  Alexander  von  Humboldt  has  traced  the  advantages  to  learning 
derived  from  the  Asiatic  campaigns  of  Alexander  of  Macedon  ;  and  in  a 
less  degree  all  conquerors  before  and  since  have  contributed  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  progress  of  ideas. 

Origin  of  Castes. — The  social  distinction  of  castes  is  nearly  always  an 
outgrowth  of  war.  The  conquered  nation  were  either  reduced  to  a  condi- 
tion of  serfdom  or  slavery,  while  the  conquerors  remained  among  them  as 
masters.  Hence  the  difference  of  castes  is  usually  ethnologic  as  well  as 
political.  Such  a  relationship  was,  in  England,  established  between  the 
Danes  and  Britons,  and  later  between  the  Normans  and  Saxons  ;  but 
nowhere  was  the  line  more  sharply  drawn  than  in  India,  where  the  white 
Indo-Aryans  conquered  the  brown  Dravidian  tribes,  and  in  order  to  pre- 
serve purity  of  blood  established  barriers  which  have  lasted  four  thousand 
years  or  more.  Its  origin  is  distinctly  conveyed  in  the  native  name  for 
caste,  varna.,  the  color  of  the  skin. 

Caste  or  rank  within  a  nation  has  also  its  usual  origin  in  distinction 
gained  in  war.  Nothing  else  is  so  immediately  recognized  as  a  well- 
founded  claim  to  superiority.  Even  ver>'  rude  tribes  acknowledge  degrees 
of  rank.  The  Polynesians  were  always  found  to  be  divided  into  nobles 
and  commons,  and  many  minute  distinctions  were  in  vogue.  On  the 
Oregon  coast  the  nobles  were  entitled  to  an  artificially  flattened  shape  of 
the  skull,  which  was  sedulously  cultivated.  In  Peru  the  higher  class  per- 
forated and  stretched  their  ears  to  an  inordinate  length,  whence  they  were 
called  Orcjones  by  the  Spaniards.  Among  the  Abipones  of  South 
America  the  missionaries  found  as  much  pride  of  blood  as  they  had  left 
behind  them  in  Europe.  Poor  and  wrinkled  old  women  would  boast  of 
their  "  line  of  long  descent"  with  all  the  haughtiness  of  a  Lady  Clara 
Vere  de  Vere,  and  insist  that  they  sliould  be  addressed  in  a  form  of  the 
language  where  suffixes  are  added  to  the  words  to  indicate  respect  (Dobriz- 
hoffer").  Such  a  dialectic  variation  employed  in  speaking  to  those  of 
higher  rank  has  also  been  observed  in  Nahuatl,  Choctaw,  and  other 
American  idioms.  It  illustrates  how  deeply  the  regard  for  rank  is 
implanted  among  those  who,  we  are  too  apt  to  imagine,  live  on  a  com- 
mon plane  of  barbaric  equality. 

Defettsiz'e  Institutions. — Living  in  the  constant  anticipation  of  warfare, 
the  necessitv  for  providing  against  it  has  alwaj's  modified  the  forms  of 
human    society.     In    some   nations,  as   the  Japanese,  one  of  the    castes 


ETHNOLOGY.  141 

looked  forward  to  no  other  occupation  than  fighting,  while  the  others 
expected  to  devote  themselves  to  peaceful  pursuits  except  in  emergencies. 
Wherever  there  are  large  standing  armies  this  nmst  be  the  case  to  a  great 
degree.  In  a  condition  of  society  where  a  state  of  war  is  more  frequent 
than  one  of  peace  tliis  has  its  advantages  ;  but  where  the  reverse  is  the 
case,  as  in  modern  Europe,  the  diversion  of  a  large  share  of  the  best 
intelligence  of  the  nation  into  the  army  detracts  heavily  from  the  general 
efficiency  of  the  people. 

In  the  American  tribes  there  were  generally  two  rulers — one  for  war, 
the  other  for  pacific  conditions.  The  latter  was  hereditary  or  elective 
from  a  limited  number  of  families,  but  the  former  was  chosen  from  the 
boldest,  most  skilful  warriors,  without  other  regard  than  to  his  efficiency. 
Sometimes  two  war-chiefs  were  selected,  either  that  one  might  replace  the 
other  without  delay  in  case  of  death,  or  that  the  one  might  serve  as  a 
check  on  the  ambitious  designs  of  the  other  (Iroquois).  Traces  of  this 
sagacious  plan  are  found  in  most  parts  of  the  continent. 

Military  Govcrnutciiis. — The  effects  of  war  on  government  reach  their 
highest  point  in  the  establishment  of  military  despotisms.  These  are  far 
from  being  unmixed  evils.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  better  than  a  con- 
dition of  freedom  where  each  clan  acts  independently  of  the  others,  and 
personal  liberty  has  that  wide  signification  which  was  the  rule  among  the 
northern  tribes  of  America.  What  men  most  need  to  learn  is  labor  and 
obedience,  and  these  can  usually  be  taught  them  only  by  a  tyranny.  As 
the  learned  ethnologist  Waitz  observes,  in  many  conditions  of  society  it  is 
of  much  less  importance  that  the  limits  of  the  government  be  defined,  or 
that  its  conduct  be  in  accord  with  the  precepts  of  justice,  than  that  it  be 
strong  and  stable.  By  these  traits  men  are  accustomed  to  obey  the  laws, 
and  to  order  their  lives  in  accordance  with  a  plan  which  embraces  all  the 
interests  of  the  nation.  The  destructive  consequences  of  exclusive  self- 
seeking  and  ill-founded  ambition  are  checked,  and,  following  the  direction 
assigned  by  one  mind,  the  full  force  of  the  nation  makes  itself  felt  in  the 
conduct  of  great  affairs. 

Groivth  of  International  Law. — Finally,  we  may  mention  international 
law  as  largely  an  outgrowth  of  war.  Negotiations  for  the  exchange  or 
redemption  of  captives  and  treaties  to  effect  peace  and  adjust  differences 
led  to  the  establishment  of  modes  of  intercourse  and  usages  between 
nations,  and  finally  to  mutual  legislation.  Indeed,  the  old  term  for  what 
•we  now  call  international  law  was  "  the  law  of  war  and  peace, "_/'«,?  belli 
et pads,  which  sufficiently  indicates  its  origin.  Its  initiatives  are  visible 
in  the  customs  of  savage  nations,  where  it  was  very  generally  deemed  an 
outrage  to  injure  a  messenger  of  peace,  and  symbols  were  recognized  as 
indicating  his  character,  as  the  calumet  among  the  North  American  tribes. 

VI.    RELIGIONS. 
We  have  already  adverted  to  the  intimate  connection  which  has  widely 
existed  between  the  religious  sentiment  and  the  growth  of  arts  (above,  p. 


142 


ETHNOLOGY. 


132)  and  forms  of  government  (p.  137).  These  were  but  subordinate  indi- 
cations of  its  all-embracing  activity  in  moulding  the  lines  and  shaping  the 
destinies  of  individuals  and  nations.  A  general  review  of  the  directions 
of  this  part  of  man's  nature,  though  necessarily  brief  and  incomplete, 
will  illustrate  how  indispensable  its  attentive  study  becomes  to  the  eth- 
nologist. 

Di-fiiiition  and  Sources  of  Religion.  — In  ethnologic  science  the  word  relig- 
ion must  be  understood  in  a  much  v/ider  sense  than  in  ordinary  language. 
Usually  it  is  confined  to  divine  worship  as  conducted  by  civilized  nations, 
and  is  placed  in  contrast  to  superstition  or  idolatry.  But  all  forms  of 
superstition,  even  the  grossest,  are  expressions  of  the  religious  sentiment 
of  man,  and  in  a  scientific  study  of  the  subject  must  be  included  quite  as 
much  as  Christianity  itself  A  misunderstanding  on  this  point  has  led 
many  writers,  notably  Sir  John  Lubbock  and  those  of  his  school,  into 
serious  error  in  the  discussion  of  primitive  society.  Because  they  did  not 
find  religious  manifestations,  such  as  they  were  accustomed  to  see,  among 
low  tribes,  they  have  denied  that  these  possessed  any  religion. 

Although  there  are  reasons,  heretofore  stated  (see  p.  131),  to  believe  that 
man  in  the  earliest  Stone  Age  had  no  religion,  and  though  no  satisfactory 
signs  of  it  have  been  detected  among  animals,  it  may  be  considered  as 
established  that  nowhere  on  the  globe  have  tribes  been  discovered  devoid 
of  a  comparatively  extensive  mythology  and  religious  cult.  A  recent 
German  writer,  Gustav  Roskoff",  in  a  work  on  The  Religions  of  the  Rudest 
Peoples.,  has  conclusively  disproved  all  the  assertions  to  the  contrary  by 
Lubbock  and  others. 

Psychology  and  Origin. — If  we  ask  the  psychological  origin  of  this 
sentiment  which  we  see  is  thus  universal  to  the  race,  we  are  urged  by  the 
general  verdict  of  the  anah'sts  of  human  nature  to  accept  the  opinion  of 
the  Roman  poet  who  attributed  it  to  fear: 

"  Piimus  in  orbe  deos  fecit  timor." 

But  only  a  superficial  student  of  the  subject,  such  as  the  dilettante  noble 
M-ho  was  the  reputed  author  of  that  line  (Petronius  Arbiter),  would  stop 
here.  The  emotion  of  fear  is  exceedingly  prominent  in  the  lower  ani- 
mals and  yet  in  no  instance  has  it  led  them  to  the  performance  of  acts 
which  can  be  deemed  religious.  Something  else,  therefore,  something 
peculiarly  human,  is  demanded  to  explain  the  notion  of  things  divine. 

Causality. — This  is  found  in  the  idea  of  Causality — in  the  instinctive 
belief  that  there  is  an  Order  in  the  universe,  producing  effects  by  causes, 
even  if  the  cause  is  no  more  than  the  caprice  of  a  tyrant,  for  that  caprice 
is  itself  the  effect  of  a  motive,  and  falls  along  with  everything  else  under 
the  dominion  of  Law.  The  most  rigid  demonstrations  of  science  have  in 
their  last  analysis  no  other  support  than  this  instinctive,  unproved,  and 
unprovable  belief  in  order  and  cause  (Bain);  and  we  need  not  attempt, 
therefore,  to  go  farther  in  search  of  the  foundation  of  religious  faith. 

But  the  bare  assumption  of  Cause,  sufficient  for  science,  does  not  sat- 


ETHNOLOGY.  143 

isf}'  the  religious  sentiment,  and  could  never  have  inspired  its  creations. 
These  demand  the  further  postulate  that  the  order  in  things  shall  be  one 
controlled  by  intelligence — intelligence  not  alien  in  kind,  however  much  in 
degree,  to  that  of  man  himself  This  gave  him  his  gods,  and  without  this 
assumption  tlie  heavens  would  never  have  opened  to  his  dreams.  What 
grounds  he  has  for  this  assumption  does  not  concern  us  here;  we  have  only 
to  do  with  its  results. 

Character  of  P}'imitive  Religions. — Returning  to  fear  as  the  immediate 
emotional  prompter  of  religious  expressions,  we  find  it,  as  we  might  an- 
ticipate, a  marked  characteristic  of  the  lowest  forms  of  faiths.  They  are 
frequently  little  beyond  abject  terrorisms.  There  may  be  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  existence  of  beneficent  deities,  but  these  are  not  the  objects 
of  adoration;  they  would  at  least  not  hurt  man,  and  he  could  dispense 
with  their  aid;  but  the  malignant  gods  must  be  placated  by  assiduous 
attentions.  So  the  Texas  Indians  informed  the  early  explorer  Joutel  that 
there  was  a  good  god,  but  that  they  worshipped  him  not,  as  he  let  them 
alone;  but  the  beings  who  injured  them  they  had  to  appease.  Travellers 
generally  speak  of  the  rites  of  savages  as  directed  rather  to  allay  the  anger 
or  cajole  the  malevolence  of  their  gods  than  to  thank  them  for  favors  con- 
ferred. This  is  strengthened  by  the  general  doctrine  among  such  tribes 
that  all  misfortunes  are  the  effects  of  resentment.  In  many  American 
languages  there  is  no  word  corresponding  with  "  to  die;"  it  is  always  "  to 
be  killed."  Sickness  and  death  are  not  looked  upon  as  events  in  the 
course  of  nature,  but  as  punishments,  inflicted  by  an  animate  agent. 
Hence  the  grounds  of  fear  ai'e  greatly  increased. 

But  it  would  be  unjust  even  to  such  primitive  faiths  as  these  to  sup- 
pose that  gratitude  was  absent  or  that  the  kinder  gods  were  altogether 
overlooked.  There  are  everv where  men  "who  dare  to  strive  with  orods," 
and  who  revolt  from  a  base  subjection  to  malicious  beings.  Von  Pertz 
tells  of  a  tribe  of  Cafllirs  who  refused  any  further  attempts  to  pacify  their 
persecuting  gods  because  pestilence  and  hunger  did  not  cease  among  them. 
Tlie  .\ndaman  islanders  defy  the  god  of  the  storm,  and  shoot  tlieir  arrows 
into  the  air  that  they  may  pierce  him.  On  the  other  hand,  even  Australians, 
counted  by  some  among  the  lowest  of  the  race,  have  their  kindly  divin- 
ities, as  Koyan,  who  hunts  up  lost  children  and  restores  them  to  their 
motlier,  and  guards  the  camps  at  night;  and  Motogon,  who  causes  the  water- 
streams  to  flow  through  their  arid  lands.  Their  Kobong  is  the  patron  of 
the  clan,  and  is  regarded  as  an  ever-present  protector  and  adviser.  Indeed, 
both  with  them,  and  verj;  widely  in  America,  the  belief  in  a  beneficent 
protective  deity  for  the  clan  and  in  a  personal  or  guardian  spirit  for  each 
individual,  working  constantly  for  his  welfare,  is  a  refutation  of  the  state- 
ment sometimes  made  that  such  religions  arc  those  of  fear  only.  Tlie 
arts  in  vogue  auu)ng  these  people,  their  knowledge  of  medicines,  and  the 
introduction  of  what  food-plants  they  possess  are  attributed  to  these  kindly 
guardians. 

Simplest  Elcmoits  of  Religion. — Reducing  religion  to  its  lowest  terms, 


144  ETHNOLOGY. 

we  find  tliat  it  consists  in  a  belief  that  the  order  of  nature  is  controlled  by 
vii)id ;  and  this  is  likewise  indispensable  to  its  most  exalted  expression. 
The  difference  between  the  two  consists  in  removing  the  action  of  mind 
farther  and  farther  from  the  immediate  event. 

We  are  so  accustomed  to  associate  other  ideas  with  religion — as,  for 
instance,  those  of  the  continuance  of  personal  life  after  bodily  death,  or 
the  conception  of  a  Creator  or  God — that  we  are  apt  to  reject  that  as  a 
religion  where  neither  of  these  is  perceptible.  Yet  various  examples 
prove  that  they  are  not  necessary  in  even  highly  developed  religions. 
The  Hebrew  faith  does  not  require  the  belief  in  the  life  after  death, 
and  one  of  its  important  branches,  the  Sadducees,  distinctly  disavowed  the 
existence  of  either  "angel  or  spirit."  The  ancient  Italian  religion  was 
apparently  equally  materialistic.  Buddhism,  now  the  most  widely 
accepted  of  all  doctrines,  in  its  original  form  denied  the  existence  both 
of  God  and  an  immortal  soul.  When  Hardy  asked  a  Ceylon  Buddhist  to 
whom  he  prayed,  he  answered,  "Only  to  myself." 

Where  a  god  is  recognized,  it  is  rarely  under  an  immaterial  fonn,  and 
it  may  be  an  inanimate  object  or  a  living  person.  The  monarchs  of 
ancient  Egypt  were  not  merely  rulers  by  divine  right,  but  were  esteemed 
divine  themselves.  The  king  was  not  merely  a  god,  but  the  god.  In  the 
autobiography  of  Saneha,  a  servant  of  Amenemha  I.,  he  addresses  his 
royal  master  in  these  words  :  "I  live  by  the  breath  which  thou  givest  ;  I 
love  Ra  Horos  fondly,  the  image  of  thy  noble  shape  ;  the  power  of  thy 
arm  extends  over  all  lands"  (Tiele).  No  other  nation  has  equalled  the 
Eg}'ptians  in  their  worship  of  the  lower  animals,  dogs,  cows,  monkeys, 
and  crocodiles.  But  it  would  be  a  serious  error  on  account  of  these,  to 
us,  repulsive  and  debasing  ideals  of  divinity  to  conclude  that  their  wor- 
ship was  either  lowering  or  unprogressive.  On  the  contrary'.  Dr.  Tiele 
writes  :  "The  Eg\"ptian  religion  was  the  first  civilized  expression  of  faith 
in  the  imlimited  sovereignty  of  the  Deity." 

Doctrine  of  Animism. — It  will  readily  be  seen  how  the  belief  that 
every  event  is  the  immediate  expression  of  intelligence  led  to  the  corol- 
lar)-  that  all  objects  possess  an  intelligence,  soul,  or  spirit.  This  has 
been  called  by  Dr.  Tylor  the  doctrine  of  souls,  or  animism ;  and  by  this 
word  he  explains  the  character  of  primitive  religions.  Animism  is,  how- 
ever, just  as  much  the  doctrine  of  manj'  of  the  highest  faiths  as  of  those  of 
savages  ;  only  the  former  remove  the  soul  of  the  universe  more  remotely 
from  the  event,  and  suppose  that  it  acts  through  laws  and  secondary 
causes.  Primitive  beliefs — those  of  men  who  had  acquired  no  knowledge 
of  the  natural  forces — constnied  all  their  manifestations  as  intelligential. 
Did  a  stone  roll  down  a  hillside,  it  was  the  spirit  of  the  stone  which 
impelled  its  leaps  along  the  ground;  the  bubbling  of  the  fountain  was 
the  sporting  of  the  water-spirits  ;  the  wind  in  the  treetops  was  the  mur- 
muring of  the  dr}-ads.  So  far  from  being  godless,  the  lowest  races  are 
those  which  are  oppressed  by  the  multitude  of  their  divinities.  The 
Eskimos — whom  Sir  John  Lubbock  and  others  adduce  as  a  people  quite 


ETHNOLOGY.  145 

devoid  of  religion — by  the  testimony  of  Cranz,  Egede,  and  Riuk,  people 
the  air,  the  water,  and  the  earth  with  conntless  imaginary  beings  of  su2:)er- 
natural  powers,  some  friendly,  some  hostile,  to  man. 

Doctrine  of  Felichism. — From  this  will  be  seen  the  origin  oi  feticJiisui^ 
a  term  derived  from  a  Portuguese  word,  fcitiqo,  applied  to  the  material 
objects,  animate  or  inanimate,  worshipped  by  the  natives  of  Western 
Africa.  These  objects  are  not  revered  for  themselves,  but  for  the  influence 
they  are  supposed  to  exert  through  the  unseen  intelligences  connected 
with  them.  Fetiches  are  generally  articles  of  unusual  shape  or  appearance. 
In  Australia  and  Central  America  the  rock-crystal  is  a  favorite  fetich,  its 
symmetry  and  transparency  marking  it  as  something  extraordinary. 
Bones  have  alwaj's  been  favorite  objects  of  this  character  (see  above,  p. 
131),  and  in  some  African  tribes  a  house-owner  will  secure  protection  for 
his  possessions  by  suspending  a  cla\-icle  o\'cr  his  door. 

Fetichism  is  by  no  means  confined  to  these  ignorant  barbarians.  The 
curious  in  such  matters  can  find  ample  traces  of  it  iu  civilized  life. 
Charms  and  amulets  are  pojjular  among  the  common  people  everywhere. 
The  horseshoe,  which  in  a  half-serious  mood  so  many  hang  over  their 
doors,  is  a  fetich.  The  chestnut  or  potato,  carried  in  the  pocket  as  a  cure 
for  rheumatism,  is  another.  All  these  objects,  it  is  believed,  exert  some 
other  than  their  known  natural  powers,  and  this  shows  that  they  are  sur- 
vivals of  the  fetichistic  period  of  religious  thought. 

Certain  natural  objects,  on  account  of  some  prominent  peculiarities, 
have  been  selected  with  singular  unanimity  all  over  the  world  as  objects 
of  adoration  in  this  sense.  Such  are  trecs^  scrpen/s^  and  birds.  In  the 
myths  or  cult  of  nearly  every  religion  on  the  globe  these  will  be  found  to 
reappear  as  objects  possessing  mysterious  power  and  in  some  way  con- 
nected with  the  nature  of  divinity.  The  "tree  of  life"  figures  among 
those  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  in  ancient  Semitic  records,  and  before  they 
rose  to  a  civilized  condition  the  Accads  of  IMesopotamia  gave  to  their  chief 
city,  afterward  Babylon,  the  name  Tin-tir-ki,  "Place  of  the  Tree  of  Life" 
(Lenormant).  Painted  on  the  sarcophagi  of  the  Chaldees,  it  intimated 
the  immortality  of  the  soul;  and  the  juice  of  its  fruit  was  the  magic  bev- 
erage which  would  stay  the  hand  of  death.  Compare  this  with  the  wor- 
ship of  their  sacred  tree  by  the  Abnakis  of  Maine.  It  stood  by  the  sea- 
shore, and  its  boughs  were  constantly  laden  with  their  offerings.  They 
said  it  could  never  die,  and  was  the  good  genius  who  granted  them  their 
wishes  (Lafitau).     Such  examples  could  be  quoted  by  scores. 

The  serpent  and  the  bird  must  have  first  attracted  attention  b)-  their 
singular  powers  of  locomotion — one,  without  legs,  upon  the  ground,  the 
other  through  the  air.  Even  wise  King  Solomon  counted  among  the  four 
matters  which  were  too  wonderful  for  him  "  the  flight  of  an  eagle  through 
the  air,  the  path  of  a  serpent  upon  a  rock;"  and  to  this  day  mathematics 
has  not  solved  the  problems  of  motion  they  present.  The  venomous  bite 
of  many  serpents  and  the  melodious  voices  of  some  birds  increase  the  nns- 
tery  of  their  power.     Hence  everywhere  we  find  thcui  associated  with  the 

Vol.  I.— 10 


146  ETHNOLOGY. 

symbolism,  and  often  constituting  the  centre,  of  religions  life — sometimes 
representing  the  beneficent,  at  other  times  the  maleficent,  deities.  Exam- 
ples are  so  familiar  that  it  is  needless  to  quote  any. 

In  all  such  cases  it  was  the  mere  myster}^  that  surrounded  the  object, 
not  any  eSect  that  it  had  upon  his  life,  that  led  man  to  select  it  for  the 
object  of  his  adoration.  He  witnessed  the  use  of  pow-ers  and  faculties 
different  from  those  he  possessed;  he  knew  not  their  nature  or  extent, 
and  willingly  supposed  that  they  were  far  wider-reaching  than  his  limited 
abilities. 

Worsliip  of  Natural  Forces. — But  those  writers  who  have  asserted  that 
fetichism  is  the  exclusive  form  of  the  religion  of  the  lower  tribes  have 
been  misled  by  a  superficial  stud}^  of  savage  life.  When  the  votary 
fixes  his  attention  no  longer  on  the  object  itself,  but  on  the  influence 
which  it  exerts,  he  has  advanced  from  fetichism  to  a  recognition  of 
natural  forces,  and  has  learned  to  esteem  them  as  manifestations  of  the 
divine — a  great  stride.  This  adyance  is  found  among  many,  even  the 
rudest,  nations. 

Perhaps  the  earliest  as  well  as  the  most  itniversally  recognized  of  all 
such  forces  was  ligJit.  The  simplest  myths,  the  most  pristine  rites,  deify 
light,  and  surround  it  with  coimtless  holy  associations.  It  is  the  har- 
binger of  tlie  day,  the  father  of  the  dawn.  By  it  sight  is  made  possible 
and  men  can  ply  their  busy  arts.  It  shows  man  his  path  through  the 
forests  and  stimulates  his  observation  and  his  reason.  Therefore  it  was  a 
miiversal  god  to  the  race;  their  imaginations  were  tasked  to  invent  the 
myths  of  the  conquest  of  day  over  night  and  of  the  coming  of  the  dawn. 
From  it  arose  the  worship  of  the  sun  and  fire,  with  their  widespread  asso- 
ciations.    They  are  both  secondary  to  the  light  and  merely  its  ministers. 

Another  great  and  ever-present  mystery  was  the  force  of  life,  exempli- 
fied in  the  reproduction  of  animal  and  vegetable  organisms.  This  was  too 
intimately  connected  with  man's  own  existence  and  with  some  of  the 
strongest  impulses  of  his  nature  to  escape  his  early  contemplation.  It 
led  to  those  genesiac  cults  which  recur  with  marked  similarity  of  m)-th 
and  ritual  the  world  over.  Arising  from  feelings  and  obser\-ations  com- 
mon to  man  everywhere,  they  naturally  present  close  parallelisms,  which 
by  some  have  been  supposed  to  point  to  the  same  historic  origin.  Fre- 
quently their  rites  degenerated  into  licentious  orgies,  and  to  modem  cul- 
ture nothing  could  be  more  "irreligious"  than  their  teachings  and  their 
artistic  expressions.  But  they  had  no  such  debasing  significance  in  primitive 
ages.  The  Pawnee  woman,  when  she  has  planted  her  patch  of  corn,  waits 
until  the  dusk  of  the  evening  has  arrived,  then  strips  herself  and  walks 
naked  around  the  field,  thus,  she  believes,  imparting  a  share  of  her 
fecundity  to  the  grains  in  the  hills  (Schoolcraft).  So  in  ancient  Greece, 
when  the  com  was  sown,  the  house-master  brought  forth  the  image  of  the 
sacred  phallus  and  bore  it  aloft  over  the  fields,  while  his  daughters  and  the 
maidens  of  his  house  danced  around  it  and  sang  songs  to  the  gods  of  the 
harvest.     We  may  be  sure  that  in  neither  case  did  a  thought  of  impro- 


ETHNOLOGY.  147 

priety  enter  the  minds  of  the  participants  in  these  holy  rites.  In  India, 
among  the  sixteen  million  worshippers  of  Siva,  whose  symbol  is  the  lin- 
gam,  it  is  matter  of  record  that  unchastity  is  far  less  prevalent  than 
among  most  sister  sects  of  the  Hindoo  faiths  (Fergusson).  Bnt  when,  as 
in  "Babylon,  mother  of  harlots,"  it  was  enjoined  on  every  woman  to 
vield  herself,  at  least  once  in  her  life,  for  monev  to  a  straneer  in  the  ear- 

-  '  '-00 

dens  of  the  goddess  Melitta,  we  see  how  certainly  such  a  religion  would 
lead  to  the  depravation  of  woman,  and  with  that  to  the  degradation  of  the 
nation. 

A  third  natural  force  which  everywhere  attracted  the  devotional 
instincts  of  the  primitive  man  was  motion.  It  is,  indeed,  the  common 
resultant  of  all  force,  bnt  this  is  the  last  word  of  modern  science,  not 
the  early  observation  of  man.  It  is  most  abstractly  typified  in  the  wind^ 
which  seems  to  be  incorporeal  force  in  motion.  "Whence  it  cometh  and 
whither  it  goeth  "  was  the  unanswerable  question  which  in  the  book  of 
Job  the  Almighty  is  represented  as  putting  to  man,  and  from  earliest 
times  it  occupied  his  intellect  and  imagination.  He  could  see  that  it 
brought  the  clouds,  the  cold,  the  changes  of  the  weather,  and  the  seasons 
— matters  that  in  his  naked  and  defenceless  condition  touched  him  most 
nearly.  His  scanty  harvests  depended  upon  them,  and  the  most  terrif)-- 
ing  exhibition  of  power  he  ever  saw,  the  deafening  thunder  and  the  forked 
lightning,  came  upon  "the  wings  of  the  wind."  Hence  in  all  early  faiths 
meteorological  phenomena  occupy  a  prominent  position. 

The  Aim  of  Religions. — All  these  objects  of  reverence — be  they  fetiches 
or  natural  forces  typified  under  one  or  another  symbol — interested  man 
solely  as  they  concerned  his  welfare — his  own  or  that  of  his  tribe.  Those 
who  would  attempt  to  explain  early  religions  as  a  kind  of  natural  philoso- 
phy devised  to  account  for  the  existence  of  things  have  no  idea  of  the  lack 
of  curiosity  among  savages,  and  their  prevailing  indifference  to  what  does 
not  concern  their  bodily  comfort.  Any  such  application  was  a  much  later 
one  in  the  history  of  religious  thought.  That  idol  or  fetich  attracted  his 
worship  who,  he  believed,  could  help  him  the  most  effectively.  Thus 
atnong  the  Fantees  of  Africa  it  is  common  to  buy  fetiches,  and  one  is  let 
out  on  trial  to  the  purchaser,  like  a  horse,  to  be  returned  after  a  certain 
time  if  it  does  not  prove  effective  (Waitz).  The  Neapolitan  peasant  will 
cuff  or  stamp  upon  the  figure  of  his  saint  (which  is  nothing  but  a  fetich) 
if  he  misses  the  lucky  number  in  the  lottery,  and  even  if  he  wins  he  may 
cheat  his  patron  out  of  the  promised  taper  {passato  il periclo,  gabbato  il 
sanio).  The  Peruvians  seized  the  idols  and  gods  of  the  nations  they  con- 
qtiered,  and,  carrying  them  to  Cuzco,  shut  them  up  so  that  they  cotild  do 
no  harm,  but  were  afraid  to  injure  them.  All  siich  actions  show  that  the 
first  impulse  and  the  sustaining  motive  of  religion  is  a  desire,  a  ■zcis/i, 
either  to  obtain  or  to  avoid  somctliing,  not  any  recondite  instinct  of  rev- 
erence nor  any  haunting  sense  of  divinity,  as  many  writers  of  the  mystical 
school  have  argued. 

Prayer  a>id  Sacrifice. — This  becomes  still  more  plain!)-  manifest  when 


148  ETHNOLOGY. 

we  critically  examine  tlie  sources  of  two  most  important  and  universally 
prevalent  expressions  of  the  religious  sentiment — Prayer  and  Sacrifice. 

"  Prayer,"  wrote  the  thoughtful  Novalis,  "  is  to  religion  what  thought 
is  to  philosophy;  the  religious  sense  prays  with  like  necessity  that  the  rea- 
son thinks."  It  always  has  relation  to  supplying  the  wants  of  the  peti- 
tioner. In  the  Psalms  the  Lord  is  spoken  of  as  the  one  who  "  satisfies  the 
desire"  of  every  living  thing;  the  favorite  title  of  Buddha  is  Sidartha, 
"the  accomplisher  of  the  wish."  All  prayers  of  primitive  people  and  of 
uncultivated  minds  show  this  in  its  naked  materialism.  They  are  pretty 
much  all  summed  up  in  one  which  occurs  in  the  Rig  Veda:  "  O  Lord 
Varuna!  grant  that  we  may  prosper  in  getting  and  keeping.''^  To  be 
relieved  from  pain  and  death,  to  enjoy  life — these  exhaust  the  tenor  of 
all  the  petitions  of  lower  forms  of  religion  and  of  nine-tenths  of  those  of 
the  highest.  They  are  all  of  the  general  drift  of  the  naive  prayer  which 
the  missionary  Brebeuf  heard  his  Huron  cauoeman  ofier  to  the  presiding 
deity  supposed  to  dwell  in  one  of  the  rocks  of  a  perilous  rapid.  The 
native  laid  some  leaves  of  tobacco  on  the  rock  and  said,  "O  thou  god 
who  dwellest  in  this  spot,  accept  this  tobacco;  help  us  on  our  voyage, 
save  us  from  shipwreck,  defend  us  from  our  enemies,  give  us  a  prosper- 
ous trade,  and  bring  us  back  safe  and  sound  to  our  village." 

This  is  not  a  whit  inferior  in  its  tenor  to  the  model  of  prayer  which  is 
set  up  by  Xenophon  in  his  Economics  as  that  of  the  cultivated  Greek.  He 
says,  speaking  in  the  person  of  Ischomachus,  "I  seek  to  obtain  from  the 
gods  by  proper  prayers  strength  and  health,  the  respect  of  the  community, 
the  love  of  my  friends,  an  honorable  tennination  to  my  combats,  and 
riches  the  fruit  of  honest  industry. ' '  The  higher  religions,  as  Christian- 
ity and  Mohammedanism,  took  a  long  step  in  advance  when  they  taught 
— at  least  in  theory— that  all  such  material  benefits  are  unworthy  objects 
of  prayer,  and  that  it  should  be  wholly  directed  to  obtaining  spiritual 
enliofhtenment  and  resignation  to  the  will  of  God.  Confucius  and  Buddha 
went  still  farther,  and  in  their  own  teachings  discarded  prayer  altogether. 
But,  properly  speaking,  neither  of  these  sages  set  oiit  to  teach  a  religion, 
but  rather  the  vanity  of  all  religions.  Buddha  taught  that  the  perfected 
sage  will  have  extingiiished  all  desire,  and  hence  is  above  any  favor  which 
the  gods,  if  there  are  an}',  can  confer;  while  Confucius  advised  his  disci- 
ples to  limit  their  wishes  to  the  attainable,  as  thus  they  could  avoid  dis- 
appointment and  need  ask  no  aid  of  unknown  agencies. 

Along  with  the  prayers  of  a  nation  its  sacrifices  should  receive  atten- 
tion. They  are  strongly  indicative  of  the  national  character  and  the 
religious  thought.  The  motive  of  sacrifice  is  always  to  pacify  or  persuade 
the  gods  into  some  action  pleasing  to  the  worshipper,  either  that  they  will 
refrain  from  injuring  him  or  do  him  some  good  turn.  The  sacrifice  is 
alwa}-s  of  the  nature  of  a  gift,  and  its  value  is  not  the  intrinsic  worth  of 
the  thing  given,  but  the  pain  it  costs  the  giver  to  part  with  it.  Measured 
by  motive,  this  reasoning  is  natural  and  correct.  The  African  Bushmen 
are  often  seen  with  one  or  more  joints  of  their  fingers  lopped  off ;  they 


ETHNOLOGY.  149 

have  sacrificed  tliein  to  appease  the  envious  divinities,  just  as  Polj'crates 
threw  his  choicest  jewel  into  the  sea  lest  the  gods  should  be  jealous  of 
his  constant  good  fortune.  The  rite  of  circumcision,  recurring  among 
the  Israelites,  the  ancient  Egj'ptians,  and  various  American  tribes,  was 
a  symbol  of  the  completer  sacrifice  which  induces  some  African  tribes  to 
submit  to  semi-castration  (Bastian),  and  led  the  devotees  of  Cybele  to 
become  eunuchs. 

Religions  are  apt  to  demand  the  renunciation  of  the  dearest.  The 
bloody  sacrifices  of  the  Aztecs  were  chiefly  confined  to  captives  taken  in 
war,  but  the  Norse  Sagas  tell  us  that  in  time  of  famine  beasts  were  first 
sacrificed;  if  that  failed,  men  of  the  tribe  were  slain;  and  if  the  dearth 
still  continued,  the  king  himself  was  obliged  to  die,  that  the  gods  might 
be  persuaded  to  send  food  (the  Ynglynga  Saga).  The  Mexican  culture- 
hero  Quetzalcoatl  is  traditionally  reported  to  have  set  his  face  against 
bloody  sacrifices  of  all  kinds,  and  to  have  taught  that  flowers  and  incense, 
the  first-fruits  of  the  harvests,  and  the  brilliant  feathers  of  birds  are  such 
articles  as  the  gods  love  (Sahagun);  and  the  Hebrew  teacher  expressed  the 
idea  in  its  highest  sense  when  he  declared  that  the  only  sacrifice  accept- 
able to  the  Lord  is  a  pure  spirit  and  a  contrite  heart.  Between  this 
elevated  conception  and  the  finger-lopping  of  the  poor  Bushman  is 
stretched  the  whole  scale  of  religious  development,  which,  like  the 
ladder  seen  by  Jacob  in  his  vision,  is  "set  up  on  the  earth,  and  the 
top  of  it  reaches  to  heaven." 

Divination. — A  prominent  part  of  all  primitive  religions,  and  inti- 
mately connected  witli  the  fruition  of  the  wish  wliich  is  their  common 
basis,  was  the  prediction  of  future  ez'ents.  ■  In  its  simpler  forms  it  appears 
as  augury  and  divination  by  various  means,  and  when  more  complete  as 
prophecy.  How  much  weight  was  attached  to  the  dicta  of  the  official 
augurs,  haruspices,  oracles,  and  the  like  in  the  classic  days  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  how  often  they  decided  the  fate  of  armies  and  cities,  no  reader 
needs  to  be  informed.  As  is  remarked  by  Dr.  Tiele,  the  power  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets  and  seers  was  such  that  it  virtually  modified  the  royal 
power  of  Israel,  in  theory  an  absolutism,  into  a  constitutional  monarchy. 
Nothing  lent  such  aid  to  Cortes  and  his  handful  of  soldiers  in  destroying 
the  powerful  state  of  the  Aztecs  as  the  prevalence  of  an  ancient  prophecy, 
derived  from  the  light-myth  of  Quetzalcoatl,  that  some  day  a  white  and 
bearded  hero  should  come  from  the  east  and  claim  the  land  as  his  own. 
The  proper  word  for  war  in  a  Central  American  dialect  (the  Cakchiquel) 
is  labal,  literally  sign  or  omen,  no  contest  being  initiated  unless  the  native 
seers  had  found  the  omens  favorable.  In  Peru  there  were  about  sixteen 
classes  of  soothsayers,  each  practising  a  special  branch  of  the  art — one 
forecasting  events  by  tlie  sliape  of  grains  of  maize,  another  by  the  ribs 
on  tobacco  leaves,  a  third  by  the  forms  of  smoke-clouds,  and  so  on. 

So  vigorous  are  the  survivals  of  these  primitive  notions,  and  so  eager 
remains  the  desire  in  the  mind  of  man  to  lift  the  veil  that  shrouds  the 
future,  that  it  is  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  in  all  the  great  cities 


I50  ETHNOLOGY. 

of  Christendom  man}'  persons  of  both  sexes  gain  their  living  by  minister- 
ing to  this  passion  of  the  credulous  vulgar.  Now-a-days  it  has  little 
connection  with  religion,  but  in  more  primitive  conditions  the  prognos- 
tication of  the  future  is  essentially  a  part  of  the  priestly  function. 

Development  of  Tlicistic  Conceptions. — The  philosopher  Augusta  Comte, 
in  one  of  his  triplets  which  has  gained  a  certain  amount  of  vogue, 
explained  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  divinity  as  beginning  in  fetichism, 
advancing  to  polytheism,  and  reaching  its  acme  in  monotheism;  and  lie 
classified  the  religions  of  the  race  in  accordance  with  this  view. 

Monothcis7n  and  Polytheisjn. — We  have  already  seen  that  the  lowest 
religions  known  are  by  no  means  mere  fetichisms,  and  it  is  equally  tri:e 
that  the  highest  are  not  monotheisms.  Even  the  nearest  approach  to  a 
pure  monotheism,  that  founded  by  Mohammed,  admits  the  existence  of 
numberless  genii  and  angels  who  are  active  as  ministers  of  the  divine  will. 
The  old  Hebrew  faith,  though  maintaining  that  Jehovah  alone  was  God 
and  there  was  none  other,  did  not  deny  the  existence  of  other  supernat- 
ural beings,  such  as  the  "gods  of  the  heathen,"  Baal,  Moloch,  and  the 
rest,  and  distinctly  taught,  as  in  the  books  of  Genesis  and  Job,  the  pres- 
ence amid  the  spiritual  cohort  of  "the  adversary"  Satan  and  his  assist- 
ants. The  same  doctrine  was  recognized  by  the  early  Christian  Church, 
which  taught  that  the  deities  of  other  religions  were  really  existent,  but 
that  "the  gods  of  the  heathen  are  devils."  Milton  in  his  Paradise  Lost 
carries  out  this  doctrine  in  poetic  fulness,  and  most  forms  of  Christianity 
to-day  inculcate  a  belief  in  saints,  angels,  and  devils  as  efficient  and  imme- 
diate actors  in  the  affairs  of  daily  life.  This  is  as  far  from  true  monothe- 
ism as  possible. 

Good  and  Bad  Divinities. — The  primary-  segmentation  of  the  theistic 
conception  was  into  kindly  and  unkindly  deities.  The  germs  of  this  we 
have  seen  in  the  most  savage  states  (see  above,  p.  143).  It  is  a  mistake  to 
call  these  "good"  and  "bad"  deities,  as  is  often  done,  imless  we  confine 
those  words  to  their  most  material  sense,  and  exclude  from  them  ever)-- 
thing  of  a  moral  character.  The  distinction  is  simply  that  they  are  gen- 
erally favorable  to  the  wishes  of  the  individual  or  his  tribe,  or  the  reverse. 
The  loftiest  and  most  beneficent  deity  of  the  Algonkin  Pantheon,  he  whom 
they  looked  upon  as  their  father  and  guardian,  was  familiarly  called  "  the 
Liar"  and  "the  Cheat;"  not  that  they  were  deficient  in  moral  sense,  but 
that  he  was  represented  in  their  myths  as  overcoming  his  foes  rather  by 
deceit  and  wiles  than  by  force. 

Few  divinities,  however,  were  wholly  kindly  or  hostile.  Usually  the}' 
were  capricioxis,  resented  neglect,  and  required  to  be  cajoled.  This  is  the 
obvious  character  of  most  of  the  Homeric  gods,  and  hence  the  origin  of 
the  elaborate  rituals  supposed  to  coerce  them.  Gradually,  as  the  influence 
of  one  and  another  became  more  popular  or  more  apparent,  there  grew  up  a 
fixity  of  character  and  an  antagonism  of  action  not  known  in  younger  faiths. 
We  may  suppose  that  it  reqiiired  a  nation  remarkable  for  deep  s\-mpathies 
and  strong  emotions,  and  with  a  checkered  career,  to  develop  this  antag- 


ETHNOLOGY.  151 

onism  into  the  sharp  contrast  presented  by  the  divinities  in  the  Zend 
Avesta.  Here  the  kindly  gods  headed  by  Ormnzd  (Ahura  Mazda)  find 
their  plans  for  man's  welfare  ceaselessly  checked  and  spoiled  by  the  hostile 
legions  nnder  the  control  of  Alirinian  (Anya-Main)ns).  Through  the 
Manichean  doctrines  of  the  early  Christian  Church — doctrines  which  were 
partially  borrowed  from  Persia,  partially  independently  developed — this 
dualistic  conception  of  divinity  has  left  its  trace  on  many  of  the  creeds 
of  later  Christianity.  Nor  has  it  lacked  the  approval  of  deep  thinkers. 
John  Stuart  Mill,  looking  at  religions  from  the  outside,  has  maintained 
that  it  is  the  only  doctrine  which  reconciles  the  presence  of  pain  and  suf- 
fering with  the  existence  of  a  wholly  beneficent  deity. 

DiJJeroices  of  Religions  in  Extension. — The  fetich  and  the  guardian 
spirit  belong  to  the  individual.  They  are  his  personal  tutelaries  and  pro- 
tect him  against  his  neighbor.  So  the  family  gods,  the  Lares  and  Penates, 
were  supposed  to  confine  their  wardship  to  the  household.  The  gods  of  one 
nation  were  not  those  of  another;  indeed,  they  were  supposed  to  be  antag- 
onistic, and  when  the  opposing  cohorts  met  in  conflict  on  the  earth,  the 
native  gods  joined  battle  in  the  upper  air.  All  primitive  religions  are  thus 
local  and  personal  or  national.  It  was  quite  a  step  in  advance  when  the 
Latins  thought  that  in  the  Greek  Herakles  and  Hephsstos  they  recognized 
their  own  Hercules  and  Vulcan,  although  in  fact  there  were  scarcely  any 
points  of  contact. 

National  and  World  Religions. — National  intercourse  multiplied  such 
pretended  identifications;  it  was  policy  in  conquerors  to  respect  the  relig- 
ion of  the  conquered,  as  when  Darius  sent  a  hundred  talents  to  buy  the 
Egyptians  another  bull  in  place  of  their  taurine  god  Apis  which  had 
died.  Foreign  divinities  were  imported,  as  was  frequent  in  the  later  cen- 
turies of  Rome.  Priests,  anxious  to  magnify  the  powers  of  the  divinity 
they  reverenced,  claimed  its  identity  with  those  worshipped  in  other 
nations;  and  philosophers,  looking  beneath  the  symbol  to  the  general 
truth  which  it  expressed,  proclaimed  that  the  power  of  the  gods  was 
coextensive  with  nature  and  man.  These  various  opinions,  joining 
ground  each  in  its  own  sphere,  tended  to  destroy  the  isolation  of  tribal 
and  national  religions  and  to  pave  the  way  for  the  universal  or  world 
religions — -those  which  were  aimed  by  their  founders  to  spread  over  the 
earth  and  include  all  men. 

Such  a  limitless  claim  involved  several  postulates  which  have  pro- 
foundly modified  the  human  race,  and  pa\-ed  the  way  for  the  most  sudden 
and  vital  changes  in  the  history  of  mankind.  It  is  evident  that  if  any 
religion  has  a  right  to  be  the  sole  and  universal  one,  it  must  have  the 
monopoly  of  religious  truth,  and  that  compared  with  it  all  others  are 
false,  and  therefore  dangerous.  Hence  i)ilolerancc  has  been  the  trait  of 
all  world  religions.  In  national  religions  it  has  found  little  place.  Their 
votaries  would  say  to  the  citizens  of  another  nation,  as  did  the  Indian 
to  the  missionary,  "Your  religion  is  best  for  you;  mine  is  best  for 
me."     Not  so  with  those  who  claim  the  only  truth.     It  becomes  their 


152  ETHNOLOGY. 

dutv  bv  evety  means  in  their  power  to  extinguish  all  other  creeds  and 
rituals. 

From  this  it  follows  that  a  world  religion  must  necessarily  be  prose- 
lytising. The  duty  of  its  believers  is  unfulfilled  if  they  neglect  to  extend 
its  swav  by  such  means  as  they  have  at  command.  Whether  by  the  sword 
or  by  persuasion,  they  must  proclaim  the  truth  which  has  made  them  free. 

Freedom,  indeed,  within  such  a  religion  is  as  essential  to  its  teachings 
as  is  absolutism  without.  The  truth  which  is  for  the  whole  world  must 
know  no  distinction  of  color  or  caste,  of  family  or  rank.  As  in  the  full 
development  of  government  all  men  must  be  equal  before  the  law  (see 
p.  13S),  so  in  the  theory  of  the  universal  religion  all  men  must  stand  equal 
before  God.  What  is  wrong  or  right  to  one  must  in  similar  circumstances 
be  wrong  or  right  to  the  other. 

As  the  truth  is  one,  so  the  doctrine  must  be  one  and  the  same  through- 
out a  universal  religion,  at  least  in  its  es.sential  features.  This,  however, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain,  even  in  appearance,  unless  the  doctrine 
were  recorded  in  writing.  Verbal  transmission  alone  could  never  preser\-e 
its  requisite  uniformity.  Hence  all  world  religions  must  be  book  religions. 
They  must  have  the  record  of  the  divine  communication  on  which  they 
can  fall  back  to  establish  their  unity. 

Biiddhistn,  Christianity,  and  Mohannncda7iism . — Such  are  the  neces- 
sary- features  of  all  religions  claiming  universality.  They  are  three  in 
number — in  the  order  of  their  appearance.  Buddhism,  Christianity, 
Mohammedanism,  which  is  also  the  order  of  their  success,  measured  by 
the  number  of  their  professed  adherents.  Taken  altogether,  they  nomi- 
nally include  considerably  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  human  race,  and 
geographically  they  control  nine-tenths  of  the  earth's  surface.  Practi- 
cally, tlierefore,  they  have  driven  from  the  field  all  tribal  and  national 
religions,  and  rem^jin  alone  to  struggle  for  the  mastery. 

By  some  writers  their  histor)-  has  been  explained  as  an  ethnologic 
phenomenon,  and  it  has  been  sought  to  accoimt  for  their  distribution  by 
their  relative  suitability  to  different  races.  For  this  there  seem  no  suffi- 
cient grounds.  All  three  were  founded  by  members  of  the  white  race — 
one,  the  oldest  and  the  most  widely  extended,  by  the  Indo-Aryan  Buddha  or 
Sakya  Muni;  the  others  by  Seinitic  teachers.  Buddhism  counts  equally 
faithful  and  active  votaries  in  Ceylon  and  China,  and  both  Christianity 
and  Alohammedanism  have  supplanted  many  of  the  older  faiths  of  Africa 
and  ^Malaysia.  Doubtless  there  are  bitter  animosities  and  mutual  charges 
of  irreligion  in  all  three  of  these  great  creeds,  as  is  illustrated  in  the  Sun- 
nite  and  Shiite  schism  of  Mohammedanism,  but  they  all  agree  in  those 
traits  which  we  have  above  described  as  characterizing  world  religions. 
However  apart  and  contradictory  the  sects  may  seem,  all  Buddhists  justify 
their  doctrines  from  the  Dhammapada,  all  Mussulmans  from  the  Koran,  all 
Christians  from  the  Bible. 

Mythology. — We  have  seen  that  the  foundation  of  religion  is  a  wish 
or  hope,  the  fulfilment  of  which  is  believed  to  depend  on  some  unseen, 


ETHNOLOGY.  153 

snpernatural  beini^.  The  notions  that  man  formed  to  hnnself  about  such 
beings,  their  names,  their  supposed  doings  and  relations,  constitute  myth- 
ology. Myths  are  accounts  of  the  gods.  They  are  not  stories  spun  by 
the  fancy,  nor  fictions  devised  by  priests  to  deceive  the  people,  nor  theories 
evolved  by  philosophers — each  of  which  views  has  been  at  times  advanced 
— but  they  are  unconscious  growths  of  the  mind  under  the  promptings  of 
the  religious  sentiment. 

The  Study  of  Myths. — Their  study  is  a  most  important  branch  of  eth- 
nology. In  the  opinion  of  many  able  writers,  nothing  more  sharply  char- 
acterizes a  nation  than  its  religion,  and  mythology  is  the  expression  of 
religion  in  language.  "A  people,"  says  Schelling,  "can  only  be  said  to 
e.xist  when  it  has  determined  itself  with  regard  to  its  mythology,"  and 
Professor  ]\Iax  Miiller,  in  quoting  this  saying,  adds  :  "It  is  language  and 
religion  that  make  a  people,  but  religion  is  even  a  more  powerful  agent 
than  language." 

The  study  of  Comparative  Mythology,  therefore,  in  its  ethnologic 
bearings,  closely  approaches  in  importance  the  study  of  Comparative 
Linguistics.  It  teaches  us  the  coincidences  and  contrasts  of  the  intelli- 
gence of  nations  on  those  topics  which  lie  nearest  their  hearts,  and  those 
great  questions  of  the  origin  and  destiny  of  man  which  even  the  rudest 
savage  cannot  wholly  escape. 

Lijliicncc  of  Language  on  Myths. — The  study  of  language  is  an  indis- 
pensable preliminary'  to  the  comparative  mythologist,  for,  as  we  have  said, 
the  myth  is  the  expression  of  religious  thought  in  language,  and  the 
modelling  and  shaping  action  of  language  on  the  thought  expressed  is  of 
the  most  extensive  character,  often  leading  to  a  complete  concealment  of 
the  original  idea.  In  so  many  directions  does  the  plain,  naked  statement 
of  the  primitive  myths 

*'  Channje 
Into  something  rich  and  strange," 

through  the  transformations  unconsciously  wrought  by  the  laws  of  lan- 
guage, that  these  as  applied  to  mythology  become  the  only  keys  to  its 
mysteries.  Some  of  the  more  prominent  of  these  laws  we  may  briefly 
enumerate. 

The  first  and  most  general  is  that  of  personification  {prosopopeia  of  the 
grammarians).  By  it  an  inanimate  thing  is  represented  as  animate,  as  in 
the  phrase,  "  The  oak  tosses  his  mighty  arms  against  the  sky  ;"  or  irra- 
tional beings  may  be  spoken  of  as  persons,  as  in  the  stories  of  Reynard 
the  Fox.  Even  actions  and  qualities  may  be  thus  introduced  as  individ- 
uals, as  in  many  characters  in  Bunyan's  Pilgrim'' s  Progress.  As  a  resource 
for  literary'  effect  orators  and  poets  have  frequent  recourse  to  this  figure  of 
speech  ;  but  in  the  early  history  of  language  and  religion  it  led  to  the 
literal  acceptance  as  a  person  of  the  thing  or  action  .so  spoken  of  When, 
instead  of  saying,  "The  stin  rose,"  the  savage  said,  "The  sun  left  his 
lair,"  he  had  begun  a  myth  of  the  sun  as  an  animate  being  leaving  his 
couch,  somewhat  as  a  beast  his  lair,  etc. 


154 


ETHNOLOGY. 


Another  linguistic  peculiarity  rich  in  mythological  growth  was  the 
similarity  or  sameness  in  the  sounds  of  words  of  different  meanings  {pa- 
ronyniy  and  hoiHoiiynn).  We  have  already  referred  to  the  effect  of  these 
peculiarities  on  the  development  of  written  speech  (see  above,  p.  90). 
Suppose  a  name  capable  of  several  senses,  as  in  the  case  with  many  root- 
words,  was  applied  to  a  deity.  At  first  there  would  be  little  liability  to 
confusion,  but  in  a  few  generations  no  one  could  remember  in  which  of 
the  senses  it  was  originally  intended,  and  a  story  would  be  invented  suit- 
able to  each.  This  has  repeatedly  happened.  In  the  Nahuatl  language 
the  root-word  coa  has  three  entirely  different  meanings — to  wit,  a  serpent, 
a  guest,  and  twins.  Now,  this  word  enters  into  the  name  of  various 
divinities,  especially  of  the  Mexican  culture-god  Quetzalcoatl,  and  there 
were  myths  about  him  derived  from  each  of  these  three  disconnected 
meanings.  Which  of  them  was  originally  intended  we  cannot  positively 
say. 

When  dialectic  differences  came  to  pass  in  a  tongue,  or  when  one 
nation  only  imperfectly  caught  the  words  of  another,  such  tranfers  of 
myths  and  growths  of  new  myths  became  yet  more  frequent.  The  old 
Romans  heard  the  Greeks  relate  the  beautiful  and  striking  myths  of 
Herakles,  the  sun-god,  his  twelve  labors,  and  the  like.  Having  a  local 
god  of  their  own  with  a  name  sounding  something  similar,  Hercules, 
they  transferred  to  him  all  this  mythological  apparatus,  and  added  it  to 
his  original  and  far  humbler  story  as  that  of  the  god  of  enclosed  fields 
{hereto). 

Proper  names  of  deities  proved  stimuli  to  the  myth-making  faculties 
in  another  way.  In  the  sense  defined  by  John  Stuart  Mill  there  are  no 
proper  names  in  any  primitive  tongue.  He  says  that  such  names  must 
"  as  their  characteristic  propert}-  be  destitute  of  meaning.^''  There  are  no 
words,  proper  names  or  others,  without  meaning  in  such  tongues.  Such 
meaningless  sounds  are  contrary  to  their  character,  and  could  not  easily 
be  accepted.  Hence  when  by  force  or  peacefully  a  foreign  mythology 
is  introduced,  importing  the  names  of  foreign  deities,  the  linguistic  sense 
of  the  nation  endeavors  to  assign  these  meaningless  sounds  a  signification 
from  some  word  resembling  them  in  the  existing  speech.  This  accom- 
plished, a  myth  inevitably  starts  tip  to  explain  and  justify  the  meaning 
attributed  to  the  imported  foreign  name.  Thus,  the  very  ancient  Grecian 
deity  Pan  was  at  first  a  field-god  whose  name  and  cult  were  introduced 
from  Asia  IMinor  ;  his  name  had  no  meaning  in  Greek,  but  that  tongue 
has  a  word  of  the  same  sound,  signifying  "  the  whole,"  "  all."  This  led, 
in  later  days.  Pan  to  be  represented  as  the  whole  organic  world,  and  in  the 
"Hymn  to  Pan"  he  is  sung  as  the  child  of  Air  and  Water,  Heaven  and 
Earth. 

Effect  of  Lingiiistic  Structure. — The  character  of  the  langjiagc  appears 
to  react  upon  mytholog)^  Tongues  which  are  monosyllabic  and  isolating 
tend  to  a  jejune  and  scanty  growth  of  the  religious  imagination.  The 
constructive  elements  which  we  have  above  noted  have  less  play  in  idioms 


ETHNOLOGY.  155 

of  that  character  than  in  those  which  are  agghitinative  or  inflective.  This 
is  ilhistrated  in  the  exuberance  of  Aryan  mythology  compared  with  the 
poverty  of  the  Chinese.  Of  the  latter  Professor  Max  Miiller  observes  : 
"We  find  in  China  an  ancient,  colorless,  and  unpoetical  religion — a 
religion  that  we  might  almost  venture  to  call  monosyllabic,  consisting  of 
the  worship  of  a  host  of  single  spirits,  representing  the  sky,  the  sun, 
storms  and  lightning,  mountains  and  rivers,  one  standing  by  the  side  of 
the  other  without  any  mutual  attraction,  without  any  higher  principle  to 
hold  them  together."  The  Semitic  languages,  with  their  well-defined 
radicals,  each  of  three  consonants,  were  scarcely  more  favorable  to  imagi- 
native theology.  Although  generally  idol-worshippers  and  polytheistic, 
their  mythology  is  barren,  and  their  gods  are  rather  lay  figures  represent- 
ing some  quality  than  the  living  beings  which  the  Greeks  delighted  to 
portray.  To  quote  again  from  Professor  M.  Miiller  :  "  The  names  of  the 
Semitic  deities  are  mostly  words  expressive  of  moral  qualities  ;  they  mean 
the  Strong,  the  E:;alted,  the  Lord,  the  King  ;  and  they  grow  but  seldom 
into  divine  personalities,  definite  in  their  outward  appearance,  or  easily  to 
be  recognized  by  strongly  marked  features  of  a  real  dramatic  character. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  find  the  gods  of  the  Aryan  pantheon  assume  an 
individuality  so  strongly  marked  and  permanent  that  with  the  Aryans  a 
transition  to  monotheism  required  a  powerful  struggle,  and  seldom  took 
effect  without  iconoclastic  revolutions  or  philosophic  despair.  These 
three  classes  of  religion  are  not  to  be  mistaken,  as  little  as  the  three 
classes  of  languages,  the  Turanian,  the  Semitic,  and  the  Ar)an.  They 
mark  three  events  in  the  most  ancient  history  of  the  world — events  which 
have  determined  the  whole  fate  of  the  human  race,  and  of  which  we  our- 
selves still  feel  the  consequences  in  our  language,  in  our  thoughts,  and  in 
our  religion."  The  differences  here  brought  out  must  be  attributed  more 
to  the  contrasts  in  the  structure  of  languages  than  to  any  other  one 
cause. 

Iiijlneuce  of  Natural  Environment. — Undoubtedly,  other  causes  were 
also  at  work  in  the  building  of  mythologies.  Of  these,  the  natural  envi- 
ronment has  by  some  been  deemed  of  great  weight.  The  historian  Buckle 
considered  it  the  most  potent  of  all,  and  undertook  to  show  that  where 
earthquakes  and  other  violent  and  destructive  exhibitions  of  the  natural 
forces  occur,  the  religious  sentiment  becomes  excited  and  its  imagina- 
tive creations  more  numerous.  To  a  certain  extent  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion about  this.  In  proportion  as  men's  lives  and  fortunes  depend  on  the 
blind  forces  of  nature  they  become  superstitious.  Sailors  are  notoriously 
so.  Travellers  in  the  Andes,  where  terrible  thunderstorms  are  frequent, 
report  the  natives  as  overwhelmed  with  fright  at  their  approach  and 
resorting  to  all  manner  of  charms  and  vows.  The  god  of  the  tropical 
cyclone  in  the  West  Indies,  by  name  Iluracan  (whence  our  word  liiirri- 
cane).,  was  the  chief  divinity  over  a  wide  area.  The  earthquake  and  the 
volcano  were  intensely  dreaded  by  the  natives  and  placated  by  the  crudest 
sacrifices.     Every  year  in  Nicaragua  maidens  were  selected  from  the  vil- 


156  ETHNOLOGY. 

lages  and  hurled  alive  into  the  boiling  crater  of  the  active  volcano  of 
Managua. 

Every  mytholog}'  bears  the  impress  of  the  natural  scenes  in  which  it 
was  developed.  The  nature-worship  of  the  Greeks,  with  its  thousands  of 
tales  representing  the  histor}'  of  the  rich  vegetable  life  of  their  fertile  and 
sea-bathed  peninsula,  was  impossible  in  the  arid  and  monotonous  deserts 
of  Arabia.  The  solar  myths  which  the  Indo-Aryans  devised  in  the  sun- 
smitten  southern  valleys  would  be  incomprehensible  to  the  residents  of 
the  Arctic  zone. 

Influence  of  National  Imagination. — There  is  also  a  marked  contrast 
between  nations  in  the  strength  of  their  imaginatiott.  Some  are  stor}'- 
tellers  and  poets  from  the  cradle  ;  others  are  sober  and  prosaic  in  all  their 
conversation.  The  Mongolians  as  a  race  have  little  ideality,  and  their 
mythology  is  sterile.  The  ancient  Italian  religion  was  overladen  with 
divinities,  often  with  the  most  trivial  distinctions  ;  for  instance,  there  was 
a  god  for  ploughing  the  furrows  straight,  and  another  for  cross-ploughing! 
But  mythology  there  was  none.  The  Oscan  and  Latin  people  were  hope- 
lessl}'  prosaic.  During  her  long  history  Rome  never  produced  an  artist 
of  the  first  class,  never  a  lyric  poet  that  did  not  draw  his  inspiration  from 
Greece.  The  creative  power  was  denied  to  that  nation,  and  the  figures  of 
its  native  pantheon  are  thin,  vapid,  and  unreal. 

Char.\cteristics  of  Speci.\l  Mythologies. 

Egyptian  Mythology. — The  religion  of  ancient  Egypt  held  a  middle 
position  between  that  of  the  Semitic  and  Aryan  nationalities.  The  cen- 
tral myth  was  that  of  Osiris,  or,  as  he  was  otherwise  called,  Ra.  The 
stor}'  told  in  man}'  versions  was  that  he  was  slain,  and  that  the  child 
Horns,  aided  by  Isis,  the  wife  of  Osiris,  brought  him  to  life  again.  This 
myth  unquestionably  sprang  from  the  soil  of  nature-worship.  Osiris  is  the 
sun,  or  the  sun-god,  who  may  be  said  to  die  daily,  and  to  fall  a  prey  to 
the  demon  of  darkness;  but  the  night,  represented  by  Isis,  the  moon- 
goddess,  and  the  young  dawn,  the  child  Horns,  again  bring  on  the  sun, 
another,  yet  the  same. 

This  was  the  physical  background  of  the  myth,  but  before  the  earliest 
remaining  monuments  of  the  Nile  Valley  had  been  set  up  the  myth  had 
assumed  an  ethical  signification.  Osiris  had  become  the  type  of  man 
whose  soul  is  immortal,  and,  though  he  seemingly  die,  yet  shall  revive 
again;  and  of  organic  nature,  which,  though  it  wither  and  fade  away  in 
the  season  of  cold  or  drought,  shall  yet  bloom  again  and  carpet  the  earth 
with  green.  The  unchanging  life  amidst  the  ever-changing  phenomena 
was  what  caught  and  fired  the  Egyptian's  intellect.  This  one  central 
idea  revealed  itself  to  him,  whether  he  meditated  on  the  daily  death  and 
birth  of  the  sun,  on  the  recurring  seasons,  or  on  the  annual  ebb  and  flow 
of  his  great  river.  Hence  his  abstractest  term  for  God  was  "He  who  ever 
renews  himself;"  and  as  the  unity  of  life  thus  became  manifest  through 
the  analysis  of  its  infinite  revelations,  he  reached  a  monotheism  which, 


ETHNOLOGY.  157 

though  reserved  for  the  illuminated,  was  none  the  less  positive  in  its 
expression. 

Aryan  Mythology. — The  Aryans  pursued  other  paths  and  reached  other 
conclusions  than  the  nations  of  the  Nile  Valley.  They  were  far  more 
migratory;  they  were  brought  into  contact  with  more  varied  surround- 
ings; their  language  was  more  supple  and  ductile  than  that  of  the  sub- 
jects of  the  Pharaohs.  Though  solar  myths  are  common  in  their  relig- 
ions, the  story  of  the  sun  had  not  a  commanding  position.  The  earliest 
Aryan  god  was  the  sky,  the  bright  upper  heaven,  called  Dyaus,  Zeus, 
Jove.  The  contrast  between  day  and  night  impressed  itself  broadly  on 
them,  not  as  the  individual  history  of  the  sun-god.  They  lived  in  lands 
where  the  seasons  contrasted  sharply  and  the  weather  was  marked  by 
extremes.  Hence  many  phenomena  of  little  prominence  in  Egypt 
attracted  their  attention.  The  winds  and  the  storms,  the  thunder  and 
the  lightning,  the  clouds  and  the  rain,  the  fountains  and  the  sea — all 
claimed  and  received  recognition  in  their  composite  mythology.  Their 
pantheon  was  filled  with  varied  forms,  its  history  rich  in  dramatic  inci- 
dent, its  characters  vivid  and  substantial.  For  the  poet,  the  dreamer,  the 
field  was  teeming  with  suggestive  combinations. 

But  for  religious  philosophy  it  was  sadly  sterile.  There  was  no  such 
sense  of  all-pervading,  ever-renewed  life  as  we  have  seen  in  Eg>pt.  On 
the  contrary,  the  shadow  of  death  lies  like  a  pall  over  all  the  Aryan  creeds. 
Not  merely  was  there  a  dark  hopelessness  about  the  fate  of  the  individual 
himself,  but  over  the  whole  of  nature — ay,  over  the  bright  gods  themselves 
— there  was  creeping  that  black  shadow  of  extinction.  We  see  it  in  the 
gay  Olympian  gods  who  "stand  chid  before  the  eye  of  Fate,"  and  whose 
destinies  are  as  fixed  by  the  implacable  Moiroe  as  are  those  of  man;  we  see 
it  in  the  Ragnarok  of  the  Edda,  the  "  Doom  of  the  gods,"  in  whose  murky 
twilight  Odin  and  all  his  crew  shall  vanish;  we  see  it  in  Persian  myth, 
where  beyond  all  the  dust  of  the  conflict  of  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman  stands 
the  unmoved  and  eternal  Zeruana  Akerana,  before  whom  even  these  great- 
est of  gods  are  but  "children,  sons  of  fleeting  time;"  and  finally,  in  the 
Brahmanism  of  India,  where  Kala,  time,  is  the  infinite  abyss  which  shall 
finally  swallow  gods,  mortals,  and  matter  alike. 

Nor  did  Aryan  mythology  tend  to  lift  its  votaries  from  the  slough  of 
polytheism.  We  find  most  rarely  any  clear  glimpse  of  that  truth  taught 
so  positively  by  Mohammed: 

"  God  is  alone ; 
God  is  eternal ; 

Begetting  not,  neither  begotten, 
His  like  is  not." — Koran,  Siua  xix. 

In  these  respects,  in  its  feeble  gfrasp  on  the  notion  of  life  and  its  fail- 
ing conception  of  the  unity  of  deity,  we  see  how  inferior  were  the  Aryan 
mythologies. 

American  Mythology. — Most  writers  have  spoken  of  American  m)th- 


158  ETHNOLOGY. 

olog^'  as  a  mass  of  confused  and  childish  fables  without  coherence  and 
with  no  leading  principles.  Researches,  however,  carried  out  in  accord- 
ance with  the  methods  of  comparative  mythology  above  laid  down,  have 
conclusively  shown  that,  so  far  from  this  being  the  case,  the  myths  of 
most  of  the  nations  of  the  red  race  thus  far  examined  have  a  striking 
family  character  and  indicate  a  well-marked  growth  of  the  religious  sen- 
timent. 

The  typical  American  myth,  which  is  at  the  centre  of  all  the  developed 
religions  of  the  continent,  selected  for  its  symbol  of  the  highest  divinity, 
not  the  sun,  as  did  the  Egyptians,  nor  the  sky  or  day,  as  did  the  Proto- 
Aryans,  but  Light.  This  was  personified  under  strictly  human  form  as 
the  early  guide  and  teacher  of  their  nation,  often  as  their  first  ancestor 
and  as  the  creator  of  the  animate  world.  With  striking  uniformity  the 
story  of  this  culture-hero  was  told  in  many  tribes — how  he  brought  the 
cultivated  food-plants  and  pointed  out  the  herbs  salutar}-  as  medicines  ; 
how  he  framed  their  social  laws  and  established  their  religions  rites  ;  how 
he  conquered  the  enemies  which  arose  against  them  ;  and  how  under  his 
mild  sway  their  ancestors  enjoyed  peace  and  prosperity.  When  the  time 
came  for  his  work  to  close  he  did  not  die  like  ordinary  mortals,  but  went 
forth,  going  on  a  distant  journey,  and  leaving  with  them  tlie  promise  that 
he  should  return  at  some  future  day  and  restore  the  happiness  of  that 
primeval  time. 

Often  the  myth  represents  him  as  born  of  a  virgin,  as  being  one  of 
twins  or  of  four  brothers  born  at  a  birth,  with  whom  he  has  long  contests, 
and  his  birthplace  is  usually  in  the  far  east  ;  and  thither  he  journeyed 
when  he  forsook  his  chosen  people  under  the  pressure  of  some  mighty 
motive  which  admitted  no  choice. 

Like  all  primary'  mytlis,  this  was  originally  a  plain  narrative  of  natiiral 
occurrences.  The  culture-hero  was  the  light  which  comes  from  the  east — 
that  is,  from  one  of  the  two  principal  or  four  cardinal  points  of  the  horizon. 
So  long  as  the  light  lasts  man  sees  and  learns;  he  can  exercise  his  powers, 
and  prospers.  But  the  light  bom  of  the  early  dawn — -in  many  mythologies 
spoken  of  as  a  virgin — is  transitory.  It  is  dimmed  in  the  fading  day  as 
the  sun  sinks  toward  the  west.  The  Egyptians  represented  the  sun-god 
as  attacked  by  Set,  the  midday,  and  by  Apep,  the  darkening  west,  and 
finally  slain.  Not  so  the  American  mind.  It  did  not  acknowledge  the 
triumph  of  death.  At  night  the  light  has,  indeed,  gone,  but  it  v.-ill  re- 
turn; its  rays  will  again  shine  forth  from  the  eastern  sky,  and  man  shall 
rejoice  in  his  strength  and  knowledge.  When,  in  the  course  of  time,  the 
natural  basis  of  the  myth  was  lost  in  its  personifications,  when  the  story 
of  the  light  was  regarded  as  the  narrative  of  an  actual  occurrence  in 
remote  history-,  the  hope  of  a  return  of  the  happy  days  took  a  concrete 
form,  and  the  nations  expected  a  restoration  to  some  condition  of  supposed 
pristine  joy.  As  among  the  brown  men  of  Egypt  and  among  the  dark- 
haired,  swarthy  Greeks  the  god  of  light  was  represented  of  fair  complex- 
ion and  with  flowing  golden  locks,  so  among  the  Red  Indians  of  America, 


ETHNOLOGY.  159 

who  had  never  seen  a  memlaer  of  the  white  race,  these  culture -heroes 
v/ere  usually  spoken  of  as  fair  in  hue  and  with  abundant  flowing  hair  and 
beard.  These  were  the  types  of  the  white  light  and  its  widespreading 
rays. 

If  we  put  to  the  American  religions  the  same  inquiries  that  we 
did  to  the  Aryan  and  Egyptian  myths  as  to  what  they  teach  of  Life 
and  God,  they  have  an  answer  different  from  either  of  the  others. 
The  full  acceptance  of  death  as  the  portal  to  renewed  life,  which  the 
worship  of  Osiris  expresses  so  plainly,  or  the  recognition  of  death  as 
the  inevitable  end  of  all,  gods  and  nature  and  man  as  well,  which  is 
the  dark  background  of  Ar\an  mythology,  was  alike  alien  to  the  native 
American  mind.  It  did  not  allow  the  existence  of  death  at  all.  What 
we  call  death  they  taught  is  but  a  change  of  the  sphere  of  activity.  The 
soul  lives  and  passes  on  to  the  "happy  hunting-grounds,"  to  the  land  of 
the  sun,  thence  to  return  to  earth  in  human  or  other  form,  or  it  may  pass 
directly  into  another  being.  The  early  missionaries  and  travellers  noted 
all  over  the  continent  the  prominence  of  this  vitalistic  faith.  "The 
belief  the  best  established  among  our  Americans,"  wrote  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sionary Charlevoix  early  in  the  last  century,  "is  that  of  the  immortality 
of  the  soul."  It  was  understood  in  a  direct  and  material  sense.  La 
Hontan  tells  us  that  among  the  Abnakis,  when  some  distinguished  chief 
was  dying,  the  women  of  the  village  gathered  around  that  his  spirit  might 
pass  directly  to  their  wombs  and  be  bora  again  in  their  offspring.  Among 
the  Kolushes  of  the  north-west  coast,  when  an  asred  native  is  suflerine 
from  tlie  infirmities  of  years,  he  will  ask  to  be  slain,  in  order  that  his  soul 
may  enter  some  unborn  child  and  enjoy  youth  again.  Gagern  relates  that 
the  Zacatecas  and  other  tribes  of  Mexico  hoard  and  conceal  every  piece 
of  silver  they  can  earn,  nor  can  the  threats  of  the  priest  nor  the  tears  of  their 
families  induce  them,  even  in  their  dj'ing  moments,  to  disclose  its  where- 
abouts: they  are  so  certain  of  a  return  to  life  on  earth  after  a  short  period 
that  they  resolutely  determine  to  save  their  treasure  for  their  wants  at 
that  time.  Scores  of  such  examples  prove  that  the  idea  of  death  in  the 
sense  of  the  total  cessation  or  extinction  of  life  scarcely  existed  in 
America. 

The  conception  of  the  unity  of  deity  was  not  easih'  de\-eloped  from 
the  character  of  American  mythology,  and  was  opposed  by  the  prevailing 
structure  of  American  languages,  which  usually  associate  the  idea  with 
numerous  accessories  (see  p.  87).  Yet  there  are  distinct  traces  of  its 
gradual  approach  in  the  Aztec  prayers  as  preserved  by  the  missionary 
Sahagim.  A  god  is  addressed  as  the  .sole  creator  and  governor  of  the 
universe,  the  one  master  of  life,  etc. ;  but  this  is  to  be  explained  by  what 
Professor  Max  Miiller  calls  hnwllicism — that  is,  the  mental  process  in 
which  the  idea  of  any  one  divinity  fills  the  mind  of  the  votan,-  to  the 
temporary'  exclusion  of  all  others,  a  supremacy,  however,  which  is  merely 
conceded  by  the  passing  emotions,  not  permanently  recognized  by  the 
intellect. 


i6o  ETHNOLOGY. 

Probably  the  only  clear  recognition  of  tbe  nnity  of  divinity  to  be 
found  on  the  continent  was  among  the  Peruvians,  and  there  it  is  as  evi- 
dent, certainly,  as  in  the  esoteric  doctrines  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  priests. 
The  more  intelligent  natives  of  Peru  worshipped  their  divinity  of  light, 
Viracocha,  as  the  creator  of  all  things  and  as  the  sole,  ever-present, 
efficient  god  ;  he  alone  answered  prayers,  he  alone  helped  in  time  of  need. 
All  prayers  to  the  sun,  to  the  deceased  kings,  or  to  idols  were  directed  to 
them  as  intercessors  and  mediators  only,  not  as  independent  deities.  This 
is  clearly  stated  by  several  of  the  best-informed  and  earliest  writers  on 
Peru. 

Parallelisms  in  Mythology. — It  will  be  seen  that  the  three  extensi^•e 
mythologies  which  are  compared  above  in  a  few  of  their  salient  traits  are 
founded  upon  closely  related  natural  occurrences — to  wit,  the  diurnal 
change  from  day  to  night  and  the  weather.  These  interested  primitive 
man  deeply,  for  they  intimately  concerned  his  comfort  and  his  daily  life. 
Hence  they  were  ver}'  widely  introduced  into  his  mythologies.  This  sim- 
ilarity of  origin  led  to  marked  analogies  in  the  subsequent  development 
of  his  myths,  which  is  the  more  important  to  note  and  to  allow  for,  as  not 
a  few  ethnologists,  misunderstanding  the  nature  of  such  analogies,  have 
brought  them  forward  as  proving  some  historic  relationship  or  community 
of  descent  between  widely-remote  nations.  An  inference  to  this  effect 
must  be  drawn  with  the  utmost  caution,  and,  standing  alone,  cannot  be 
accepted  as  of  any  weight  in  ethnology.  The  human  mind  is  so  much 
the  same  in  all  races,  and  in  its  progress  proceeds  in  paths  so  nearly  par- 
allel, that  frequently  the  results  of  its  labors  are  almost  identical,  although 
no  historic  contact  is  credible.  Such  similarities  meet  the  reader  at  every 
turn,  and  are  to  be  construed  as  proofs  of  the  psychologic  unity  of  the 
species,  not  as  pieces  of  historic  evidence. 

Examples  from  Greek  and  Aztec  Myths. — To  select  one  out  of  the  many 
examples  which  are  at  hand,  we  may  compare  the  opinions  entertained  by 
the  Greek  Aryans  as  to  the  fate  of  the  soul  after  death  with  those  accepted 
on  the  same  subject  by  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico. 

The  Greeks  taught  that  after  death  the  soul  descended  into  a  realm 
below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  whose  ruler  was  Hades,  which  means  "the 
all-receiver,"  as,  at -last,  death  gathers  all  that  exists.  The  entrance  to 
this  realm  was  guarded  by  savage  dogs,  which  the  soul  must  pacify  if  it 
would  pass  be}-ond.  Be^-ond  these  guardians  stretched  a  broad  desert 
which  the  soul  must  cross  in  order  to  reach  the  shores  of  the  river  of  the 
under  world,  sometimes  spoken  of  as  Acheron,  and  often  referred  to  as 
divided  into  seven  or  nine  branches.  The  silent  ferrs-man,  Charon, 
received  such  as  had  been  provided  at  death  with  an  obolus  to  pay  their 
fare,  and  this  coin  was  carefully  buried  with  the  deceased.  The  river 
crossed,  the  soul  appeared  before  its  judges,  who  either  condemned  it  to 
wander  in  darkness  or  sent  it  onward  to  the  Elysian  Fields. 

The  Aztec  realm  of  the  dead  was  also  in  an  under  world,  ruled  by  Mic- 
tlantecutli,  "  the  lord  of  those  who  are  slain,"  or  have  died.     Its  entrance 


ETHXOLOGY.  i6r 

was  through  a  narrow  defile  where  lay  in  wait  a  serpent  and  a  huge  lizard, 
which  the  soul  must  coax  into  good-humor.  Bejond  lay  deserts  and  steep, 
cold  mountains,  and  at  their  farther  limit  a  broad  and  dark  stream  called 
"  the  Nine  Rivers."  To  cross  its  current  in  safety  the  soul  must  cling  to 
a  red  dog,  and  to  provide  such  an  animal  and  solemnly  slay  it  at  the  grave 
was  an  essential  feature  of  the  Aztec  funeral  ceremonies.  On  the  other 
bank  the  location  of  the  soul  was  settled,  principall}-  \>\  the  manner  of 
death,  some  passing  to  "the  Nine  Abodes  of  the  Dead,"  and  others  to  the 
paradise,  Tlalocan,  where  they  remained  for  a  few  j'ears  and  then  returned 
to  life  among  men,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  singing-birds. 

The  similarities  between  these  two  myths  are  not  accidental,  neither 
are  they  historical,  but  are  the  results  of  the  mind  acting  in  parallel  lines 
of  thought  on  the  same  materials. 

Religions  Doctrines. — Besides  the  general  form  of  a  religion  and  the 
creations  of  its  mythology,  the  theoretic  doctrines  which  it  teaches  often 
wield  an  imperious  sway  over  the  lives  of  its  votaries  and  decide  the 
actions  and  destinies  of  nations.  Such  doctrines  seem  also  at  times  to  be 
the  outgrowth  of  the  national  temperament,  and  their  extension  is  largely 
governed  by  racial  peculiarities.  Hence  they  merit  the  attention  of  the 
ethnologist  as  much  as  that  of  the  historian.  A  few  of  the  most  promi- 
nent of  these  doctrines  ma}'  be  mentioned. 

The  Doctrine  of  a  Son!. — .\s  already  said,  the  belief  of  a  life  after 
death  is  not  essential  to  religion  (see  p.  144).  In  many,  where  it  exists  in 
a  shadowy  form,  it  is  not  an  efficient  motive  of  the  religious  life.  A  tribal 
religion,  like  that  of  the  ancient  Israelites  or  of  the  Romans,  limits  its 
thoughts  and  plans,  its  rewards  and  punishments,  exclusively  to  this  life. 
Neither  Confucius  nor  the  founder  of  EuddhLsm  taught  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  The  former  when  asked  about  it  replied:  "There  is  no 
present  urgency  about  the  matter.  If  the.  dead  live,  you  will  find  it  out 
for  yourself  in  time."  vSakya  Muni,  though  he  devised  a  theor}'  of  trans- 
migration, ended  it  in  Nir\-ana — Nothingness — as  its  goal. 

Ancestral  Worship. — On  the  other  hand,  memory  in  waking  hours  and 
dreams  during  sleep  persuaded  men  ver\-  generally  that  tho.se  the)-  had 
known  had  not  passed  away  for  ever.  Their  interests  had  not  ceased  and 
their  influence  was  not  lost.  Hence  arose  that  frequent  form  of  early 
religion,  ancestral  worship.  Although  by  no  means  what  Herbert  Spen- 
cer has  called  it,  "the  universal  first  form  of  religious  belief,"  it  wf.s 
early  and  it  was  widespread.  How  early  it  appeared  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  and  how  deep-rooted  it  is  to-day  throughout  the  millions  of 
China,  need  not  be  insisted  upon.  Its  traces  occur  in  the  rudest  races. 
A  Tasmanian  who  had  been  taken  captive  and  made  his  escape  attributed 
the  success  of  his  flight  to  the  aid  of  his  father's  spirit  (Bonwick).  The 
Caribs,  Nanticokes,  and  other  American  tribes  cleaned  the  bones  of  their 
ancestors  and  carried  them  along  in  their  migrations,  belie\'ing  that  thus 
the  ancestral  spirits  would  accompany  and  protect  them.  The  Crees,  who 
lived  on  Nelson  River  in  Canada,  were  accustomed  to  strangle  their  aged 
VuL.  I.— u 


i62  ETHNOLOGY. 

parents,  but  their  most  sacred  feticli  was  a  bunch  of  feathers  called  their 
"  father's  head,"  and  which  represented  his  spirit  (Robson).  Much  of  the 
Peruvian  ritual  consisted  in  prayers  and  ceremonies  addressed  to  the 
ancestral  spirits;  and  the  Australian  kobong,  the  American  toteni^  often 
seems  to  be  the  spirit  of  the  traditional  father  of  the  clan. 

Influence  of  Belief  in  Immortality. — The  confident  belief  in  i/nmortal- 
ity  possessed  by  some  nations  has  profoundly  modified  the  course  of  history 
by  giving  them  a  contempt  for  death  which  assured  them  the  victor^'  in 
conflict  with  those  of  feebler  faith.  The  ancient  Gennans  had  a  most 
vivid  belief  in  the  life  hereafter.  They  knew  that  those  who  died  the 
"spear-death  "  on  the  field  of  battle  would  at  once  be  transported  by  the 
Valkyrie  to  the  hall  of  Valhalla,  where  they  would  quaff  the  foaming 
mead  with  the  great  heroes  who  had  gone  before.  So  real  was  this 
expectation  to  them  that  they  would  lend  money  to  be  repaid  when  debt- 
or and  creditor  should  meet  on  the  Aesar-field  (Holtzmann).  As  Gibbon 
remarks,  the  earl)-  Christians  "were  animated  by  a  contempt  for  their 
present  existence  and  a  confidence  of  immortality,  of  which  the  imperfect 
faith  of  modern  ages  cannot  give  us  any  adequate  notion."  So  likewise 
IVIohammed  succeeded  in  instilling  into  his  followers  such  an  unquestion- 
ing faith  in  their  immediate  transfer  at  death  to  the  joys  of  heaven  that 
they  entered  the  battle  with  the  certainty  of  winning  either  one  of  two 
equally  glorious  prizes — victory  or  Paradise. 

Against  men  and  nations  under  the  control  of  doctrines  of  this  cha- 
racter, the  sceptical  Greek,  the  materialistic  Roman,  and  the  effete  Persian 
were  as  certain  to  succumb  as  though  their  downfall  had  been  written  on 
their  temples  by  a  divine  hand. 

Doctrine  of  Fatalism. — The  doctrine  of  fatalism.^  or  predestination, 
was  familiar  to  the  Greek  mind,  and  was  advocated  by  Lucretius  as  a 
philosophic  theory,  but  as  a  religious  doctrine  received  its  complete 
development  at  the  hands  of  Mohammed.  It  seemed  to  him  a  neces- 
sary deduction  from  the  doctrine  of  an  omnipotent  and  omniscient 
Deit}'.  Its  effects  on  human  action  are  complex.  While  fostering  disre- 
gard for  danger  and  fortitude  under  suffering,  it  lames  endeavor,  arrests 
progress,  and  breeds  indifference.  Where  it  is  deeply  rooted  in  a  com- 
munity intellectual  advance  becomes  impossible.  For  this  reason  the 
Mohammedan  nations  are,  and  alwa^-s  must  be,  unprogressive  themselves 
and  impediments  to  the  progress  of  their  neighbors. 

Doctrine  of  the  Unreality  of  Phenomena. — The  unreality  of  phenomena^ 
a  doctrine  deeply  centred  in  the  teachings  both  of  Brahmanism  and  pure 
Buddhism,  is  not  less  fatal  to  national  growth.  Its  philosophical  basis 
rests  on  the  distinction  between  the  absolutely  and  the  relatively  true — 
an  antinomy  which  profoundly  impressed  the  Oriental  sages.  Their  solu- 
tion of  it  in  favor  of  the  absolute  led  them  and  their  disciples  to  a  con- 
tempt for  the  events  and  existences  of  this  world  as  mere  appearances,  vain 
shows,  "for  man's  delusion  given,"  fleeting  ripples  on  the  infinite  sea  of 
life.     The  sage,   they  taught,   interested  himself  not  in  such   transitory- 


ETHNOLOGY.  163 

tilings,  but  sought  utter  repose,  the  shanti  of  the  Brahman,  the  nirvana 
of  the  Buddhist. 

This  doctrine  is  obvionsly  disastrous  to  individual  and  national  culture, 
and  therefore  the  energetic  nations  of  Western  Europe  have  more  sym- 
pathy with  the  latest  of  all  religions,  which  takes  the  other  horn  of  the 
philosophic  dilemma,  and  under  the  name  Positivism  denies  altogether 
that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  absolute  truth,  and  sets  up  as  the  object  of 
its  cult  the  purified  social  instincts  of  humanity. 

The  Priestly  Class. — The  cultivation  of  the  religious  sentiment  has  led 
in  all  communities  to  the  formation  of  one  of  the  most  powerful  classes  in 
social  life — the  priesthood.  Among  nations  of  the  lowest  status  we  find 
this  vocation  represented  by  the  shamans,  magicians,  or  "medicine-men." 
They  claim  to  be  the  intimates  of  the  deities,  to  be  able  to  modify  their 
decisions  with  reference  to  human  affairs,  to  be  gifted  with  the  power  to 
foretell  the  future  and  the  knowledge  of  the  cure  of  disease.  In  many 
nations  they  thus  exercise  the  functions  of  the  physician,  the  priest,  and 
the  fortune-teller.  This  is  the  case  with  the  Australian  sorcerers,  with 
those  among  the  Lapps,  with  the  shamans  of  Asiatic  Russia,  and  with 
those  of  the  Karens  of  Indo-China.  Quite  early,  however,  these  func- 
tions become  divided.  Among  the  Algonkin  Indians  there  are  different 
ceremonies  and  different  professors  for  curing  and  causing  disease — the 
two  go  together — and  for  bringing  rain,  foreseeing  events,  charming  ani- 
mals, and  such  purely  supernatural  procedures.  The  traveller  Cavazzi 
describes  the  subdivision  of  the  priests  among  the  Negroes  of  the  Congo 
River.  Some  of  these  give  their  exclusive  attention  to  ensuring  their 
patrons  against  the  effects  of  lightning ;  others  predict  the  termination  of 
■maladies  ;  others  protect  the  growing  crops  against  worms  and  animals  ; 
others  prepare  charms  which  guard  the  granaries  against  the  devastations 
of  rats  and  mice  ;  others  are  ready  to  discover  the  whereabouts  of  lost 
articles  and  the  localities  of  buried  treasure  ;  others  possess  the  ability  to 
confer  success  in  the  chase  ;  and  so  on. 

Power  of  the  Priests. — It  is  instructive  to  observe  how  the  whole  lives 
of  many  of  these  Negro  tribes  have  been  brought  under  the  domination 
of  the  priests  through  the  assiduous  cultivation  of  their  superstitious  ten- 
dencies. The  site  of  a  hut  must  not  be  selected  until  the  sorcerer  has 
pronounced  the  spot  favorable,  and  a  lucky  da}-  must  be  chosen  for  laving 
the  foundation.  When  the  building  is  completed  a  ceremony  must  be 
performed  to  drive  away  the  evil  spirits  before  the  residence  is  occupied. 
Every  event  of  importance  in  life,  as  marriage,  pregnancy,  birth,  the 
entrance  to  the  age  of  puberty,  setting  out  on  a  journey,  and  the  like, 
demands  the  assistance  of  the  magician. 

Armed  with  sucli  powers,  it  is  not  surprising  that  in  some  instances 
the  priests  have  attained  a  degree  of  control  which  throws  into  the  shade 
the  most  absolute  of  monarchies.  In  some  of  the  tribes  near  Fernando 
Po  the  high  priest  selects  and  anoints  the  king  and  instructs  him  as  to  what 
line  of  action  he  is  to  take  in  all  affairs  of  moment.     Certain  poisonous 


i64  ETHNOLOGY. 

serpents  which  are  kept  in  a  pit  are  supposed  to  be  the  advisers  of  the 
holy  man,  and  to  transmit  to  him  the  will  and  decrees  of  the  gods,  of 
whom  he  represents  himself  as  merely  the  minister  and  mouthpiece.  But 
the  chiloine  or  chief  priest  of  one  of  the  Congo  tribes  illustrates  most 
vividly  the  sacerdotal  power.  He  is  revered  not  merely  as  an  agent  of 
divinity,  but  as  divinity  itself.  He  sends  the  harvest  and  the  rains,  and 
can  withhold  them  ;  the  life  and  death  of  the  people  are  in  his  hands  ; 
therefore  no  one  strives  with  him,  and  if  he  strikes  or  slays  a  person  no 
one  dreams  of  holding  him  accountable  ;  the  king  undertakes  no  act  of 
war  or  diplomacy  without  his  consent,  and  every  appointee  to  a  post  of 
trust  or  profit  must  first  have  the  approval  of  the  chitome ;  nor  does  he 
give  this  as  a  matter  of  form  :  the  aspirant  must  prostrate  himself  in  the 
dust  and  weep  and  cry,  and  especially  he  must  bring  presents  fully  com- 
mensurate to  the  profits  he  expects  from  his  position,  before  the  haughty 
priest  will,  after  kicking  and  otherwise  maltreating  the  suppliant,  finally 
accord  his  assent. 

In  some  nations  the  kino;s  have  claimed  for  themselves  the  hio-hest 
prerogatives  of  the  priestly  function.  This  is  the  case  with  the  king  of 
Loango  and  others  in  Africa.  In  America  a  marked  instance  was  the 
Inca  of  Peru,  who  was  head  of  the  sacerdotal  as  well  as  the  civil  govern- 
ment. This  at  times  brought  with  it  inconveniences.  In  one  of  the 
tribes  of  the  Upper  Nile  the  king  is  also  high  priest  and  rainmaker-in- 
chief  He  is  supposed  to  summon  the  clouds  by  whistling  for  them.  But 
he  must  exercise  this  function  with  due  caution,  for  if  he  whistles  for  them 
and  they  come  not,  he  is  looked  upon  as  an  usurper  and  is  forthwith  led 
out  and  knocked  on  the  head. 

For  many  dynasties  the  priesthood  of  ancient  Egypt  was  wholly  sub- 
ser\'ient  to  the  ruling  king,  who  was  its  acknowledged  head  and  recognized 
as  the  vicegerent  of  God  on  earth.  This  union  of  powers  was  one  of  the 
strongly  consolidating  features  of  the  Pharaonic  government.  When 
about  the  twentieth  dynasty  the  function  of  the  priests  became  hereditary 
in  families,  and  the  sacerdotal  class  separated  from  the  laity  on  the  one 
side  and  on  the  other  became  independent  of  the  royal  control,  with  ofii- 
cials  of  their  own,  a  change  had  been  introduced  fatal  to  the  permanence 
of  the  royal  house  and  highly  injurious  to  the  culture  of  the  people  at 
large  (Tiele). 

Mysteries  and  Secret  Orders. — In  all  instances  the  weight  of  a  priest- 
hood is  cast  in  favor  of  exclusiveness  and  conservatism.  The  priests  claim 
to  possess  private  knowledge  and  powers,  which  they  naturally  seek  to 
keep  from  the  profane  multitude.  This  led  to  the  establishment  of  secret 
orders,  learned  guilds,  and  mysteries.  Those  of  Eleiisis,  patterned  largely 
on  Eg>'ptian  models  it  is  believed,  are  familiar  to  all  readers  of  the  classics. 
Similar  organizations  are  found  in  the  rudest  tribes.  The  Algonkin  In- 
dians have  their  "Big  IMedicine  Lodge,"  which  introduces  the  neophvte 
to  mysteries  doubtless  quite  as  impressive  as  those  at  Eleusis.  The  Dako- 
tas  have  a  number  of  secret  societies  presided  over  by  their  tribal  sorcerers, 


ETIIXOI.OGY.  165 

each  supposed  to  have  knowledge  of  a  number  of  roots  and  plants  and 
other  substances  possessing  magic  power. 

Religion  and  Self-Ciiltiirc. — In  this  brief  su!nmar>'  of  the  main  features 
of  religions  we  have  incidentally  referred  several  times  to  the  part  they  have 
played  in  the  history  of  national  culture.  We  shall  now  sum  up  with  equal 
brevity  the  various  influences  which  are  at  work  in  every  religion,  no  matter 
how  rude,  tending  to  foster  the  growth  of  the  better  nature  of  man. 

Influence  on  Self-ailtiire. — In  one  of  his  pregnant  lines  the  poet  Tenny- 
son sums  up  the  forces  of  individual  culture  in  the  words  "self-reverence, 
self-knowledge,  self-control."  All  religions  demand  at  least  the  last  of 
these,  and  none  more  than  those  of  the  rudest  stamp.  The  Eskimo,  the 
Indian,  or  the  Laplander  who  would  secure  for  himself  a  guardian  spirit 
must  seek  some  deep  solitude,  and  deny  himself  food  and  drink  until  lack 
of  nourishment  disorders  his  brain.  The  initiation  to  the  religious  m)-s- 
teries  of  savages  is  usually  connected  with  self-torture  of  the  severest  kind, 
■which  must  be  borne  without  a  murmur.  In  the  Aztec  temples  there  was 
always  provided  a  store  of  the  sharp  thorns  of  the  maguey,  with  which  the 
votaries  were  expected  to  pierce  their  ears,  tongue,  lips,  and  other  sensi- 
tive parts  of  their  persons.  Those  who  aspired  to  the  priestly  office  car- 
ried this  self-mortification  to  a  ghastly  extent.  A  bas-relief  discovered  by 
Charnay  in  one  of  the  Yucatan  cities  represents  the  priest  passing  a  jagged 
rope  through  his  tongue.  The  priestly  vocation  frequently  laid  restric- 
tion on  the  sexual  life  of  its  members,  the  males  vowing  chastity,  the 
females  seclusion;  while  the  restrictions  on  marriage  within  the  clan,  in  its 
origin  of  a  purely  religious  nature,  taught  the  savage  to  govern  his  desires 
in  this  their  most  uncontrollable  direction.  Although  in  themselves  tliese 
acts  of  self-denial  were  generallv  absurd,  thev  taught  the  inestimable 
lesson  of  self-government,  and  it  came  to  be  transmitted  as  an  acquired 
element  of  culture  to  later  generations. 

Religion  a7id National  Unity. — As  has  been  shown,  most  primitive  relig- 
ions are  tribal,  and  the  chief  gods  are  the  ideal  representatives  of  the  clan. 
In  uniting  to  pay  them  homage  all  the  members  of  the  community  tacitly 
repeat  their  acknowledgment  of  a  solidarity  of  interests  and  blood.  The 
stranger  who  is  taken  into  the  tribe  becomes  a  member  of  it  by  wor- 
shipping at  the  tribal  shrine.  "Thy  people  shall  be  my  people,  and  thy 
God  my  God"  (Ruth  i.  16),  was  in  effect  the  formula  of  all  adoptions. 
The  religious  festivals  which  collected  the  scattered  members  of  the 
band  together  at  stated  times  maintained  the  alliance  of  blood  and  the 
recognition  of  common  interests.  The  feeling  that  a  nation  should  be 
under  some  one  divine  patron,  who  should  be  to  it  both  a  guardian  of  its 
folds  and  a  defender  of  its  cause,  lived  long  after  Christianity  had  become 
the  prevailing  religion  of  Europe.  The  war-cries  of  "St.  George  for 
England!"  and  "St.  Denis  for  France!"  rang  out  on  many  a  stricken 
field 

**  When  Rpears  were  Hnwn, 
Aiul  steeds  were  wliile  with  fo;\m." — Arnold. 


t66  ethnology. 

Religion  and  tltc  Respect  for  Laze. — The  very  absurdity  and  unreason- 
ableness of  many  of  the  mandates  of  early  religions  had  an  educating  effect 
on  the  rude  populations  to  whom  they  were  addressed.  It  taught  them  the 
habit  of  passive  and  prompt  obedience  to  law,  and  thus  formed  a  habit  of 
mind  essential  to  the  preservation  of  the  civil  state.  The  taboo  which  the 
priest  of  the  South  Sea  islands  would  lay  on  certain  articles  of  diet,  on 
places,  even  on  the  utterance  of  particular  words,  had  to  be  observed  on 
pain  of  death,  and  accustomed  that  race  to  a  circumspect  regard  for  edicts 
of  all  kinds.  Legislators  and  magistrates  have  in  all  ages  perceived  the 
aid  in  the  administration  of  justice  which  they  can  obtain  by  calling  to 
their  assistance  the  religious  sentiment.  Their  main  object  being  to  reach 
the  facts  of  a  transaction,  they  have  very  generally  brought  in  some  relig- 
ious solemnity  to  compel  witnesses  to  speak  the  truth,  if  not  out  of  respect 
to  the  human,  then  for  the  sake  of  divine,  law.  They  may  be  of  the  most 
varied  character:  the  Siberian  Ostyak  will  bite  a  boar's  head;  the  China- 
man will  cut  off  the  head  of  a  live  chicken;  the  Brahman  will  take  to 
witness  the  holy  river  Ganges;  the  Scotchman  will  raise  his  open  hand 
toward  the  sky;  the  Englishman  will  kiss  the  cover  of  his  sacred  book: 
all  these,  and  a  hundred  more  intrinsically  absurd  and  purposeless  cus- 
toms, are  means  of  calling  the  wrath  of  the  gods  down  upon  the  speaker 
if  he  tells  either  more  or  less  than  truth.  They  all  indicate  how  law  avails 
itself  in  some  of  its  most  valuable  functions  of  the  aid  of  religion. 

Religion  and  the  Literary  Faculty. — The  oral  memorials  of  uncultivated 
nations  are  far  more  frequently  occupied  with  the  fancied  doings  of  the 
gods  than  with  the  chronicles  of  past  time.  The  primitive  poets  draw 
their  inspiration  rather  from  the  rewards  they  expect  to  gain  from  chant- 
ing the  praises  of  the  living  gods  than  in  recalling  the  deeds  of  prowess 
of  departed  heroes.  The  formulas  and  rituals  of  worship  had  an  inherent 
sanctity,  and  had  to  be  repeated  precisely  according  to  precedent.  These 
considerations  became  the  motives  for  the  establishment  of  methods  and 
schools  of  literary  culture.  Such  are  found  in  all  ages  and  strata  of  civ- 
ilization. Caesar  states  that  the  noble  youth  of  Gaul  were  sent  across  the 
Channel  to  Albion  to  be  educated  in  the  far-famed  Druidic  colleges  there. 
They  were  principally  instructed  in  religious  verses,  of  which  they  were 
obliged  to  commit  to  memor}'  many  thousand.  The  Zuiii  Indian  who 
would  be  admitted  to  one  of  the  religious  orders  must  be  able  to  repeat 
a  mystic  chant  several  hundred  lines  in  length,  observing  accurately  the 
intonation  and  archaic  forms  of  the  words.  The  Aztecs  had  long  orations, 
prayers,  and  poems,  which  were  taught  by  the  priests  in  colleges  called  cal- 
mecac,  and  were  delivered  on  solemn  occasions  and  in  the  various  festivals. 

To  put  these  on  record  was  one  of  the  earliest  motives  which  led  to 
the  invention  of  a  system  of  writing.  Like  the  Egj-ptian,  most  of  the 
earlier  alphabets  start  with  a  hieratic  script.  The  oldest  documents  extant 
are  the  books  of  the  divine  commands  as  accepted  by  one  nation  or  another, 
and  much  more  than  half  of  all  that  has  ever  been  committed  to  writing 
by  human  hands  has  been  in  the  nature  of  explanations,  glosses,  couimen- 


ETHNOLOGY.  167 

taries,  versions,  or  discussions  about  these  books.  We  have  but  to  recall 
the  enormous  mass  of  literature  which  centres  around  the  books  of  L,ao- 
tse  and  Confucius  in  China,  of  Sakya  Muni  in  Ceylon,  Thibet,  China,  and 
Japan,  of  the  Avesta  in  Persia,  the  Veda  in  India,  the  Koran  in  Moham- 
medan countries,  and  the  Hebrew  Bible  and  Greek  Testament  in  the  nations 
of  Christendom,  to  perceive  how  active  and  ceaseless  has  been  the  train- 
ing of  the  literary  faculties  by  the  demands  of  these  eight  leading  book- 
religions,  which  are,  after  all,  but  a  portion  of  the  literary  religions  of 
the  globe.  To  this  should  be  added  the  stimulus  imijarted  to  the  study 
of  language  by  the  preservation  and  necessary  analysis  of  the  archaic 
forms  in  these  records;  the  schools,  universities,  and  learned  orders  or 
societies  founded  for  their  exegesis;  the  translations  of  them  into  other 
tongues  either  for  the  sake  of  proselytizing  or  of  polemics;  the  fact  that 
printing,  like  writing,  was  first  invented  for  the  purpose  of  disseminating 
religious  works;  and  many  allied  facts  of  this  nature, — and  we  cannot  fail 
to  acknowledge  that  religion  has  contributed  most  potently  and  in  all  its 
stages  to  the  intellectual  development  of  the  race. 

As  a  Teacher  of  Ethics. — The  position  has  been  assumed  by  most  eth- 
nologists that  there  is  no  necessary  connection  between  religion  and 
morality,  and  that  the  faiths  of  the  lower  races  have  not  as  a  rule  or  at 
all  acted  as  a  lever  lifting  them  toward  a  higher  ethical  life.  This  must 
be  regarded  as  a  hasty  and  unwarranted  conclusion.  It  is  true  that  most 
of  their  teachings  seem  to  our  enlightened  minds  either  indiflferent  or 
destructive  to  morality.  But  that  is  an  unjust  measure  to  apply  to  them. 
The  education  of  the  conscience  is  in  itself  a  great  deal,  and  even  if  its 
commands  are  barbarous,  as  when  it  requires  the  Hindoo  widow  to  mount 
the  suttee  pyre  and  be  burned  alive  with  the  corpse  of  her  husband,  the 
strong  sense  of  duty  there  apparent  is  in  itself  an  ethical  education. 

When,  as  is  the  case  with  many  even  primitive  religions,  there  are 
beneficent  as  well  as  malicious  deities,  the  reverent  gratitude  which 
inspires  the  worship  of  the  former  is  calculated  to  develop  the  benev- 
olent emotions  generally.  We  may  be  sure  that  religion  would  not  so 
early  and  in  so  many  instances  have  become  associated  with  government 
had  it  not  been  observed  that  the  duties  of  man  to  man  within  the  tribe 
jjained  in  observance  through  this  connection. 

Finally,  the  ideals  which  religion  is  wont  to  hold  up  to  its  votaries  for 
admiration  and  imitation  are  usually  the  personification  of  what  the 
national  mind  thinks  loftiest,  noblest,  best;  and  it  is  incredible  that  a 
nation  should  ever  strive  to  imitate  that  which  is  its  best  and  not  actually 
grow  toward  something  which  is  really  better.  Such  ideals  are  by  no 
means  confined  to  the  faiths  of  cultivated  nations.  They  are  not  repre- 
sented only  by  the  worldly-wise  Confucius,  the  austere,  self-centred 
Sakya  Muni,  tlie  ardent,  God-intoxicated  Mohammed,  and  the  other 
founders  of  the  great  religions  of  the  world;  they  are  as  well  charac- 
terized and  appear  with  not  less  noble  features  in  the  forests  of  the  New 
World.     The  Aztec  culture-hero  Quetzalcoatl  nuiy  be  taken  as  the  type 


i68  ETHNOLOGY. 

of  many  of  them.  He  was  represented  as  the  patron  and  instructor  of 
artificers  in  stone  and  metals  and  feathers;  in  life  he  was  chaste  and  tem- 
perate, judicious  in  council,  generous  of  gifts,  kindly  to  the  weak, 
opposed  to  wars  and  to  bloody  sacrifices,  a  framer  of  wise  laws  and 
merciful  in  their  enforcement.  This  was  the  ideal  which  their  religion 
held  up  for  imitation  to  millions  of  the  inhabitants  of  ancient  Mexico. 
Could  it  be  possible  that  such  an  exemplar,  framed  by  the  religious 
dreams  of  the  race,  did  not  elevate  its  moral  sense?  Such  a  conclu- 
sion would  be  contrary  to  all  we  know  of  human  motive;  and  the  ver- 
dict of  the  early  missionaries  was  with  all  positiveness  that  tire  people 
who  had  this  religious  ideal  was  a  nation  of  decidedly  high  ethical  prac- 
tices; as  one  of  these  witnesses  says:  "A  good  people,  attached  to  virtue, 
urbane  and  simple  in  social  intercourse,  shunning  lies,  skilled  in  the  arts, 
pious  toward  their  gods"  (Sahagun).  We  must  acknowledge,  therefore, 
that  in  all  its  grades  and  fonns  religion  aids  in  training  the  sense  of  duty, 
in  cultivating  sentiments  of  gratitude,  and  iu  enforcing  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  the  enactments  of  morality. 

CIVILIZATION   AS   THE   RESULTANT   OF   ETHNIC   DEVELOPMENT. 

Were  we  to  select  any  one  of  the  elements  of  national  life  which  we 
have  been  considering — the  food-supply,  the  sexual  relation,  government, 
religion,  arts,  or  language — and  study  in  detail  the  part  it  has  played  in 
raising  man  from  a  savage  to  a  cultured  condition,  we  should  be  apt  to 
think  that  it  alone  had  been  the  efficient  cause  of  his  improvement — that 
it  alone  is  the  golden  strand  in  the  cord  which  has  lifted  nations  from  the 
unconscious  abasement  of  their  primitive  state  to  the  conscious  enlighten- 
ment of  the  present  age.  But  a  broader  study  of  the  nature  and  the  his- 
tor}-  of  man  will  correct  this  impression;  ethnology-  will  teach  us  the  error 
of  those  who,  dazzled  by  the  power  of  some  one  faculty  of  mind,  have 
attributed  to  it  alone  the  progress  of  the  race. 

All  the  faculties  and  all  their  expressions  are  to  a  great  degree  cor- 
relative. Each  demands  for  its  cultivation  that  the  others  shall  not  be 
neglected.  Those  who  dream  that  all  the  ills  of  society  are  to  be  cured 
by  a  perfected  social  rule  will  be  shown  not  less  in  error  than  those  who 
see  in  the  arts — the  useful  or  the  fine  arts — the  one  guide  through  the 
labyrinth  of  life;  and  both  will  be  led  into  an  equal  fallacy  should  they 
believe  that  the  time  has  come,  or  ever  will  come,  when  the  cultured 
nations  of  the  world  may  profitably  dispense  with  religion.  All  these 
represent  and  are  the  expression  of  essential  parts  of  the  psycholog}'  of  the 
species;  only  by  their  symmetrical  development  can  a  nation  advance,  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  of  progress,  up  to  a  complete  civilization. 

Dcfitiition  of  Progress  and  Civilization. — These  words,  progress  and 
civilization.,  may  with  advantage  arrest  our  attention. 

Persons  often  speak  of  the  "Law  of  Progress"  as  if  it  were  one  of  the 
fixed  laws  of  nature  which  the  race  is  bound  to  follow.  There  is  nothing 
to  justify  this  view.     Some  nations  are  progressive,  some  are  not;  some 


ETHNOLOGY.  169 

ages  have  witnessed  a  rapid  growth  of  man's  powers,  others  have  seen 
them  withering.  Neither  history  nor  ethnology  authorizes  the  assump- 
tion that  man  will  continue  indefinitely  to  advance  in  his  conquests  over 
nature.  On  the  other  hand,  geology  points  out  many  species  which  have 
manifested  extreme  viability  for  a  period  and  extended  themselves  over 
wide  areas,  and  then  by  some  change  of  conditions  or  in  themselves  have 
lost  this  energy  and  have  become  wholly  extinct.  Chemists  inform  us 
that  a  very  slight  change  in  the  constitution  of  our  atmosphere  would 
work  disastrous  consequences  to  our  health  and  life.  Such  considerations 
teach  us  that  it  is  quite  unscientific  to  assume  an  indefinite  continuance  of 
advancement  for  the  race.  We  should  content  ourselves  in  the  study  of 
the  past,  and  discard  applying  its  lessons  to  any  distant  future. 

In  its  historic  sense  we  may  define  progress  to  be  the  development  of 
the  energies  and  resources  of  a  nation,  and  the  condition  of  civilization  to 
be  where  all  these  energies  and  resources  are  developed  s}-nimetrically  and 
to  a  high  degree. 

It  is  evident  from  this  definition  that  we  cannot  separate  civilization 
from  those  conditions  which  approach  but  fall  short  of  it,  by  any  sharp 
distinctions,  by  any  hard  and  fast  lines.  The  process  is  a  growth,  whose 
separate  stages  blend  one  into  the  other,  and  do  not  pennit  us  to  put  our 
finger  on  a  dividing-line,  and  sa}'.  On  this  side  is  civilization,  on  the  other 
is  its  absence.  Nevertheless,  the  recognition  of  stages  of  progress  is  so 
indispensable  to  the  ready  understanding  of  History  and  Ethnography 
that  they  have  very  generally  been  adopted  in  both  these  sciences.  They 
have  been  based  on  different  features  of  social  life,  usually  either  on  (i)  the 
artistic  development,  (2)  the  mode  of  subsistence,  or  (3)  on  the  general  con- 
dition. Nations  in  almost  all  these  stages  exist  at  present  on  the  earth, 
and  there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  even  the  most  civilized  began 
at  the  lowest;  and  this  not  very  long  ago,  compared  with  the  epochs  of 
geologic  time. 

I.   THE    STAGES    OF    PROGRESS. 

Stages  of  Artistic  Development. — Scientists  have  selected  as  the  most 
available  test  of  the  advance  of  industrial  art  the  material  most  commonly 
in  use  in  a  nation  or  epoch  yflr  the  matuifactitrc  of  cutting  instruments.  For 
reasons  which  will  be  obvious,  all  sorts  of  handiwork  bear  a  close  relation 
to  the  facility  with  which  material  can  be  di\-ided;  hence  the  propriety  of 
this  selection.  These  materials  have  been  three  in  number,  and  give  rise 
to  the  divisions  into 

1.  The  Stone  Age; 

2.  The  Bronze  Age; 

3.  The  Iron  Age. 

I.   The  Stone  Age. 

As   has   been   mentioned   on  a  previous   page  (96),  the  period  when 

man  had  no  better  implements  than  he  could  manufacture  out  of  wood, 

stone,  or  l)one  appears  to  have  extended  o\-cr  most  of  the  earth's  surface 

for  a  far  greater  length  of  time  than  has  elapsed  since  the  discovery  of 


lyo  ETHNOLOGY. 

metals.  It  has  been  divided  into  two  parts — the  first,  in  which  chipped 
stones  exchisively  were  employed,  being  known  as  the  Pal(Folitliic\  or  Older 
Stone  Age;  the  second  and  later,  when  many  of  the  implements  were  fin- 
ished by  grinding  and  rubbing  them  to  a  smooth  surface,  receiving  the 
name  of  the  Neolithic  Age,  or  that  of  Polished  Stone  (//.  i,  figs.  lo,  12). 

No  nation  has  been  known  to  scientific  observation  which  corresponded 
to  the  condition  of  life  in  the  palEeolithic  period.  That  age  was  contem- 
porary in  Europe  with  the  time  when  the  cave-bear,  the  mammoth,  and 
later  the  reindeer,  inhabited  the  forests  of  what  is  now  France  and  Ger- 
many. Instruments  quite  characteristic  of  it  have  been  exhumed  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  both  Northern  and  Southern  Africa.  The  vicinity  of  Cairo 
in  Lower,  and  of  lyuxor  in  Upper,  Egypt  has  disclosed  them.  In  Pales- 
tine and  in  several  locations  in  India  explorers  have  come  upon  them, 
while  in  America  the  Trenton  gravels,  the  glacial  deposits  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi,  the  California  gold-bearing  deposits,  and  the  mud-beds  of  the 
Pampas  have  all  furnished  chipped  stone  implements  of  the  character  of 
those  of  the  palaeolithic  beds  of  Europe.  Of  course,  others  like  them  have 
been  found  in  later  strata,  but  the  peculiarity  of  palceolithic  "finds"  is 
that  no  polished  implements  are  discovered  with  them,  and  their  forms  are 
always  few  in  number  and  simple  in  design. 

From  a  study  of  such  specimens  it  is  deduced  that  in  this,  the  earliest 
and  universal  condition  of  the  human  race,  its  members  were  exclusively 
hunters  or  fishermen  or  subsisted  on  natural  products  ;  agriculture  was 
totally  unknown,  and  no  animal,  not  even  the  dog,  was  domesticated  ; 
religion  and  government,  if  they  were  organized  at  all,  were  of  a  lower, 
more  imperfect  character  than  any  now  known  to  us.  Buildings  were 
mere  temporary  shelters,  leaving  no  trace  upon  the  soil.  The  population 
was  scanty  and  little  inclined  to  wander  beyond  limited  precincts. 

But  even  then  the  traces  of  positive  and  constant,  although  slow, 
progress  are  clearly  visible.  In  the  oldest  stations  of  the  Palseolithic  Age 
there  is  not  found  a  trace  of  ornament  nor  a  sign  that  the  tribes  then 
living  knew  the  simplest  of  the  mechanical  powers.  In  the  later  deposits 
we  discover  small  stone  mortars,  evidently  used  for  mixing  paints  for  the 
body  ;  fragments  of  peroxide  of  iron  which  yield  a  red  coloring-matter, 
and  which  have  seen  service  ;  teeth  of  animals,  shells,  and  bits  of  horn, 
perforated  and  plainly  destined  for  ornaments  ;  needles  and  awls  of  bone, 
indicating  that  clothing  was  made  and  worn  ;  a  few  rude  figures  cut  from 
horn,  and  others  engraved  on  fragments  of  bone  ;  and  the  like, — all  going 
to  show  that  by  that  time  there  had  grown  up  a  fixed  society  and  a  taste 
for  decorative  art.  Such  a  people  could  have  been  little  inferior  to  the 
lower  tribes  of  savages  of  the  present  day. 

The  Neolithic  Age  was  introduced  into  Western  Europe  apparently  by 
an  incursion  of  tribes  from  the  east  or  north-east.  Its  appearance  is  sig- 
nalled by  a  superior  variety  of  stone  implements,  frequently  polished  ;  by 
the  traces  of  agriculture,  the  rearing  of  domestic  animals,  the  art  of 
making  clothing   from   vegetable   fibre   by  spinning   and   weaving,    the 


ETHNOLOGY.  171 

manufacture  of  pottery,  and  sucli  simple  arts.  The  inhabitants  at  that 
time  corresponded  in  point  of  culture  about  to  the  Indian  tribes  of  the 
United  States  at  the  era  of  the  discovery.  They  lived  in  towns  and 
cleared  the  forests.  The  oldest  of  the  lake-dwellings,  built  on  piles  in 
the  water,  occurring  in  the  Swiss  lakes  and  in  the  plains  of  the  Po,  belong 
to  this  period  and  stage  of  development.  (See  Stone  Age  and  illus.  Vol.  II.) 

2.  The  Bronze  Age. 

Although  many  implements  of  pure  copper  have  been  exhumed  both 
in  America  and  the  Old  World,  that  metal  is  too  soft  in  its  pure  state  ever 
to  have  been  of  much  value  as  a  material  furnishing  a  cutting  edge,  and 
hence  it  added  little  to  man's  power  over  nature.  When,  however,  copper 
is  fused  in  an  alloy  with  tin,  forming  bronze,  or  with  zinc,  forming  brass, 
the  product  acquires  a  very  firm  texture  and  is  well  adapted  for  tools  and 
weapons.  Both  these  alloys  were  known  in  the  Orient  in  the  dawn  of 
history,  but  bronze  was  that  which  came  most  extensively  into  use. 

The  Egyptians  were  well  acquainted  with  the  use  of  bronze  at  a  period 
coeval  with  their  earliest  monuments.  They  manufactured  it  into  weap- 
ons of  war  and  tools  for  various  trades,  and  succeeded  in  devising  processes 
to  give  it  exceeding  hardness.  Their  principal  source  for  copper  was 
among  the  mountains  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  and  the  mines  of  Wady 
Magarah  in  that  locality  are  thought  to  have  been  worked  as  early  as  the 
second  dynasty,  which  was  more  than  three  thousand  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  Where  they  obtained  their  tin  has  not  yet  been  ascer- 
tained. 

The  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  of  the  earliest  historic  ages  were  also 
familiar  with  bronze,  and  it  is  probable  that  from  them  the  Egyptians 
derived  their  knowledge  of  it  through  the  Semitic  merchants. 

This  is  the  remotest  date  to  which  we  can  trace  the  knowledge  of  the 
alloy.  If  we  interrogate  through  linguistic  analysis  the  condition  of  the 
Proto-Aryans,  we  find  them  wholly  in  the  Stone  Age  at  the  time  of  their 
separation  into  European  and  Asiatic  Aryans.  They  were,  indeed, 
acquainted  with  native  copper,  and  probably  ocoasionally  hammered  it 
into  ornaments  or  ceremonial  weapons,  as  did  the  Indians  around  Lake 
Superior;  but  they  were  equall}'  ignorant  of  smelting  or  alloying  it.  The 
terms  for  all  the  paraphernalia  of  the  smithery  and  all  working  in  metals 
are  quite  different  in  the  great  groups  of  Aryan  languages,  proving  that 
these  arts  were  developed  independently  after  their  splitting  up  into  vari- 
ous nations  (Schrader). 

Tl;e  Greeks  in  the  days  of  the  Homeric  poems  were  already  skilled 
■workers  in  bronze,  and  so  doubtless  were  the  Trojans,  although  Schlie- 
mann  fouiul  the  oldest  remains  on  the  hill  at  Ilissarlik  to  be  entirely  of 
the  Stone  Age.  The  Greeks  did  not  claim  to  ha\'e  discovered  the  alloy, 
but  acknowledged  to  have  received  it  from  those  mysterious  ancient 
nations  of  considerable  culture  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Lydians  and  Phryg- 
ians.    They  could  not  assign  a  date  to  its  introduction,  but  agreed  that 


172  ETHNOLOGY. 

it  was  ver^'  remote.  In  Italy  also,  among  the  Etruscans,  it  was,  at  nn 
indefinitely  ancient  date,  the  common  material  for  cxitting  instruments. 

From  Greece  and  Italy  the  use  of  bronze  extended  northward  along 
the  great  trading-lines.  The  oldest  specimens  in  the  remains  of  the 
Swiss  lake-dwellings  have  been  assigned  by  some  archaeologists  an  antiq- 
uity of  three  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era,  although  generally 
not  more  than  about  two  thousand  are  allowed  for  the  commencement  of 
the  Bronze  Age  north  of  the  Alps.  In  that  period  the  extension  of  even 
such  a  useful  art  was  slow,  and  it  is  quite  consistent  with  this  date  that 
Mr.  Evans  does  not  consider  the  Bronze  Age  to  have  begun  in  Great 
Britain  much  anterior  to  1400  B.  c.  The  knowledge  of  the  alloy  may 
have  come  through  the  Carthaginians,  who  about  that  time  began  their 
trading  voyages  to  the  southern  coast  of  England,  the  chief  merchandise 
they  v.'ere  after  being  the  tin  of  Cornwall,  which  they  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  bronze. 

In  America  the  Bronze  Age  was  well  represented  in  IMexico  and  Peru. 
The  natives  of  both  these  countries  were  well  aware  of  the  hard  alloy 
resulting  from  the  admixture  of  copper  and  tin,  and  employed  it  largely 
for  tools  and  weapons.  In  Mexico  copper  is  abundant,  and  tin  was 
obtained  from  the  mines  in  the  province  of  Tlachco,  where  that  metal 
was  so  plentiful  that  it  was  employed  as  a  circulating  medium.  Along 
the  coast  of  Peru  bronze  agricultural  implements  are  found  in  vast  num- 
bers, and  have  for  generations  been  collected  and  sold  to  dealers  in  old 
metal  "by  the  ton"  (Squier).  The  alloy  was  run  into  thin  but  stiff 
plates,  and  the  instruments  cut  from  these  and  ground  to  a  sharp  edge. 
Bronze  swords,  daggers,  knives,  and  lances  are  seen  in  collections  from 
these  localities.     (See  Bronze  Age  and  illus.  Vol.  II.) 

3.  The  Iron  Age. 

The  most  useful  of  metals,  iron,  was  known  to  man  long  before  he 
attained  the  art  of  manipulating  it  to  his  advantage.  In  the  mounds 
of  the  Ohio  Valley  antiquaries  have  discovered  thin  sheets  hammered  out 
of  meteoric  iron  and  applied  as  a  coating  to  ornaments  (Putnam).  Tubal 
Cain,  who  in  the  book  of  Genesis  is  put  as  the  seventh  in  descent  from 
Adam,  is  mentioned  as  "an  instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and 
iron;"  and  the  book  of  Job,  also  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  Hebrew 
records,  speaks  of  "iron  taken  out  of  the  earth"  as  one  of  the  metals 
then  in  familiar  tise. 

In  view  of  these  quotations,  we  shall  not  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the 
Chinese  annals  state  that  iron  supplanted  bronze  for  swords  in  the  reign 
of  Kung  Kin,  1897  b.  c,  or  that  many  j-ears  before  that  date  the  Assyr- 
ians manufactured  numerous  tools  of  iron.  Although  the  Egyptians 
knew  the  metal  and  sparingly  employed  it  in  their  arts,  they  preferred 
bronze,  and  it  was  not  till  as  late  as  about  the  seventh  centur}-  B.  c.  that 
the  latter  can  be  said  to  have  been  supplanted.  The  vSemitic  peoples 
were  quicker  to  see  its  vast  utility,  and  all  of  them  have  a  common  term 


ETHNOLOGY.  173 

for  iron,  barzcl — Arabic  yfr--// — showing  that  they  had  known  and  named 
it  before  their  primitive  stock  separated  into  the  later  branches.  From 
the  latter  form  of  it,  fir-zil^  in  the  opinion  of  some  etymologists,  is 
derived  the  Latin  word  for  iron,  fcrriim^  which  would  indicate  that  the 
primitive  Italian  tribes  learned  the  use  of  the  metal  from  the  traders  of 
the  Ph(jenician  or  Carthaginian  ports.  In  the  days  of  Homer  the  use  of 
iron  was  just  commencing,  most  of  the  weapons  the  poet  names  being 
specified  as  of  bronze;  but  in  the  age  of  Hesiod  iron  had  become  cheaper 
than  bronze,  and  was  employed  much  more  widely  (Gladstone).  From 
an  investigation  of  the  older  Greek  writers  it  has  been  deduced  that  iron 
was  known  in  that  countrj'  ten  or  twelve  centuries  before  our  era,  although 
it  long  continued  a  rare  metal;  by  the  fifth  or  sixth  century  c.  c.  it  had 
practically  superseded  bronze  both  for  tools  and  weapons  (Evan.s). 

The  metal  soon  extended  into  Northern  Europe.  Linguistic  evidence 
indeed  shows  that  it  is  probable  that  the  Letto-Slavs  and  Celto-Ger- 
mans  of  the  North  learned  to  forge  iron  before  they  became  acquainted 
with  bronze  (Schrader).  The  German  warriors  who  destroyed  the  legions 
of  Augustus  were  armed  with  iron  swords,  and  their  lances  were  tipped 
with  the  san:e  metal.  The  Cotti,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  had 
the  metal  in  abundance,  and  Julius  Csesar  describes  the  Gauls  of  the 
north  of  France  and  of  Belgium  working  large  iron-mines  by  tunnelling. 
He  also  mentions  ingots  and  rings  of  iron  as  in  use  for  money  among 
the  Britons  of  his  day.  The  Iron  Age  in  Western  Europe  must  have 
begun,   therefore,   two  or  three  centuries  before  our  era. 

Although,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  American  tribes  were 
not  entirely  ignorant  of  iron,  and  even  hammered  it  into  thin  sheets  for 
decorative  purposes,  they  never  learned  the  arts  of  smelting  and  forging 
it,  and  therefore  made  no  practical  applications  of  it.  Neither  was  it 
within  the  acquisitions  of  the  Australians.  But  in  Africa  it  has  been 
everywhere  employed  from  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge.  The  tribes  of  the  Soudan,  the  Caffirs,  even  the  Hottentots 
and  Bushmen  of  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent,  are  now,  and 
have  been  for  time  out  of  mind,  perfectly  acquainted  with  the  exploita- 
tion of  ferruginous  ores,  with  the  forging  of  v/eapons  and  utensils  with  a 
cutting  edge,  and  with  the  preparation  of  ornamental  objects  of  the 
metal. 

This  fact  illustrates  the  truth  that  the  mere  acquisition  of  some  one  art, 
even  if  it  be  so  cardinal  a  one  as  the  mauufaclure  of  iron,  is  utterly  insuf- 
ficient to  lift  a  nation  from  barbarism,  or  even  jierceptibly  to  ele\-ate  it. 
vSonie  of  these  African  tribes,  celebrated  locally  for  their  skill  in  metal- 
work  of  iron  and  steel,  are  examples  of  tribes  almost  as  low  in  the  scale 
as  the  Australians,  and  very  much  inferior  to  the  average  American 
Indians.  Hence  is  manifest  the  error  of  those  who  would  take  progress 
in  the  industrial  arts  alone  as  the  test  of  the  growth  of  civilization. 

As  iron  and  steel  still  continue  to  be  the  materials  preferred  for  obtain- 
ing a  cutting  edge,  the  "Age  of  Iron  "  is  considered  to  include  that  in  which 


174  ETHNOLOGY. 

we  live,  and  to  apply  to  the  civilized  nations  of  the  present  world.     (See 
Iron  Age,  Vol.  II.) 

The  second  classification  of  the  stages  of  progress  to  which  we  have 
referred  has  reference  to  the  source  of  the  food-supply.  It  is  divided  into 
the  following  heads  : 

1.  The  Hunting  and  Fishing  Stage  ; 

2.  The  Nomadic  or  Pastoral  Stage  ; 

3.  The  Agricultural  Stage  ; 

4.  The  Commercial  Stage. 

1.  The  Hunting  and  Fishing  Stage. 

In  this  condition  of  life  much  the  greater  part  or  all  of  the  food-supply 
is  obtained  from  the  products  of  the  forest  and  stream  without  the  exer- 
cise of  care  or  cultivation.  As  a  rule,  little  provision  is  made  for  the 
future,  the  stores  laid  up  for  periods  of  dearth  being  less  in  proportion 
and  less  providently  cared  for  than  those  of  the  squirrel  or  the  ant.  As 
the  life  of  such  people  is  generally  migratory,  they  do  not  build  perma- 
nent residences  nor  establish  durable  social  institutions.  They  are  with- 
out history,  an  existence  of  ceaseless  change  and  struggle  for  the  neces- 
saries of  subsistence  soon  extinguishing  the  memories  of  the  past.  Their 
arts  are  confined  to  those  most  essential  to  the  pursuit  of  game  and  self- 
defence. 

Nevertheless,  as  has  been  pointed  out  on  a  previous  page  (62),  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  life  of  the  hunter  are  educational  to  the  race.  Pitted  against 
the  superior  strength,  the  wonderful  instincts,  and  the  subtle  senses  of  the 
brute,  he  must  train  his  faculties  to  the  utmost  to  make  himself  the 
master.  Unprovided  himself  with  fangs  or  claws,  wings  or  fins,  not  even 
sheltered  with  a  coat  of  hair,  man  was  forced  to  enter  into  the  unequal 
struggle  for  life  with  formidable  Camivora,  with  the  fleet  deer,  the  soar- 
ing bird,  the  darting  fish,  and  had  to  devise  means  to  capture  and  conquer 
all  these  in  order  to  preserve  himself.  The  labor  was  not  light,  and  so 
far  from  feeling  any  disdain  for  the  arts  of  the  rudest  tribe,  the  ethnologist 
will  look  upon  them  with  profound  respect,  and  astonishment  that  so 
much  was  ever  accomplished  by  a  being  physically  so  ill  prepared  for  the 
conflict. 

Probabl)'  all  the  ancient  tribes  of  the  Palaeolithic  Age  (see  p.  170)  were 
in  this  stage  of  development.  The  Australians,  many  of  the  South  Sea 
Islanders,  the  natives  of  Canada,  of  Brazil,  and  of  Patagonia  and  Tierra 
del  Fuego  are  examples  of  hunting  tribes  in  recent  times.  They  are 
rapidly  disappearing,  the  pressure  of  races  of  higher  culture  forcing  them 
to  other  modes  of  life  or  to  extinction. 

2.  The  Nomadic  or  Pastoral  Stage. 

The  domestication  of  animals  offered  man  a  means  of  subsistence  far 
less  uncertain  and  less  toilsome  than  the  chase.  Hence  where  there  were 
species  of  animals  capable  of  easy  domestication  it  became  in  remote  ages 


ETHNOLOGY.  175 

a  favorite  source  of  livelihood.  In  many  respects  it  was  a  notable  im- 
provement on  the  hunting  state.  The  herdsman  tames  the  wild  animal 
by  kind  treatment ;  he  must  care  for  it  and  protect  it  in  order  to  keep  it 
alive  ;  he  must  find  food  for  it,  and  shelter  when  necessary.  Thus  his 
attention  to  the  brute  educates  his  benevolent  sentiments  toward  his  fel- 
low-man. It  becomes  a  cogent  argument  that  he  who  will  aid  his  ox  or 
his  ass  when  it  falls  into  a  pit  should  do  as  much  for  his  neighbor.  More- 
over, the  increased  security  of  the  food-supply  allows  larger  masses  of  men 
to  join  in  communities,  and  by  this  respect  for  social  law  is  established, 
the  nucleus  of  the  State  is  formed,  the  sense  of  family  ties  is  accentuated, 
and  leisure  for  artistic  development  is  increased. 

No  pastoral  life  was  found  either  in  Australia  or  America,  as  the  fauna 
of  neither  of  these  continents  contained  any  animal  which  could  easily 
and  profitably  be  domesticated  in  sufficient  numbers  to  become  a  depend- 
ence for  food.  On  the  other  hand,  both  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe  offered 
various  species  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  goats,  and  asses,  which  readily  sub- 
mitted to  the  control  of  man,  and  in  their  milk  and  flesh  provideij  a  per- 
manent and  suflBcient  supply  of  food.  Hence  long  before  the  beginning 
of  history  in  each  of  these  continents  vast  tracts  were  occupied  by  tribes 
who  wandered  with  their  flocks  and  herds  from  pasturage  to  pasturage, 
and  placed  their  ideal  and  measure  of  wealth  in  the  abundance  of  their 
domestic  animals.  We  have  heretofore  mentioned  how  our  word  pcai- 
niary  carries  with  it  the  traditions  of  this  ancient  epoch  (see  p.  115);  and 
the  pages  of  the  most  venerable  documents  of  human  lore,  of  the  Rig 
Veda,  the  Avesta,  and  the  book  of  Genesis,  bear  unanimous  testimony  to 
the  high  honor  in  which  the  herdsman  was  held,  the  extraordinary  care 
bestowed  on  the  flocks,  and  the  influence  which  they  conferred  on  their 
possessor. 

A  pure  nomadic  life  is  still  led  by  some  of  the  Tartar  tribes  of  Central 
Asia  and  by  the  CaflSrs  of  South  Africa  ;  but  the  growing  demands  of 
other  vocations  have  materially  lessened  its  extent  within  historic  times. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Aryan  nations  who  at  a  pre-historic  period  overran 
Southern  and  South-western  Europe,  driving  before  them  the  Iberians  and 
Cave-dwellers  and  founding  the  villages  in  the  Swiss  lakes,  were  largely 
pastoral  in  their  habits,  or  soon  became  so.  Their  remains  indicate  the 
possession  both  of  cattle  and  horses.  They  continued  substantially  no- 
madic quite  down  to  the  fall  of  Rome,  and  are  so  described  by  Strabo,  Taci- 
tus, Caesar,  and  other  writers. 

Nomadic  tribes  are  usually  migrator}'.  They  must  ever  be  on  the  look- 
out for  "fresh  fields  and  pastures  new."  Relying  on  the  spontaneous  prod- 
ucts of  the  soil  for  the  food  of  their  flocks,  they  must  move  from  one 
locality  to  another  as  the  seasons  demand.  This  tends  to  prevent  the 
establishment  of  pcnnancnt  settlements  and  enduring  social  relations, 
and  limits  the  benefits  which  the  pastoral  life  brings  with  it.  For  this 
rea.son  no  pastoral  nation  has  a  history,  nor  has  played  any  continuous 
part  in  the  drama  of  the  world. 


176  ETHNOLOGY. 


3.    The  Agricultural  Stage. 

The  general  introduction  of  agriculture  as  a  source  of  the  food-supply 
marks  the  turning-point  in  the  development  of  national  growth.  Agri- 
culture puts  a  stop  to  the  restless  wanderings  of  the  hunter  and  the  nomad; 
it  accustoms  man  to  the  salutary  discipline  of  regular  labor;  it  teaches  him 
to  work  for  the  distant  future;  it  fosters  the  sense  of  fixed  property;  it 
favors  the  congregation  of  individuals  in  large  permanent  communities; 
it  allows  leisure  by  offering  facilities  for  the  use  of  the  labors  of  others. 
In  tliese  and  in  many  other  directions  it  introduces  the  conditions  essen- 
tial to  a  rapid  industrial  and  intellectual  development.  The  history-  of  a 
nation  begins  when  it  relies  mainly  on  agricultural  products  for  its  food. 

In  neither  the  Old  nor  the  New  World  can  we  assign  the  date  of  the 
introduction  of  the  cereals.  That  it  was  far  in  the  past  is  shown  by  the 
difficulty  experienced  by  botanists  in  discovering  the  wild  forms  from 
which  the  domesticated  food-plants  were  derived.  In  America  the  maize 
was  the  principal  and  the  only  important  cultivated  food-plant  of  wide  dis- 
tribution. Starting  from  Central  America  (see  p.  64),  it  extcrided  north 
and  south  as  far  as  the  climatic  conditions  permitted  its  profitable  cultiva- 
tion. Nevertheless,  the  number  of  American  tribes  was  not  great  which 
relied  upon  the  culture  of  the  fields  as  their  main  food-supply.  Such  was 
the  case  with  the  Peruvians,  the  Mayas  of  Yucatan  and  Guatemala,  the 
Aztecs  and  some  of  their  neighbors  in  Mexico,  and  with  the  Mound-build- 
ers who  once  occupied  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  Algonkins,  Iroquois,  and 
other  tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi  were  in  a  transition  state,  cultivating 
extensive  plantations  of  maize  and  other  food-plants,  but  not  yet  weaned 
from  their  migratory  habits,  and  still  largely  addicted  to  the  chase  for  their 
food.  The  unfortunate  fact  that  they  had  no  domesticated  animals  on 
which  the}-  could  depend  for  meat  forced  them  to  seek  it  exclusively 
from  the  wild  denizens  of  the  forest  and  the  stream. 

The  Aryans,  as  far  back  as  the  Stone  Age,  must,  as  their  languages 
show,  have  cultivated  in  some  rude  manner  barley  and  millet,  which 
were  also  leading  crops  in  Egypt  long  before  the  oldest  extant  monu- 
ments. Rye  and  oats  extended  through  Europe  at  a  later  date,  but 
were  cultivated  in  the  Bronze  Period.  Bronze  sickles  have  been  found 
in  great  abundance  in  some  of  the  settlements  on  the  lakes  of  Switzerland 
and  in  Savo)*,  and  in  less  numbers,  but  }-et  frequently,  in  German}',  the 
British  Isles,  and  Scandinavia.  ]\Ir.  Evans  is  even  of  opinion  that  a  some- 
what similar  form  of  flint  implement  was  manufactured  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, and  points  to  the  cultivation  of  cereals  during  the  Stone  Age  in 
England.  The  tillage  of  the  soil  was  the  foundation  of  the  monarchies 
of  Assyria  and  Egypt,  and  was  always  held  in  high  esteem.  In  China 
rice  was  the  most  nutritive  cereal,  and  its  systematic  cultivation  began  at 
least  four  thousand  years  before  our  era.  Down  to  a  late  date,  and  per- 
haps yet,  the  emperor  of  China  performs  once  a  year  the  ceremony  of 
sowing  a  field,  to  indicate  the  high  importance  attached  to  agriculture. 


ETHNOLOGY.  '■  177 

4.  The  Commerciai.  Stage. 

From  some  of  tlie  above  examples  it  will  be  seen  that  agricultural 
nations  may  linger  a  long  while  in  this  stage,  deriving  their  sustenance 
from  field  crops,  yet  making  little  headway  beyond  the  satisfaction  of 
their  immediate  needs.  This  was  long  ago  observed  by  the  historian 
Thucydides,  who  pointed  out  the  necessity  of  commerce  to  a  developed 
civilization.  "In  ancient  times,"  he  writes,  "the  land  was  cultivated 
merely  sufficiently  to  suj^ply  the  food  required  by  the  family,  nor  were 
orchards  set  out  nor  riches  accumulated,  because  there  was  no  commercial 
intercourse  between  nations.  Travelling  either  by  sea  or  land  was  peril- 
ous, and  strongholds  had  not  been  erected  as  places  of  refuge  and  secure 
deposits  for  the  overplus.  Therefore  they  cared  little  for  their  homes,  and 
were  constantly  wandering  from  place  to  place." 

Agriculture  must  yield  a  surplus  beyond  the  annual  requirements  of 
the  nation,  and  this  surplus  must  find  its  way  through  the  medium  of 
trade,  partly  to  other  nations,  partly  to  other  classes  of  the  same  nation, 
before  the  benefits  derived  from  it  are  fully  experienced.  When  tliis  is 
accomplished,  a  portion  of  the  population  can  confine  themselves  to  other 
vocations  without  anxiety  for  the  future,  men  can  congregate  in  large 
cities,  and  the  dreadful  results  of  famine  need  not  be  apprehended.  Noth- 
ing but  an  extremely  perfect  system  of  suiDplying  food  by  commerce  would 
allow  the  existence  of  cities  like  New  York  or  London,  in  which  probably 
on  no  day  during  the  year  is  there  sufl!icient  food  stored  to  supply  the 
inhabitants  one  week. 

Stages  by  General  Condition. — Although  both  the  above  classifications 
of  the  stages  of  progress — the  one  based  on  the  ai'tistic  development.,  the 
other  on  the  sources  of  the  food-supply — are  useful  in  certain  branches  of 
science,  especially  archaeology  and  political  economy,  it  is  evident  that 
neither  fully  satisfies  the  requirements  of  the  ethnologist.  He  asks  for 
a  more  detailed  and  comprehensive  picture  than  either  of  these  single  ele- 
ments of  national  growth,  or  than  any  one  element  whatever,  can  supply. 
Therefore  it  is  more  fruitful  in  this  science  to  retain  the  old  classification, 
based  on  general  conditions,  which  divided  the  stages  of  progress  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  The  Stage  of  Savager}'; 

2.  The  Stage  of  Barbarism; 

3.  The  Stage  of  Semi-civilization; 

4.  The  Stage  of  Civilization; 

5.  The  Stage  of  Enlightenment. 

The  general  characteristics  of  each  of  these  stages  can  be  clearly 
enough  assigned,  premising,  of  course,  that  they  are  artificial  distinc- 
tions, established  merely  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  us  to  grasp  with  greater 
facility  the  details  of  the  steady  and  often  scarcely  perceptible  rise  of  a 
nation  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  place  on  the  scale.  The  one  con- 
dition merges  into  the  other  without  abruptness,  and  the  higher  constantly 
retains  traces  of  its  ruder  predecessors. 

Vol.  I.— 12 


178  ■  ETHNOLOGY. 

1.  The  Stage  of  Savagery. 

In  this  condition  of  society  the  nation  depends  for  its  food  on  natural 
products;  marriage  is  polygamous  and  temporary,  and  there  are  no  for- 
malities connected  with  its  celebration;  language  is  rudimentary,  con- 
crete, and  deficient  in  formal  and  syntactic  elements;  weapons  and  tools 
are  of  stone,  bone,  or  wood,  and  of  rough  construction;  the  houses  are 
mere  temporary  shelters,  and  the  clothing  is  of  skin  or  bark;  the  govern- 
ment is  tribal  and  unstable,  and  there  is  little  notion  of  property  rights; 
and  the  religion  is  principally  the  incantation  of  evil  spirits. 

The  whole  race  during  the  Pal^Eolithic  Age  was  in  this  condition,  and 
such  existing  tribes  as  the  Australian  blacks,  the  Fuegians,  the  Botocudos 
of  Brazil,  and  the  Tinne  of  British  America  are  examples  of  its  continu- 
ance to  our  own  times. 

2.  The  Stage  of  Barbarism. 

This  is  reached  when  the  food-supply  is  no  longer  wholly  dependent 
on  spontaneous  natural  products,  but  these,  still  regarded  as  essential,  are 
supplemented  by  domestic  animals  and  by  agriculture;  marriage  is  recog- 
nized and  is  often  a  solemn  ceremony,  and  the  selection  of  a  wife  is  governed 
by  rigid  customs;  the  structure  of  language  is  syntactic,  and  the  significa- 
tion of  words  figurative;  pottery  is  invented,  copper  and  iron  may  be  in 
use,  but  stone  continues  to  be  the  leading  material  for  weapons;  penna- 
nent  houses  are  grouped  together  in  villages,  and  the  clothing  of  woven 
stuff  indicates  that  the  simpler  modes  of  weaving  have  been  discovered; 
the  laws,  though  unwritten,  are  recognized  and  respected,  and  the  govern- 
ment is  often  hereditary;  a  mythology  has  grown  up,  religion  is  polythe- 
istic, and  its  rites  are  conducted  by  a  priestly  class. 

At  the  present  day  the  pastoral  tribes  of  Central  Asia  are  in  this  con- 
dition, as  are  also  most  of  the  pure  Negro  tribes  of  Africa.  Other  exam- 
ples were  the  American  Indians  of  the  Eastern  United  States  at  the  epoch 
of  the  discovery,  the  Caribs  of  the  West  Indies,  the  Gauls,  Britons,  and 
Teutons  of  Ccesar's  time,  and  the  ancient  Iberians.  In  the  archaeology 
of  art  it  corresponds  to  the  Neolithic  and  Early  Bronze  Age. 

3.  The  St.\ge  of  Semi-Civilization. 
Cultivated  animals  and  plants  become  now  the  chief  source  of  food  ; 
the  rights  of  woman  are  more  fully  acknowledged,  and  sexual  love  is  an 
emotion,  and  not  merely  an  appetite  ;  language  is  polished  by  the  growth 
of  literature,  which  now  becomes  possible  by  the  invention  or  adoption 
of  a  more  or  less  perfect  system  of  writing  ;  several  metals  are  in  use,  and 
the  construction  of  buildings  of  stone  and  mortar  and  the  manufacture  of 
bricks  are  in  progress  ;  the  resthetic  arts  are  cultivated  with  ardor  ;  gov- 
ernment is  theocratic,  aristocratic,  or  monarchial,  and  society  is  divided 
into  castes  ;  religion  has  grown  distinctly  moral,  but  is  not  yet  specialized 
as  separate  from  government,  and  is  still  in  essence  national  and  mytlio- 
logic. 


ETHNOLOGY.  179 

The  whole  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages  was  in  this  state  of 
semi-civilization  ;  it  is  applicable  to  the  condition  of  ancient  Egypt, 
Assj'ria,  and  Palestine  ;  most  Mohammedan  countries  approach  it  ;  and  in 
the  New  World  the  states  of  Mexico,  Majapan,  and  Peru  furnish  other 
examples. 

4.  The  Stage  of  Civilization. 

Here  the  means  of  subsistence  are  obtained  as  largely  through  com- 
merce as  through  agriculture  ;  the  influence  of  woman  is  felt  and  acknow- 
ledged as  almost  equal  to  that  of  man  ;  education  is  general,  and  the 
growth  of  polite  literature  has  established  the  canons  of  good  taste  and 
enriched  the  capacities  of  the  language  ;  iron  has  taken  the  place  of  other 
metals  for  tools  and  weapons  ;  an  established  currency  and  widely-recog- 
nized system  of  weights  and  measures  facilitate  the  exchange  of  com- 
modities ;  the  civil  law  is  digested,  and  is  clearly  separated  from  religious 
edicts  ;  the  rights  of  property  are  secured  by  an  equitable  administration 
of  justice  ;  the  reins  of  government  are  in  the  hands  of  one  or  a  few 
families  in  the  state,  who  are  held  to  a  more  or  less  strict  accountability 
by  the  remainder  of  the  community  ;  religion  is  recognized  as  of  universal 
application,  both  geographical  and  with  reference  to  classes,  but  is  still 
bound  down  to  certain  formulas,  creeds,  or  dogmas,  the  acceptance  of 
which  is  deemed  imperative. 

This,  it  will  readily  be  seen,  was  in  its  main  features  the  condition  of 
Greece  and  Rome  in  their  best  days,  and  is  now  of  a  great  part  of  modern 
Europe.  Modern  civilization  began  with  the  revival  of  learning  in  the 
fifteenth  century — an  ei^och  marked  by  the  discovery  of  the  New  World, 
by  the  invention  of  printing,  by  the  application  of  gunpowder  to  war 
and  engineering,  and  by  an  unparalleled  activity  in  the  fine  arts.  It 
extended  to  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  centurj',  when  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  republican  governments  of  the  United  States  and  France, 
followed  shortly  by  the  rise  of  the  natural  sciences  and  the  application  of 
steam  to  transportation  by  sea  and  land,  marked  the  beginning  of 

5.  The  Stage  of  Enlightenment.  ' 

We  are,  indeed,  but  in  the  beginning  of  this  period,  but  its  conquests 
have  been  rapid  and  its  lines  of  development  are  already  clearly  marked  out. 
We  may  look  securely  forward  to  the  time  when  improved  methods  of 
agriculture  and  transportation  will  render  impossible  any  general  famine, 
and  will  permit  the  aggregation  of  mankind  ill  indefinite  numbers ; 
marriage,  already  monogamous,  will  be  on  entirely  equal  terms,  and 
woman  will  be  held  in  all  respects  entitled  to  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  the  other  sex  ;  by  the  study  of  comparative  and  philosophic  grammar, 
language  will  be  brought  closer  and  closer  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
cesses of  logical  thought  ;  the  indtistrial  arts  will  no  longer  be  experi- 
ments, but,  prosecuted  under  tlie  demonstrable  laws  of  science  and  with 
the  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  unit)'  and  intimate  correlation  of  all 


i8o  ETHNOLOGY. 

forms  of  force,  -u-iil  win  conquests  over  nature  which  at  present  it  would 
be  temerity  to  estimate  ;  the  fine  arts,  guided  by  purified  canons  of  the 
beautiful,  will  minister  more  fully  even  than  in  ancient  Greece  to  the 
ennobling  pleasures  of  life  ;  with  the  recognition  of  the  equality  of  all 
men  before  the  law,  and  the  right  of  every  people  to  govern  itself,  the 
forms  of  monarchy  and  aristocracy  will  yield  to  republican  governments  ; 
international  law  and  arbiters  will  do  away  with  wars  and  the  necessity 
of  maintaining  standing  armies  ;  and,  finally,  in  religious  matters  the 
lines  drawn  by  sects  and  dogiuatism  will  disappear,  and,  whatever  the 
organization  of  local  denominations,  all  will  recognize  that  the  only 
article  of  faith  essential  to  a  true  religion  is  that  so  admirably  worded  by 
the  Chevalier  Buusen  :  "A  belief  in  a  universal  order,  iu  wdiich  the  True 
is  the  only  Good,  and  the  Good  is  the  only  True." 

Morgan'' s  Subdivisions. — These  are  the  main  stages  in  the  psycholog- 
ical evolution  of  the  human  race.  Some  writers,  as  ]\Ir.  Lewis  H.  Mor- 
gan, have  attempted  to  introduce  yet  more  minute  divisions,  separating, 
for  instance,  the  status  of  savagery  into  three  subdivisions,  the  first  cha- 
racterized by  an  ignorance  of  fire  and  of  fishing,  the  second  by  a  know- 
ledge of  these  arts,  the  third  by  the  discovery  of  the  bow  and  arrow. 
His  remaining  divisions  all  have  reference  to  the  growth  of  industrial  arts. 
We  have  already  pointed  out  that  it  is  incorrect  to  select  any  one  element 
of  culture  as  the  common  measure  of  all  ;  moreover,  it  is  now  generally 
recognized  that  man  knew  the  use  of  fire  even  in  the  late  Tertiar\-  ;  and 
as  for  the  bow  and  arrow,  it  was  a  local  invention,  it  being  the  opinion  of 
some  able  antiquaries  that  the  Peruvians  did  not  know  it.  Hence  Mr. 
Morgan's  classification  is  both  inadequate  and  incorrect. 

Chronological  Conclusions. — Many  calculations  have  been  ventured  as 
to  the  relative  length  of  these  stadia  of  human  progression.  The  results 
have  been  widely  diverse,  but  we  may  take  that  of  the  eminent  French 
antiquary,  Gabriel  de  IMortillet,  as  representing  approximately  the  mean 
of  the  several  estimates.  All  agree  that  the  first  or  Paljeolithic  Age  was 
ver)'  much  the  longest.  The  deposit  of  alluvium  by  rivers  and  the  ero- 
sion of  their  channels  have  been  the  chronometers  most  relied  upon. 
This  method,  applied  to  Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  Northern  Africa, 
gives  the  following  figures 

Years. 

From  the  date  of  the  oldest  stone  implements  to  the  close  of  the  Palaeolithic 

Age 222,000 

From  the  beginning  of  the  Neolithic  Age  until  the  dawn  of  history 12,000 

From  the  dawn  of  history'  to  the  present  time 6,000 

Total 240,000 

Of  course  this  is  intended  merely  as  a  rough  approximation,  but  it  is 
probably  as  accurate  as  observations  at  present  allow,  aud  is  not  altogether 
wide  of  the  mark. 


ETHNOLOGY.  i8i 

II.  tut:  cnNniTioNS  and  momenta  of  progress. 
Reviewing  the  facts  above  stated,  we  find  that  the  whole  of  the  hnman 
race  remained  for  an  enormously  long  time  in  a  condition  of  complete 
savagery,  and  when  this  began  to  disappear  before  the  growing  day  of 
civilization,  the  progress  of  different  races  and  nations  was  by  no  means 
the  same,  some  remaining  scarcely  above  the  pateolithic  savage,  while 
others  have  progressed  far  on  the  road  to  complete  enlightenment.  The 
problem  is  thus  presented  to  the  ethnologist  to  ascertain  what  were  the 
conditions  which  led  some  nations  to  advance  and  others  to  stand  still, 
and  what  impulses  or  momenta  have  led  or  driven  forward  those  of  high- 
est culture.  The  answer  could  not  be  a  brief  one,  for  it  embraces  the 
whole  philosophy  of  history  ;  nor  could  it  be  a  simple  one,  for  the  motive- 
forces  of  civilization  are  highly  complex  and  manifold,  and  those  which 
have  instigated  one  nation  have  not  been  the  same  for  all.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  a  few  general  conditions  and  impulses  which  have  been  almost 
universal  in  their  action,  which  we  may  select  for  particular  consideration 
here.     They  are  as  follows  : 

1.  The  Growth  of  Wants  ; 

2.  Racial  and  National  Endowments  ; 

3.  Geographical  Surroundings  ; 

4.  The  Commingling  of  Nations  ; 

5.  The  Influence  of  Great  Men. 

The  first  two  of  these  may  be  regarded  as  impulses  from  within,  the 
remainder  as  acting  from  without. 

I.  The  Growth  of  Wants. 

In  an  essay  on  "Civilization  considered  as  a  Science"  an  English 
writer,  Mr.  George  Harris,  has  remarked:  "Whatever  produces  want  or 
occasions  the  perception  of  it  has  a  tendency  to  promote  civilization." 
What  savage  nations  have  lacked  to  impel  them  toward  culture  is  not 
power,  but  stimulus.  This  is  in  a  measure  proved  by  the  ability  shown 
by  many  of  them  to  receive  as  good  an  education  as  the  whites,  and  also 
by  their  indifference  to  many  of  the  pleasures  and  luxuries  which  they 
can  now  obtain  by  labor,  but  which  they  do  not  seek.  Instances  are  fre- 
quent where  children  of  the  lower  races  have  been  educated,  but  returned  to 
savagery  when  grown  to  adult  years.  An  English  traveller  was  astounded 
to  see  a  half-naked  Australian  guide  pick  up  and  read  one  of  his  Latin 
books.  On  inquiry,  he  found  the  native  had  been  trained  in  England  for 
a  missionary,  but  when  he  returned  to  his  native  land  the  attractions  of 
the  wild  life  were  too  powerful  for  him.  The  anthropologist  Waitz  has 
maintained  that  there  is  reason  in  this — that  neither  the  sum  nor  the 
intensity  of  the  joys  of  civilized  life  equals  those  of  the  savage  condition, 
and  its  pains  are  more  numerous. 

The  wants  which  educate  must  extend  beyond  the  mere  satisfaction  of 
the  appetites.  Man  must  seek  beauty  and  love  variety  ;  he  must  be 
touched  by  the  sacred  fire  of  glory,  and  be  goaded  to  heroic  action  by 


i82  ETHNOLOGY. 

the  spur  of  ambition  ;  tlie  taste  for  adventure  and  the  thirst  of  knowledge 
must  be  in  his  breast  in  order  to  drive  him  forward  in  the  path  of  progress. 
Tlie  desire  of  power,  the  greed  of  gold,  the  love  of  ostentation,  and  the 
noble  passion  for  doing  good,  all  in  their  several  ways  call  forth  his  ener- 
gies and  act  as  stimuli  to  his  efforts. 

2.  Racial  and  National  Endowments. 

Many  anthropologists  have  attached  great  weight  to  the  supposed 
natural  capacities  of  the  w'hite  race  for  culture  as  compared  with  the 
others.  It  is  true  that  the  African  race,  although  for  thousands  of  years 
in  contact  with  the  civilization  of  Egypt,  has  never  developed  a  nation 
with  a  history,  but  it  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  the  Mongolians  were 
almost  a  civilized  people  when  nearly  all  the  Aryans  were  savages  of  the 
Stone  Age.  Scarcely  more  than  a  thousand  years  ago  the  local  ancestry 
of  the  English  of  to-day  were  partly  tribes  of  painted  and  tattooed  canni- 
bals. The  Veddahs  of  Ceylon  are  believed  to  belong  by  descent  to  the 
Ar}-ans,  but  in  culture  they  are  little  above  the  Australians. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  there  is  no  evidence  going  to  show 
that  in  the  long  pre-historic  period  the  white  race  showed  any  signs 
of  superiority  over  the  black  or  the  red  races.  Only  in  what  is  com- 
paratively a  very  short  time  has  it  manifested  those  greater  abilities  on 
which  it  prides  itself.  That  these  are  attributable  to  any  innate  pre-emi- 
nence there  is  nothing  except  perhaps  language  to  lead  us  to  believe. 

3.  Geographical  Surroundings. 

Of  far  more  obvious  influence  on  the  growth  of  civilization,  especially 
in  its  infancy,  are  the  soil,  the  climate,  and  the  other  physico-geographical 
surroundings  of  a  nation.  These  are  most  promising  when  they  offer 
conditions  favorable  to  agriculture  in  a  well-watered  and  fertile  plain  pro- 
tected from  the  incursions  of  foes  by  mountain-ranges  or  deserts.  Where 
localities  of  this  description  have  been  discovered  by  man,  he  has  generally 
started  on  his  career  of  progress  without  reference  to  the  race  to  which  he 
belonged.  Thus,  in  China  we  find  that  the  three  great  and  fertile  valleys 
of  the  Hoang-Ho,  the  Yang-tse-Kiang,  and  the  Tschu-Kiang  were  peopled 
by  the  Alongolian  race  at  a  period  extremely  remote,  who  there  developed 
a  ripe  culture  entirely  independent  of  any  to  the  west,  with  its  own  fonns 
and  producing  its  own  religion  and  philosophy,  in  theor)',  at  least,  still 
unsurpassed  by  any  elsewhere. 

South  of  the  almost  impassable  chain  of  the  Himalayas  were  several 
fertile  and  well-protected  vales  in  Upper  India.  They  also  were  the 
scenes  of  an  independent  culture,  which,  beginning  in  distant  ages, 
spread  itself  southwardly  over  the  peninsula  and  far  into  the  island  world 
to  the  east  and  south-east.  The  broad  and  rich  Mesopotamian  plain, 
watered  by  the  majestic  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  presented  a  favorable  spot 
for  the  growth  of  the  higher  life,  which  was  eagerly  carried  out  by  the 
Accads,  a  nation  of  unknown  affinities,  possibly  Ural-Altaic  or  Turanian, 


ETHNOLOGY.  183 

and  later  by  Aryan  and  Semitic  tribes.  From  this  centre  the  knowledge 
of  arts  and  laws  extended  west  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
and  along  its  northern  and  sonthern  coasts,  in  time  qnite  to  the  Pillars  of 
Hercnles.  Of  eqnal  age  and  independent  in  origin  was  the  venerable 
culture  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Nile  Valley,  a  brown  people,  but  believed 
to  be  an  ancient  offshoot  of  the  white  race. 

In  America  the  elevated  tropical  valley  of  Mexico,  the  fertile  and 
isolated  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  and  the  lofty  plains  and  productive  valleys 
of  Peru  and  Cundinamarca  provided  the  requisite  soil  and  security  for 
centres  of  civilization,  and  were  utilized  by  nations  of  the  red  race  wholly 
asunder  in  language  and  affinities.  The  bottom-lands  of  the  Mississippi 
and  its  tributaries  offered  ample  soil  of  the  richest  character,  but  the 
needed  security  was  lacking,  and  the  promising  beginnings  of  culture 
there  established  by  the  Mound-builders  were  extinguished  by  the  incur- 
sions of  savage  enemies  from  the  north. 

4.  The  Commingling  of  Nations. 
We  have  referred  several  times  in  other  connections  to  the  advantao-e 

o 

which  nations  derive  from  an  intermingling  of  languages  and  blood, 
whether  by  warlike  or  peaceful  measures  (see  pp.  53,  88).  Isolation  is 
beneficial  only  up  to  a  certain  point,  and  then  the  necessity  for  inter- 
course becomes  apparent.  The  nation  fossilizes  and  progress  is  checked 
unless  new  blood,  new  words,  and  new  ideas  are  imported  from  abroad. 
The  typical  example  of  this  is  the  Chinese  state.  Its  geographical  con- 
ditions, which  we  pointed  out  as  so  eminently  favoring  its  early  advance- 
ment, became  in  later  times  barriers  to  its  progress,  and  led  its  arts  and 
literature  to  fall  into  a  state  of  quiescence,  in  which  they  have  remained 
for  nearly  two  thousand  years  without  perceptible  improvement.  The 
wonderful  growth  which  has  been  witnessed  in  Europe  and  America 
within  the  last  generation  is  largely  attributable  to  the  unequalled 
extent  of  national  intercourse  brought  about  by  the  application  of 
steam-power  to  transportation. 

5.  Influence  of  Great  Men. 

Some  writers  have  measured  the  advance  of  the  race  by  the  great  men 
who  from  time  to  time  have  made  their  mark  on  the  history  of  their  times. 
Such  "hero-worship"  has  at  all  times  been  popular,  for,  as  the  statesman 
Machiavelli  observes,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  in  the  mind  of  the  multi- 
tude to  personify  all  great  social  changes  under  some  one  individual. 

No  one  will  question  the  personal  power  wielded  in  life,  and  by  the 
memory  of  tlieir  deeds  after  death,  by  such  conquerors  as  Alexander  of 
Macedon  and  Julius  Caesar;  by  such  founders  of  religions  as  Sakya  Muni 
and  Mohammed;  by  such  artists  as  Phidias  and  Raphael;  by  such  philos- 
opliers  as  Plato  and  Bacon;  by  such  poets  as  Homer  and  Shakespeare. 
But  the  best  of  seeds  will  perish  if  cast  on  a  barren  soil;  and  to  make  the 
labors  of  these  men  effective  there  must  have  been  a  readiness  to  respond 


i84  ETHNOLOGY. 

in  the  national  and  racial  mind  at  the  time — a  receptivity  to  great  thoughts 
and  ambitions  which  these  heroes  did  not  create,  but  of  which  they  merely 
availed  themselves.  Such  characters  are  in  part  the  product  of  their  age 
and  nation,  and  our  estimate  of  their  influence  is  apt  to  be  exaggerated 
by  concentrating  in  their  prominent  and  familiar  individualities  the  effects 
wrought  by  the  combined  powers  of  their  epoch. 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 
Such  are  the  complex  forces  which  have  lifted  man  from  the  position, 
scarcely  above  that  of  the  beasts,  in  which  his  early  remains  prove  that 
he  so  long  existed,  up  to  the  height  of  intellectual  and  moral  enlighten- 
ment in  which  we  find  the  best  examples  of  his  race  to-day.  We  need 
scarcely  emphasize  how  such  a  broad  survey  as  this  tends  to  expand  our 
notion  of  history,  and  to  release  the  mind  from  that  narrow  view  which 
would  seek  the  secret  of  progress  in  one  or  another  of  the  single  spheres 
of  intellectual  activity.  The  lesson  that  Ethnology  teaches  is  that  only 
by  a  symmetrical  development  of  the  powers  of  individuals  can  they  work 
to  the  greatest  advantage  for  the  mass.  Not  the  thoughts  or  actions  of 
one,  so  much  as  the  concerted  labor  of  many,  has  reared  enduring  monu- 
ments of  human  welfare.  In  the  past  this  has  been  accomplished  at  hap- 
hazard, without  appreciation  of  the  ultimate  results,  almost  unconsciously. 
Often,  indeed,  our  predecessors  "builded  better  than  they  knew."  It  has 
remained  for  the  science  of  Ethnology  to  comprehend  man  in  the  aggre- 
gate as  a  unit,  and,  "looking  before  and  after,"  to  prove  from  a  general- 
ization extending  through  all  ages  known  to  the  race,  and  embracing  all 
the  inhabited  areas  of  the  globe,  that  "all  men's  good  should  be  each 
man's  rule,"  and  that  with  this  as  the  guiding  law  of  life  the  Golden 
Age  may  indeed  become  something  more  than  the  dream  of  the  poet. 


VOL.  I. 


ETHXOdH. 


OKerro 


UufsraiiMivrarioii 
Sfm-k 


Dia^iini  of  tlie 
OCEAXrC   RACES 

ficrvrditu/  totftrititrst  rfsfarrhfs. 


AUSTILVLLOfS. 


'I  lie     MAP. 


PLATE  ///. 


PART  III. 
ETHNOGRAPHY. 


IN  accordance  with  the  views  now  generally  adopted  (see  pp.  40,  55), 
we  shall  describe  the  various  races,  tribes,   and  nations  of  men  with 
reference  to  the  grand  continental  and  insular  areas  which  they  occu- 
pied when  they  first  came  under  the  intelligent  observation  of  travellers 
and  historians.     In  other  words,  we  shall  classify  the  species  according  to 
the  geographical  distribution  of  its  members. 

Such  a  classification  affords  the  following  six  grand  divisions  (see  Map) : 
I.  The  Oceanic  Peoples; 
II.  The  Americans; 

III.  The  Mongolians; 

IV.  The  Dravidian  Peoples; 
V.  The  Arabic- African  Race; 

VI.  The  Indo-European  Race. 

I.    THE   OCEANIC   PEOPLES. 

This  group  is  subdivided  into  the  following  six  main  divisions: 

1.  The  Malaysians,  from  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and  the  Andaman 
Islands  to  Formosa,   the  Philippines,  and  the  Molucca  Islands. 

2.  The  principal  peoples  of  ^Madagascar,  the  Malagassies,  the  Sakalavas, 
and  the  Hovas,  besides  a  number  of  other  subordinate  tribes. 

3.  The  Micronesians,  the  inhabitants  of  the  islands  from  the  Philip- 
pines eastward  to  the  Marshall  and  Gilbert  groups. 

4.  The  Polynesians,  who,  widely  distributed  in  space,  spread  from  New 
Zealand  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  from  several  islands  of  the  Solomon 
group  eastward  as  far  as  Waihu  (Easter  Island). 

5.  The  Melanesians  (Papuas,  Negritos),  from  New  Guinea  (Papua) 
to  New  Caledonia  and  the  Feejee  Archipelago. 

6.  The  inhabitants  of  the  continent  of  Australia  and  the  island  of 
Tasmania. 

Several  of  the  divisions  manifest  a  closer  relationship  to  one  another, 
such  as  the  first  and  second — the  Malaysians  and  Malagassies — and  likewise 
the  third  and  fourth,  the  Micronesians  and  Polynesians.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  divide  within  themselves  into  a  number  of  smaller  subdivis- 

1S5 


i86  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

ions.  Thus,  in  Polynesia,  every  larger  island-group  constitutes  a  dis- 
tinctly characterized  branch  of  the  race;  the  same  appears  in  Melanesia, 
as  shown,  for  instance,  on  the  Feejee  Islands;  the  Australians  are  divided 
into  three  groups,  the  northern,  southern,  and  western  tribes,  to  which 
the  Tasnianians  may  be  added  as  a  fourth.  Particularly  numerous,  and 
varying  with  the  nature  of  their  territon,',  are  the  races  of  Malaysia. 
First,  the  inhabitants  of  Malacca,  the  Malays  proper,  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished; next,  those  of  Sumatra;  then  Java,  Borneo,  Celebes,  each 
with  its  smaller  neighboring  islands;  further  the  Philippines,  together 
with  Fonnosa,  the  Moluccas,  and  finally  the  little  south-eastern  island- 
groups  which  constitute  the  transition  to  the  Melanesians.  The  Negritos, 
who  are  found  in  several  parts  of  the  archipelago,  we  shall  more  partic- 
ularly allude  to  in  connection  with  the  Melanesians. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  the  ethnological  description  of  these  races, 
beginning  with  the  most  uncivilized. 

I.  The  Australians. 

Physical  Characteristics :  Stature  and  Color. — The  races  of  the  north 
are  physically  and  intellectually  better  developed  than  those  of  the 
south,  east,  and  west;  they  are  tall  (often  six  feet)  and  well  fonned,  while 
the  latter  are  for  the  most  part  smaller  in  stature  and  of  puny  figure, 
with  thin,  weak  extremities,  and,  in  consequence  of  large  quantities  of 
innutritions  food,  have  the  abdomen  unduly  enlarged.  The  physical 
strength  of  the  Australians  is  throughout  slight,  but  their  dexterity  and 
agility  are  actually  astonishing.  The  color  of  the  skin  is  seldom  fully 
black,  being  for  the  most  part  a  lighter  or  darker  brown,  and  often  cop- 
per-colored. 

The  hair  is  generally  dark-bro-«ni,  in  some  cases  coarse  and  straight 
^P^-  AifiS-  S)i  again  waxy  and  quite  curly  or  bushy;  in  general,  coarse, 
but  in  some  cases  of  a  silky  softness.  The  hair  of  the  Tasmanians,  who 
are  now  nearly  or  quite  extinct,  is  always  curly,  in  some  cases  short,  in 
others  falling  in  ringlets,  and  at  times  tufted  (//.  6,  figs.  2-4),  the  beard 
and  the  hair  of  other  portions  of  the  body  being  profusely  developed. 
The  e}'es  are  small;  frequently  somewhat  oblique,  and  the  upper  lid  as 
if  swollen,  their  color  being  always  dark.  The  nose  is  depressed  at  the 
ridge,  broad  at  the  apex,  even  when,  as  at  times,  it  is  beak-shaped  in 
form.  The  lips  are  generally  thick,  the  mouth  is  large,  the  teeth  are 
well  grown;  the  third  upper  back  tooth  is  always  triple-rooted,  and  the 
eye-teeth  are  often  strongly  developed. 

The  Skull. — The  crania,  which  are  sometimes  artificially  shaped,  are, 
especially  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  continent,  remarkably  thick — 
dolichocephalic  (breadth  index,  70  ;  /.  e.  proportion  of  width  to  length  of 
skull  as  70  to  100;  see  p.  48) — and  at  the  same  time  quite  high  (//.  2, 
fig.  15).  The  countenances  are  for  the  most  part  quite  repulsive  and  wild 
in  expression  (//.  \yfigs.  i,  4);  often,  however,  among  the  more  favorably 
situated  races,  they  are  comely  and  attractive. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  187 

Dojucsiic  Habits. — The  Australians  are  by  no  means  of  a  cleanly 
habit,  the  Tasmanians  being  somewhat  superior  in  this  respect.  Both 
races  for  the  most  part  live  in  a  nude  state,  though  the  males  are  often 
provided  with  a  covering  of  opossum-skin;  to  them,  likewise,  all  orna- 
ment is  reserved,  such  as  feathers,  chains  of  shells  and  of  the  teeth  of  ani- 
mals, and  tufts  and  cords  of  human  hair  artistically  woven  (//.  5,  Jig.  11), 
which  are  plaited  into  their  own  hair;  the  tails  of  animals  are  likewise 
so  utilized,  generally  in  connection  with  the  beard  {pi.  ^,fig.  i).  Both 
sexes,  and  particularly  the  women,  are  wont  to  carr>-  their  worldly  goods 
in  a  sack,  which  is  often  of  artistic  workmanship  {pi.  5,_^g.  22),  and  which 
is  thrown  over  the  shoulder  and  fastened  by  a  band  around  the  head;  in 
this  manner,  also,  they  carry  their  infants,  which,  wrapped  in  a  pelt,  rest 
upon  a  straw  mat  {pi.  5,  ^g.  17),  thus  preventing  them  from  beating 
against  the  back  of  the  bearer.  They  rub  their  bodies  as  often  as  pos- 
sible with  fat  and  with  ochre  or  earth,  or  they  paint  themselves  with 
gay  colors.  They  often  display  upon  the  arms  and  breast  the  scars  of 
wounds,  which  they  inflict  upon  themselves  with  great  ceremony  {pi.  4, 
_pgs.  I,  2);    this  practice  prevails  mostly  among  the  men. 

Dwellings.— \n  the  south  and  south-east  they  build  no  houses; 
wherever  they  rest  they  erect  some  temporary'  protection  against  the 
weather,  made  of  the  twisted  twigs  and  bark  of  trees.  In  the  north  and 
in  the  interior  of  the  continent,  likewise  often  in  Tasmania,  they  have 
round,  hive-shaped  huts  composed  of  interwoven  twigs,  which  rest  upon  a 
foundation  of  logs,  and  which  are  made  water-tight  by  means  of  earth  and 
bark  (//.  5,  Jig.  4).  Larger  huts  are  also  to  be  found,  and  in  the  northern 
portion  even  villages  are  to  be  met  with  in  wJiich  every  dwelling  has  a 
sleeping-hut  attached  {pi.  ^.,Jig.  4);  even  artificial  wells  and  bridges  have 
been  noticed  in  these  districts.  This  indicates  a  more  settled  mode  of  life 
ill  the  north  than  that  wliich  prevailed  in  the  southern  portions  and  in 
Tasmania,  in  which  regions  only  wandering  tribes  without  settled  habita- 
tions were  to  be  met  with.  These  latter  were  forced  to  this  mode  of  exist- 
ence by  the  sterility  of  the  country,  wliich,  less  generous  than  in  the  north, 
compelled  the  southern  aborigines  to  wander  about  for  a  subsistence.  By 
this,  however,  their  agilit)-  in  climbing  trees  and  stealthily  securing  their 
game  was  remarkably  developed.  They  generally  carrj-  fire  with  them  in 
their  wanderings,  or  kindle  it  by  friction;  very  little  of  their  food  is  eaten 
raw.  They  have  a  variety  of  hooks,  nets,  and  other  fisliing  implements, 
traps  for  birds,  etc.  Others  of  their  simple  utensils  are  depicted  on  Plate  5 
{Jigs.  14,  16,  20).  They  have  been  found  to  possess  canoes  simply  con- 
structed from  the  bark  of  trees  {pi.  6,  fig.  7),  and  in  the  north  e\en  make 
boats  from  the  hollow  trunks  of  trees. 

Weapons  and  Wars. — Plate  5  shows  a  number  of  their  weapons,- only 
two  of  whicli  are  worthy  of  mention — the  boomerang  (//.  5,  Jig.  8)  and 
the  hurling-stick  {pi.  5,  fig.  6),  the  latter  being  used  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  a  more  forcible  impulse  to  the  spear.  Their  wars,  though  frequent, 
are  not  sanguinary,  consisting,  as  they  do  for  the  most  part,  of  yells  and 


i88  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

opprobrious  epithets.  Indeed,  the  first  blood  generally  ends  the  conflict. 
Cannibalism  was  at  one  time  practised,  though  not  extensively;  the  fat 
lying  around  the  kidneys  of  the  fallen  foe  was  eagerly  sought  after.  They 
frequently  mangled  the  corpses  and  used  the  skulls  as  drinking-cups  (//.  5, 
Jig.  15.)  This  was  also  a  custom  in  the  case  of  near  relatives,  whose 
bodies  were  often  partly  or  wholly  devoured. 

Marriage. — Brides  are  generally  obtained  by  forcible  abduction;  this, 
however,  in  many  places  is  mere  ceremony,  as  the  man  always  looks  to 
another  clan  for  his  wives,  to  whom  no  numerical  limit  is  set  save  his 
ability  to  support  them.  Strict  chastity  is  expected  only  from  the  mar- 
ried women,  not  from  widows  or  maidens.  The  married  women  are  the 
absolute  property  of  their  husbands,  and  are  compelled  to  do  all  the  work, 
such  as  building  the  huts,  lighting  fires,  and  providing  food;  and  they  do 
all  the  carrying — even  their  husbands'  spears,  and,  of  course,  their  chil- 
dren. Notwithstanding  all  this  heav}^  work,  they  are  frequently  ill-treated, 
and  receive  onh-  the  broken  bits  from  the  tables  of  their  lords.  But  all 
transmission  of  relationship  is  the  exclusive  province  of  the  women,  and, 
despite  the  frequent  practice  of  infanticide,  there  is  often  considerable 
family  attachment  between  man  and  wife  and  parent  and  child. 

Cliaractcr. — As  a  whole,  the  character  of  this  race  is  by  no  means  bad — 
at  least,  where  no  foreign  cause  lias  interv'ened  to  spoil  it.  Even  their  lazy 
habits  may  be  cured,  as  has  been  repeatedly  proved.  Their  mental  powers 
are  fair,  although  they  count  only  so  far  as  the  number  four  or  five,  and 
although  many  clans  and  individuals  among  them  have  become  at  present 
exceedingly  degraded.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  their  nomadic 
habits  have  prevented  the.  development  of  many  of  their  capabilities. 

Arts. — Their  achievements  in  the  arts  are,  of  course,  ver\-  insignificant. 
Plate  4  ^figs.  9,  10,  11)  and  Plate  6  {fig.  8)  contain  specimens  of  their 
painting,  both  from  the  north-west,  in  which  the  large  heads  and  the 
man  with  the  kangaroo  show  traces  of  Malayan  influence.  Their  poetry' 
is  mostly  short  epigrammatic  verses  composed  at  the  time  of  great  and 
important  events;  but  there  are  also  longer  songs,  which  are  sung  on 
festal  occasions.  Their  vocalism,  consisting  generally  of  chromatically 
descending  interv'als,  is  said  to  be  pure  and  not  devoid  of  rhythm. 

Amusements  and  Festivals. — They  have  many  kinds  of  games,  and 
they  are  especially  fond  of  dancing  by  the  light  of  the  moon.  These 
dances,  always  accompanied  by  singing,  are  principally  imitative  in  cha- 
racter, representing  kangaroo-  or  emu-hunts  or  battles,  and  are  frequently 
intennixed  with  much  obscenity  (//.  4,  fig.  12).  No  feast  or  solemn 
occasion  takes  place  without  dancing,  such  as  the  dance  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  {corroborce),  and  likewise  the  dances  of  the  full  moon  and  of  the 
dead.  Their  most  important  feasts,  during  which  there  is  no  lack  of 
dances  of  a  religious  character,  with  plenty  of  sacred  ornaments  {pi.  5, 
fig.  12),  are  those  which  celebrate  the  progress  of  the  youth  to  manhood 
— first,  the  feast  of  circumcision,  and  then  that  of  full  majority.  In  some 
places  the  latter  event  is  marked  by  drawing  the  front  teeth  of  the  young 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  1S9 

man.  Women  and  children  are  forbidden,  under  pain  of  death,  to  be 
present  at  these  highly-varied  ceremonies.  The  noise  made  b)'  a  block  of 
wood  hung  on  a  string — the  so-called  "  bullroarer"  (also  used  to  frighten 
off  evil  spirits) — is  the  signal  for  them  to  keep  at  a  respectful  distance. 

Government. — The  tribes,  which  are  very  numerous  and  in  some  cases 
closely  connected,  are  based  on  the  family.  In  the  west  they  even  have 
names  in  common  taken  from  some  animal  or  plant  sacred  to  the  tribe. 
The  oldest  man  of  the  tribe  generally  has  so  much  influence  that  he  may 
be  regarded  as  its  head  ;  yet  in  the  east  and  the  south  we  find  actual 
chiefs  who  have  inherited  their  dignit}'  and  have  great  power,  and  to 
whom  the  heads  of  the  families  are  subject.  Strict  divisions  of  society 
(whose  members  are  none  the  less  equal  in  law  and  in  daily  life)  are  to  be 
found  only  in  the  north.  Every  tribe  has  its  own  well-recognized  terri- 
tory, in  which  no  member  of  another  tribe  may  travel,  still  less  hunt  for 
game.  Likewise,  each  small  family  possesses  its  own  portion  of  land, 
which  cannot  be  transmitted  by  the  women,  although  in  some  cases  they 
may  be  joint-heirs.  The  tribe  adheres  to  the  old  custom  of  reprisal  in  the 
case  of  misdemeanor  of  a  member — at  least,  when  the  evil-doer  escapes. 
If  he  is  caught,  the  punishment  for  small  offences  is  a  few  thrusts  with  a 
spear  in  the  side  ;  for  greater  ones,  he  must  take  his  shield  and  protect:, 
himself  as  best  he  can  against  the  spears  of  the  whole  of  his  tribe. 
Adultery  and  theft,  if  committed  against  one  of  the  same  clan,  are  pun- 
ishable by  death.  Duels  are  quite  frequent.  They  believe  in  super- 
natural punishments  for  a  large  class  of  offences. 

Religious  Belief. — Their  religious  belief,  although  much  disjointed  and 
of  a  sombre  character,  acknowledges  certain  gods,  some  beneficent,  but 
most  of  them  revengeful.  There  is  no  lack  of  legends  about  the  creation 
and  about  stars;  the  heavenly  bodies,  by  which  they  compute  time,  are  uni- 
versally adored.  One  of  the  principal  beliefs  is  that  in  malicious  demons 
and  spirits,  which  renders  darkness  a  horror  to  them;  of  these  they  enter- 
tain the  common  belief  that  they  are  the  souls  of  the  dead.  Yet  the  latter 
(concerning  whose  future  existence  as  stars,  animals,  etc.  different  views 
prevail)  are  not  unfrequently  represented  as  mild  and  kindly  disposed  ;  in 
such  cases  they  are  looked  to  as  the  protecting  spirit  of  the  tribe  or  of  the 
individual.  In  some  localities  an  individual  chooses  a  special  protecting 
spirit  for  himself  upon  the  attainment  of  his  majority,  the  spirit  manifest- 
ing itself  in  the  form  of  some  animal.  Priests  and  temples  are  exceedingly 
rare  ;  idols  of  very  rough  workmanship  are  sometimes  found.  Magicians, 
on  the  contrary,  have  great  and  widespread  authority,  being  considered 
masters  of  rain,  of  the  condition  of  crops,  of  victory,  sickness,  and  death. 
They  also  act  as  physicians.  The  belief  is  current  that  sickness  is  an 
enchantment,  and  that  if  the  evil  spirit,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  stone 
somewhere  in  the  patient's  body,  can  be  driven  away,  the  malady  will  be 
cured.  For  this  reason  after  deaths  there  are  frequent  wars  of  revenge 
against  those  who  are  believed  to  have  brought  on  tlie  evil  influences. 

Burials. — In  some  places  the  dead  are  burned  after  being  placed  in  a 


IQO 


ETHNOGRAPHY. 


hollow  tree;  in  others  buried,  generally  in  a  sitting  posture,  the  grave 
being  decorated  in  various  ways.  Elsewhere  the  body  is  left  to  moulder 
away  on  a  wooden  scaffold,  the  bones  being  interred  after  a  time  {pi.  4,  Jig. 
5).  In  the  south-east  the  dead  are  buried  in  a  boat-shaped  kind  of  coffin. 
In  Tasmania  there  were  found  little  skin  tents  erected  over  the  graves 
(//.  6,>^.  9). 

Social  Condition. — This  description  serves  to  show  that  the  Australians 
are  by  no  means  so  degraded  as  is  generally  supposed,  and  that  in  a  more 
favorable  country  they  would  certainl)-  have  developed  better.  In  their 
intercourse  with  Europeans  they  appeared  at  first  very  friendly,  as  well  as 
skilful  in  many  ways;  even  at  present  in  many  localities  they  are  useful, 
particularly  for  watching  cattle  and  sheep.  But  the  whites,  whose  earliest 
settlements  were  penal  colonies  established  in  the  south-eastern  part 
of  the  continent,  treated  them  dishonestly  and  inimically,  intruded  upon 
their  hunting-grounds,  and  injured  them  in  every  way.  The  laws  passed 
for  their  protection  came  too  late,  and  when  enacted  were  not  strictly 
enough  executed,  so  that  in  the  south  and  the  south-east  the  Tasmanians 
were  wholly,  and  the  Australians  almost  entirely,  driven  out. 

Language. — Their  languages,  which  in  respect  to  the  roots  of  the 
words  are  often  very  different  from  one  another,  nevertheless  arise  from 
one  common  mother-tongue,  and  are  not  inconsiderably  developed.  They 
have  a  polysyllabic  structure,  but  no  distinction  between  substantive, 
adjective,  and  verb.  By  the  use  of  suffi.xes,  however,  they  are  quite  able 
to  express  various  ideas  of  space  and  number,  as  well  as  numerous  abstract 
relationships.  The  pronouns  are  richly  developed,  possessing  a  dual  form, 
and  by  their  aid  and  that  of  suffixes  they  can  express  notions  of  mood 
and  tense.     They  adhere  to  their  native  tongues  with  great  tenacity. 

2.  The  Melanesians. 

Classification. — Under  this  head  we  include  also  the  so-called  Negritos, 
the  dark-colored,  curly-headed  tribes  which  are  scattered  about  here  and 
there  in  Malaysia,  such  as  the  Mincopies  of  the  Andaman  Islands  (//.  20, 
figs.  16,  17),  the  Semangs  from  the  interior  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca, 
and  the  Aetas  of  Luzon  (//.  11,  figs.  6,  7);  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
these  peoples  really  belong  in  this  class,  and  whether  they  are  not  unde- 
veloped or  partially  extinct  old  Malay  tribes.  Their  languages  alone 
could  decide  this  point,  and  we  know  little  or  nothing  of  them.  With 
these  should  be  included  New  Guinea  (Papua)  and  its  neighboring  islands, 
the  islands  of  the  Torres  Strait,  the  Louisiade,  New  Britain,  the  Solomon 
Archipelago,  the  Nitendi  group,  the  New  Hebrides,  New  Caledonia  with 
its  surroundings,  and,  finally,   the  Feejee  group. 

While  Australia  remained  free  from  mixtures  of  other  people  (for  the 
commercial  voyages  of  the  Malays  to  the  north-east  of  the  continent  had 
only  local  influences),  Melanesia  was  more  frequently  visited,  first  by 
Malays  on  Western  New  Guinea  and  its  islands,  then  by  Polynesians  in 
Feejee  on  the  easternmost  islands  of  the  Solomon  Archipelago  and  the 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  igr 

groups  southward  to  New  Caledonia.  These  visits,  however,  were  mostly 
of  an  inimical  character,  and  brought  about  little  real  mixture.  Polyne- 
sian tribes  forced  their  way  in,  drove  back  the  Melanesians,  and  settled 
themselves  on  the  islands.  The  population  of  the  Feejee  Islands  is  not  a 
mixed  one,  except  upon  a  few  of  the  eastern  islands  of  the  Archipelago, 
where  there  is  a  small  tribe  of  mixed  blood,  called  the  Red  Feejeeans. 
The  language  of  the  remainder,  as  well  as  their  corporal  build,  proves 
the  purity  of  their  descent. 

We  call  the  race  Melanesians  or  Papitas.  Throughout  the  Malay 
Archipelago  the  latter  word  means  "dark-colored,  very  curly-headed 
men."  The  name  Negrito  (Negrillo)  is  not  well  chosen,  for  the  people 
now  under  consideration  have  no  relationship  with  the  Negroes,  and  re- 
semble them  but  slightly.  Hara/tij-cs,  or  Al/iircs,  is  a  term  applied  in 
Malaysia  to  dark-colored,  straight-haired  men,  and  is  not  applicable  to 
the  Melanesians. 

Physical  Characlcrislics :  Stature  and  Color. — The  Melanesians  are  in 
general  over  middle  size  ;  only  a  few  tribes  besides  the  Mincopies,  the 
Semangs,  and  the  Aetas  are  small.  Their  bodies  are  fine  and  well  propor- 
tioned, except  that  in  the  case  of  the  poorer  ones  we  find  the  paunchy 
bellies  and  the  thin  limbs  of  the  Australians.  The  color  varies  from  dark 
to  gray,  more  frequently  from  chocolate-brown  to  light  brown,  or  even 
tawny  yellow. 

The  Hair. — Only  in  the  case  of  the  Mincopies,  who  often  shave  them- 
selves bald,  does  the  hair  grow  short  and  in  separate  locks  ;  with  the  rest 
of  the  Melanesians  it  is  mostly  very  long,  stiff,  and  exceedingly  curh'.  It 
never  grows  in  separate  locks,  but  curls  in  little  tufts,  often  of  great 
length,  which  are  plaited  together  and  fastened  down  with  art  and  care. 
The  Melanesians  are  very  proud  of  their  hair,  so  that  we  often  see  it 
made  up  into  monstrous  peruques,  each  separate  hair  standing  out  singly. 
It  is  cut,  colored,  and  ornamented  in  the  most  singular  manner  {pi.  6, 
figs.  lo,  ii;  //.  T.figs.  I,  2,  3;  //.  8,/^.  3;  pi.  %figs.  I,  25;  pi.  i-i,Jigs. 

1,  4,  5;  pi.  12,  Jigs.  I,  2,  4,  19,  20),  and  long-toothed  combs  {pi.  ()■,  Jig.  16; 
pi.  II,  Jg.  I  ;  //.  12,  Jigs.  8,  9)  and  hairpins  {pi.  12,  Jg.  4)  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  its  arrangement.  Special  pillows  (or  curved  stools)  are 
provided  for  night-use,  by  which  the  Jr is t/ re  is  protected  (//.  ij,jig.  6; 
pi.  9,  Jig.  4).  When  a  Melanesian  makes  a  figure  of  a  head,  he  always 
puts  on  it  this  immense  peruque  {pi.  g,Jig.  16). 

The  beard  grows  luxuriantly,  and  in  most  cases  also  the  hair  of  the 
body,  which  in  some  localities  grows  in  tufts  and  in  others  thinly,  when 
it  is  mostly  pulled  out.  The  no.se  is  frequently  Roman  (//.  7,  Jg.  i;  pi. 
12,  Jg.  2),  often,  also,  straight,  and  always  pressed  in  at  the  roots,  and  at 
the  lower  end  is  broad  and  full;  the  lips  likewise  are  thick  and  large. 
The  Feejee  Islanders  in  particular  often  have  haud.some  faces,  and  in 
Melanesia,  also,  handsome  men  are  not  rare  (//.  11,  Jg.  ^\  pi.  12,  Jgs. 

2,  4)- 

The  skull  is  dolichocephalic  (//.  ir,  Jgs.  2,  3,  8,  9),  and  at  the  same 


192  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

time  ven-  high;  the  forehead  is  flat  and  receding,  with  strongly-marked 
eyebrows.  This  flatness,  which  is  very  noticeable  in  our  illustrations, 
was  often  produced  by  artificial  means. 

Dress  and  Customs. — Our  illustrations  give  a  good  idea  of  the  clothing 
of  the  Melanesians.  The  men  frequently  go  quite  naked,  except  the 
loins,  which  they  contrive  to  cover  in  a  really  wonderful  manner  (//.  9, 
figs.  19,  21,  z^\  pi.  11,  Jig.  5).  The  women  always  wear  an  apron  (//. 
12,  Jig.  21).  Their  wide  ear-lobes  are  frequently  pierced  (//.  9,  Jig.  12), 
as  is  also  the  cartilage  at  the  lower  end  of  the  nose,  flowers,  bits  of  wood, 
teeth,  etc.  being  inserted  in  the  opening  {pi.  7,  Jig.  y.,  pi.  11,  Jigs,  i,  4). 
Circumcision  is  universal  except  in  New  Guinea.  A  coarse  form  of 
tattoo  is  widely  practised.  The  figures  are  often  quite  elegant,  and  are 
either  cut  into  the  skin  and  then  eaten  by  acid  or  burnt  in;  large  scars 
on  the  skin  frequently  result  from  the  operation.  This  is  chiefly  notice- 
able among  the  women.  The  Feejee  Islanders  paint  their  faces  red,  white, 
and  black  in  the  most  singular  manner  (//.  12,  Jigs,  i,  2,  3). 

Dicclliugs. — Their  dwellings,  though  often  only  mere  sheds  to  protect 
them  from  the  weather,  are  for  the  most  part  well-built  houses,  which 
stand  together  in  villages,  and  are  particularly  artistic  in  New  Caledonia 
{pi.  %Jigs.  26,  27).  We  also  notice  high  sloping  roofs  extending  low  down 
toward  the  earth,  made  of  plaited  work,  with  open  or  closed  sides  and 
gables  (//.  7,  Jg.  5;  //.  8,  Jigs,  i,  2).  The  houses  very  frequently  stand 
on  piles;  for  example,  the  rather  awkward  work  of  the  Louisiade  (//.  10, 
Jigs.  6,  7),  where  the  posts  are  the  height  of  a  man,  or  the  far  better  built 
ones  of  New  Guinea  (//.  8,  Jig.  2).  Here  also  they  stand  in  villages,  or 
an  entire  village  may  be  built  under  one  roof,  a  long  building  being  made 
of  adjoining  rooms  for  large  families  {pi.  8,  Jig.  4).  The  remarkable 
buildings  of  Humboldt  Bay,  wliich  are  supported  on  piles  in  the  water, 
connected  by  bridges,  and  divided  into  rooms  inside  bj-  mats  hung  like 
curtains,  may  be  seen  on  Plate  7  {Jig.  5)  and  Plate  8  {Jig.  i).  Others  not 
so  striking  occur  at  Dorei  (North  New  Guinea).  (See  L.-\.ke-Dwellings 
and  illus.  Vol.  H.)  A  most  curious  temple  in  the  fonn  of  a  ship  has  here 
been  placed  in  the  water  (//.  7,  Jig.  4),  while  the  houses,  as  in  the  Feejee 
Islands,  are  on  shore.  The  Feejee  houses,  whose  ridge-poles  are  much 
lengthened  and  supported  by  artistically-car\'ed  pillars  (//.  13,  Jig.  7), 
resemble  the  temples,  except  that  the  latter  have  stone  foundations  and 
are  built  tliroughout  with  more  care  {pi.  13,  Jigs,  i,  4,  5,  11).  The  vil- 
lages have  tolerably  clean  streets,  protecting  walls,  and  plenty  of  fruit 
trees  around  the  houses,  and  always  a  large  assembly-house. 

AtIs. — The  IMelanesians  are  not  without  skill  in  shipbuilding  and  the 
like,  and  some  of  them  are  addicted  to  piracy.  In  New  Caledonia  they 
have  double  boats  with  an  outrigger  or  beam  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
which  is  connected  by  a  lattice-work  or  a  sort  of  bridge  with  the  boat, 
and  which  thus  keeps  it  steady.  In  many  places  we  find  lateen  sails,  and 
frequently  ver^-  finely  car\-ed  prows  {pi.  7,  Jig.  7)  and  mastheads;  on  tl;e 
other  hand,  we  sometimes  find  merely  the  hollowed-out  trunks  of  trees 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  193 

sen'ing  for  boats  (//.  8,  fig.  4).  The  Feejee  Islanders  have  ninnerous  forms 
of  ships  and  boats.  The  most  maritime  people  are  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Admiralty  Islands,  bnt  the  Feejeeans  and  the  Melanesians  generally  are  not 
remarkable  in  this  respect  (//.  8,  figs,  i,  4;  pi.  10,  figs.  1-5;  pi.  13,  figs. 
6,  8,  9).  The  Melanesians  are  all  enthusiastic  fishermen,  using  with  great 
dexterity  nets  and  hooks  {pi.  12,  figs.  5,  7)  as  well  as  spears  (//.  9,  fig. 
8).  In  a  word,  they  show  great  technical  skill;  their  weapons  and  tools 
are  often  artistic  and  handsome  (//.  7,  fiigs.  6,  8;  pi.  9,  fig.  10;  pi.  12,  fig. 
11),  and  they  alone  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Oceanica  understand  the  art 
of  making  earthen  vessels,  often  of  elegant  model  (//.  13,  fig.  3). 

Musical  histntments. — They  have  numerous  musical  instruments. 
Trumpets  made  of  mussel-shells  and  Pan's  pipes  are  to  be  found  every- 
where {pi.  (),fig.  5;  pi.  13,  fig-  10);  as  also  flutes  (//.  9,  fig.  22),  which  are 
often  played  with  the  nose,  bamboo  sticks  or  wooden  chests  covered  with 
skins  to  serve  as  drums  (//.  9,  fig.  11),  and  long  bamboo  tubes  (as  in 
Australia),  which  are  struck  in  accordance  with  the  rhythm  of  the  song 
{pi.  is,fig-  10).  Nevertheless,  the  musical  performances  of  the  Melane- 
sians cannot  be  said  to  be  of  a  high  standard. 

Amiiscme/i/s,  Literature^  and  Commerce. — They  everywhere  indulge  in 
dances  at  night,  at  which  they  appear  in  festal  costumes  and  dance  either 
in  rows  opposite  each  other  or  singly.  Conjurers,  such  as  we  find  repre- 
sented in  Homer,  amuse  the  Feejee  Islanders.  Notwithstanding  many 
pretty  legends,  poetry  has  made  but  small  advances  among  this  people, 
except  in  the  Feejee  Archipelago.  Here  we  find  a  peculiarly  poetic 
speech,  a  regular  formation  of  verse  and  rhyme,  and  a  few  scattering 
poets,  who  are  believed  to  derive  their  inspiration  from  the  gods.  We 
may  also  mention  their  prose  recitations,  which  are  highly  developed, 
and  a  certain  kind  of  eloquence  to  which  they  are  addicted,  and  which 
they  admire  very  much. 

All  the  Melanesians  show  a  decided  aptitude  for  commerce.  They 
also  have  the  means  of  reckoning  time — by  the  moon,  by  monsoons,  etc. 
— as  well  as  the  knowledge  of  many  constellations  of  which  the  Feejeeans 
are  ignorant.  On  the  whole,  we  must  recognize  the  Melanesians  as  an 
able  people.  Morally,  they  do  not  stand  high,  though  it  is  difficult  to 
pronounce  judgment  upon  them  as  a  whole.  They  are  frightfully  bar- 
barous and  bloodthirsty,  cowardly,  revengeful,  proud  to  the  uttermost, 
and  much  given  to  h'ing;  which  bad  qualities  are  most  cons]:)icuous  in  the 
Feejeeans,  the  most  advanced  of  them  all.  Many  of  the  less-cultivated 
tribes  are  more  good-natured,  friendly,  and  light-hearted.  All  are  very 
religious,  and  in  sexual  relations  tolerably  constant. 

xMarriagcs  a7id  Social  Life. — The  women  have  a  hard  lot,  for,  with  the 
exception  of  the  boat-  and  house-building,  they  have  almost  all  the  work  to 
do.  Polygamy  prevails  everywhere — at  least,  where  the  men  are  capable 
of  supporting  a  number  of  wives.  Children  are  often  betrothed,  and  mar- 
riage is  generally  accomplished  by  forcible  abduction  of  the  bride.  We 
frequently  see  great  tenderness  in  the  family;  in  spite  of  which,  the  mur- 

VoL.  I.— 13 


194  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

(Icr  of  infants  and  of  old  and  sick  persons  used  to  be  practised  throughout 
tlie  whole  region,  and  particularly  among  the  Feejeeaus. 

As  a  ser\'ice  of  love  from  their  children  the  aged  asked  to  be  put  to  death. 
This  was  accompanied  with  great  festivities,  as  were  also  the  birth  and 
the  naming  of  the  child,  its  circumcision,  and  marriage.  Their  social 
and  political  life  gave  occasion  for  manj'  other  festivals.  On  the  Feejee 
Islands  the  cava  liquor  plaj-ed  a  great  part  at  all  these;  it  is  the  intoxicat- 
ing juice  of  a  species  of  pepper  which  is  sacred  to  the  gods,  and  is  drunk 
exclusively  by  the  better  classes  and  only  from  special  sacred  cups,  which 
are  known  by  their  shape  (//.  12,  fig.  16). 

Sacrifcccs  and  Cannibalism. — Human  sacrifices  and  eating  human  flesh 
were  indulged  in  at  these  festivities,  which  always  took  place  in  the 
temple  square.  Plate  13  {^fig.  11)  contains  the  picture  of  such  a  feast. 
The  grossest  cannibalism  prevailed  everywhere  in  Melanesia,  though  least 
of  all,  perhaps,  in  New  Guinea;  it  was  a  sacred  institution,  the  instru- 
ments which  were  employed  in  it  being  used  for  nothing  else.  Thus,  the 
Feejeeans  had  special  forks  for  human  flesh,  each  of  which  had  a  distinct 
name  {pi.  12^  fig.  24),  and  the  New  Caledonians  had  a  disk  of  serpentine, 
called  the  "grave,"  with  which  they  ripped  open  the  bodies  of  the  dead, 
and  an  instrument  made  of  human  bones  (v.'hich  were  much  used  for 
making  utensils,  and  especially  weapons  and  ornaments,  //.  g,figs.  i,  15), 
with  which  the  intestines  were  drawn  out  (/>/.  12,  figs.  13,  15).  Women 
and  children  were  excluded  from  these  terrible  repasts.  Human  beings 
were  frequently  slaughtered  in  order  to  be  eaten,  but  for  the  most  part 
they  ate  their  fallen  enemies. 

IVars  and  Weapons. — Their  battles  and  their  celebrations  of  victory 
were  very  sanguinarj';  consequently,  the  making  of  peace  was  correspond- 
ingly solemn.  The  weapons  peculiar  to  Melanesia  are  the  bow  and  arrow 
{pi.  9,  fiigs.  17,  18),  which  are  wanting  in  the  rest  of  Oceanica;  besides 
these,  they  have  slings — the  New  Caledonians  carr}'  a  bag  of  sling-stones 
at  their  girdle  {pi.  9,  fig.  25) — spears  of  various  kinds,  often  suj^plied 
with  a  barbed  hook  (//.  8,  fig.  3;  pi.  9,  figs.  2,  3,  8,  9;  //.  12,  figs.  10, 
18),  which  were  usually  thrown  by  an  elastic  hurling-stick  (//.  9,  fig. 
25);  wooden  and  stone  clubs  (//.  12,  figs.  14,  17),  maces  (//.  9,  fiig.  25), 
swords,  daggers  {pi.  9,  figs.  10,  24),  and  various  sorts  of  shields.  Forti- 
fied places  are  also  frequently  mentioned,  and  the  Europeans  found  those 
of  the  Feejeeans  impregnable.  At  present  gims  are  almost  the  only 
weapons  of  the  more  civilized  regions  (//.  13,  fig.  11). 

On  account  of  the  great  number  of  distinct  tribes  on  the  different 
islands,  wars  were  very  frequent.  These  tribes  were  led  by  chiefs  who 
rarely  possessed  great  authority  and  seldom  bore  any  distinguishing  mark, 
although  in  New  Caledonia  they  wore  a  special  cap  {pi.  12,  fig.  6).  On 
the  Feejee  Islands,  hovrever,  the  kings  and  the  lower  chiefs  were  held  in 
the  higliest — even  in  idolatrous — veneration,  and  possessed  great  influence. 
They  had  power,  for  example,  to  pronounce  the  religious  interdict,  the 
taboo,  on  whatever  thej^  chose,  and,  in  consequence,  the  tabooed  article 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  195 

was  permitted  to  them  alone.  There  were  various  marks  to  show  that  a 
thing  was  tabooed;  tlie  leaves  and  fruit  of  the  cocoa-palm  often  served  tliis 
purpose  (//.  12,  Jig.  25).  The  taboo  prevailed  throughout  all  Melanesia. 
The  priests  were  next  in  rank  to  the  chiefs;  the  slaves  were  the 
lowest  grade.  Rank  as  well  as  property  was  inherited  through  the 
mother.  There  were  various  judicial  institutions,  punishments,  oaths, 
and  ordeals. 

Rclis[i(ms  Belief. — Their  religion  was  like  that  of  the  Polynesians  gener- 
ally, only  more  sterile  and  prosaic.  They  believed  in  personal  deities,  and 
also  in  guardian  spirits,  and  the  souls  of  their  ancestors  were  of  particular 
consequence.  Idols  were  common;  the  guardian  spirits  especially  were 
represented  {pi.  9,  figs.  20,  24;  pi.  13,  fig.  12),  and  the  sacred  stones  of 
the  Feejeeans  {pi.  13,  fig.  2)  were  nothing  but  miniature  images  of  their 
ancestors,  as  is  shown  by  the  belts  with  which  they  were  sometimes 
adorned.  Priests,  temples,  and  sacrifices  were  found  everywhere;  the 
priests  were  also  magicians,  fortune-tellers,  weather-sages,  and  physicians. 
For  here,  too,  disease  was  considered  nothing  but  demoniacal  possession, 
although  they  also  used  some  medicine. 

Death  and  Burial. — The  dead  were  mourned  by  loud  lamentations, 
which  (at  least  in  the  Feejee  Islands)  gave  place  to  a  succession  of  festiv- 
ities. Women  and  slaves  were  sacrificed  at  the  graves  of  men  of  rank. 
The  dead  were  either  buried,  a  little  house  being  built  over  the  grave,  or 
else  were  left  to  deca}'  on  an  open  scaffolding.  The  skulls  were  preserved 
at  home  or  (in  the  northern  districts)  they  were  all  placed  in  special  rich- 
ly-adorned enclosures,  which  were  erected  deep  in  the  woods  {pi.  11,  fig. 
10);  for  nothing  was  considered  more  dishonorable  than  that  the  enemy 
should  gain  possession  of  the  remains  of  the  dead  and  make  drinkiug- 
cups  or  tools  or  arms  out  of  them.  They  held  that  the  soul  feels  what 
the  corpse  suffers.     Coffins  were  often  made  skiff-shaped. 

Social  Condition. — The  Feejeeans  illustrate  the  abilities  of  the  Mela- 
nesian  race,  but,  as  many  of  the  tribes  are  in  very  unfavorable  conditions, 
we  must  not  be  surprised  to  find  marked  differences  as  to  ci\-ilization  and 
character.  Christianity,  being  taught  in  a  sensible  manner  by  the  Mela- 
nesiaii  missionaries,  is  now  making  progress  on  the  uncivilized  islands. 
Almost  all  the  Feejeeans  are  nominally  Christians — many  of  them  really 
such.  They  have  proved  themselves  quite  capable  of  receiving  European 
civilization.  The  other  Melanesians  seem  equally  capable,  btit  many  of 
them  have  had  but  little  and  others  only  a  hostile  contact  with  the  whites, 
generally  through  the  fault  of  the  latter. 

Languages. — Their  languages  also  show  the  remarkable  capability  of 
the  race.  They  are  polysyllabic,  and  replace  declension  as  well  as  conju- 
gation by  added  particles,  which,  however,  are  blended  with  the  root  less 
frequently  than  in  the  Australian  dialects.  The  real  centre  of  the  lan- 
guage is  the  personal  pronoun,  which  has,  besides  the  singular  number, 
several  multiple  numbers  (a  dual,  a  trial,  and  a  plural),  and  on  its 
various  forms  depend   the   person    and  the  number  of  the  verb.      The 


196  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

phonetic  system  of  the  dialects,   of  which  there  are   many,   is  strong 
and  rich. 

3.  The  Polynesians  and  Micronesians. 

The  islands  of  Oceanica  are  divided  into  flat  coral  and  high  volcanic 
islands.  A  single  coral-reef  enclosing  in  its  midst  a  shallow  sea  or  lagoon 
often  contains  several  small  islands  or  develops  into  a  complete  ring  (//. 
\%fig.  2),  or  even  into  a  large  flat  island.  The  soil,  however,  is  but 
slightly  productive,  and  is  almost  destitute  of  water,  and  the  variety  of 
plants  is  very  limited;  pandanus,  cocoa-palms,  bananas,  and  bread-fruit 
trees — the  latter  somewhat  scarce — are  about  the  onl\-  nutritious  products. 
There  are  scarcely  any  animals,  and  life  is  e.vtremely  monotonous  and  quiet. 
The  elevated  islands  are  also  unfavorable,  as  they  are  generally  unin- 
habitable on  account  of  their  steep  and  high  ascent,  and  possess  neither 
a  varied  plant  system  nor  animal  life  of  any  importance.  The  islands 
farthest  to  the  w-est  are  the  richest. 

Physical  Characteristics. — The  Polynesians  and  the  Micronesians, 
although  they  migrated  separately,  difier  so  little  that  w-e  may  class  them 
together.  They  cast  much  light  upon  the  Melanesians  and  their  most 
developed  tribe,  the  Feejeeans,  because  the  Polynesians,  while  closely 
related  to  them,  are  more  highly  developed  and  better  known.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  high  and  fertile  islands  are  better  developed  physically 
than  those  of  the  flat  islands.  Their  color  is  a  light  copper-brown  which 
shades  to  dark  olive-brown  in  the  lower  islands,  and  at  times  to  the  light- 
ness of  the  European  complexion.  The  Micronesians  are,  on  the  whole, 
somewhat  darker,  though  among  them  also  are  found  tribes  of  a  light-yel- 
lowish color.  The  hue  varies  in  the  same  archipelago,  and  even  on  the 
same  island,  the  lower  being  darker  than  the  better-cared-for  upper  classes. 
Occasionally  there  are  some  perfectly  dark  individuals  whose  hair  is 
almost  woolly.  The  hair  generally  is  found  straight,  although  always 
with  a  tendency  to  curl,  and  often  it  is  very  curly  (//.  16,  Jig.  12;//.  i8,//gs. 
3,  8).  Among  the  INIicronesians  straight  hair  predominates  {p/.  14,  /igs. 
I,  5;  pi.  T-Sijig.  5;  pi.  16,  Jig.  3).  Hair  on  the  body  and  face  is  generally 
scant,  begins  to  grow  later,  and  is  for  the  most  part  pulled  out;  but  the 
natives  of  some  of  the  smaller  islands  fonn  exceptions.  On  the  high 
islands  the  figures  and  features  of  the  inhabitants  are  often  ver>'  fine;  but 
the  broad,  full  nose,  which  is  frequently  aquiline  (pi.  15,  _^g.  5;  //.  20, 
y?^.  8),  and  the  thick  lips,  the  upper  one  often  projecting  in  triangular 
form  {pi.  20,  Jig.  8),  always  remain.  The  skull  is  high  and  narrow  and 
the  back  of  the  head  often  flat,  the  flatness  being  sometimes  produced 
artificially.  The  lobes  of  the  ears  were  universally  bored;  difierent  kinds 
of  ornaments  were  worn  in  them,  often  rolled  palm  leaves,  which  widened 
them  enormously  (pi.  xd,  Jig.  3),  so  that  they  sometimes  hung  down  on 
the  shoulders,  or  could  even  be  drawn  over  the  head.  A  very  simple 
fonn  of  circumcision  prevailed  everywhere  in  Polynesia. 

Tattooing,  which  pertained  principally  to  the  men,  was  of  the  greatest 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  i97 

importance.  It  was  entirely  a  religious  institution,  and  its  original  object 
was  to  iiijprint  on  the  subject  the  form  of  his  guardian  spirit  or  the  images 
and  signs  of  his  ancestors.  For  this  very  painful  and  lengthy  operation 
they  had  peculiar  instruments,  sharp-toothed  combs  of  various  sizes,  which, 
after  being  dipped  in  the  coloring  substances,  were  driven  into  the  skin  by 
suitable  hammers  {pi.  i%fig.  2).  Often  the  entire  body  was  decorated 
with  such  pictures,  even  the  bare-shaved  top  of  the  head  {pi.  \%fig.  6). 
The  designs  were  different  according  to  the  islands  (//.  19,7?^.  6;  //.  20, 
_/?;'-.  9),  the  sex,  and  the  rank;  a  few  specimens,  which  are  miniatures  of 
the  human  form,  are  shown  on  Plate  19  {Jigs.  7,  9).  In  Micronesia  the 
custom  was  less  developed,  and  striped  designs  were  preferred  (//.  15,7??". 
5;  //.  16,  Ji£-.  3).  With  the  advance  of  civilization  the  practice  decreased 
everywhere,  and  among  the  Tahitians,  for  example,  there  are  now  only 
relics  of  it  (//.  18,/^.  8). 

Dress. — Our  plates  give  all  necessarv'  information  about  dress.  It 
varied  according  to  the  islands,  being  most  abundant  on  Tahiti,  where  a 
long  strip  of  stuff  was  twined  about  the  hips,  and  a  sort  of  cloak,  some- 
times only  a  coarsely-woven  mat  {pi.  i8,yf^.  3),  was  worn  on  the  shoulders. 
Festivities  demanded  particular  adornment,  and  there  were  special  cos- 
tumes for  female  dancers  {pi.  18,  _/?^.  9)  and  for  warriors.  In  New  Zealand 
cloaks  of  fur  were  frequently  worn  (//.  20,  Jig.  13),  and  the  Hawaiian 
chiefs  had  precious  cloaks  made  of  plumes;  frequently  the  people  went 
entirely  naked,  especially  when  at  work.  The  j\Iicronesians  for  the  most 
part  wore  only  an  apron  of  ravelled  leaves  {pi.  1^,  Jig.  5;  pi.  16^  fig.  3), 
but  sometimes  over-garments  resembling  shirts  (j^/.  14,7?^.  4; />/.  16^  Jig. 
5).  The  material,  which  they  d3-ed  in  gay  but  not  very  durable  colors, 
was  made  of  the  bark  of  trees  beaten  by  peculiar  flails  {pi.  16,  Jig.  11),  the 
four  sides  of  which  sometimes  had  different  car\-ings.  The  single  pieces 
were  pasted  together,  and  the  coarser  strips  sewed  (needle,  pi.  16,  Jig.  10); 
of  the  latter  sails,  bed-matting,  and  wall-mats  were  made. 

Dwelli7igs. — Building  is  almost  ever^'where  very  simple  {pi.  \^,Jig.  4; 
pi.  15,  Jig.  6;  pi.  16,  Jig.  5).  Artistic  huts  were  woven  in  some  of  the 
Caroline  Islands  {pi.  i^,/tg.  3);  on  Nukahiva,  of  the  Marquesas  group, 
all  houses  had  stone  foundations.  There  were  villages  everywhere,  each 
with  its  assembly-hall,  sometimes  ver^'  large  {pi.  20,  fig.  14),  and  fre- 
quently with  an  open  place  before  it  {pi.  1^1  Jig.  6).  Within,  the  houses 
were  strewn  with  mats,  which  served  as  seats  and  beds  (//.  i^.Jig.  i).  In 
some  places  the  women  carried  such  mats  fastened  to  their  belts  {J)l.  14, 
Jig.  i).  Otherwise,  the  furniture  was  very  simple  {pi.  16,  Jig.  6\  pi.  17,  Jigs. 
6,  8,  10).  Stone  structures  were  also  fomid.  Strange  half-subterranean 
painted  chambers  were  disco\-ered  in  the  Waihu  Mountains,  and  the 
still  more  wonderful  ruins  of  Ponapi,  of  the  Caroline  group,  were  formed 
of  concrete  walls  of  gigantic  structure,  with  interjacent  platforms,  from 
which  descent  was  had  to  subterranean  chambers  {pi.  15,  Jig.  4).  In  otir 
illustration,  A  indicates  the  outer  wall,  25  feet  high,  6-10  feet  thick,  the 
longer  side  236  feet  long  and  the  other  162  feet;  B  is  the  inner  platform, 


19S  ETHXOGRAPHY. 

which  is  lower  at  M  and  M;  F  represents  the  subterranean  chambers;  O, 
Q  those  which  were  not  measured;  C  is  the  inner  wall,  14  feet  high,  6  feet 
thick,  and  95  feet  long;  D,  the  inner  platfonn;  E,  broad  steps  of  a  high 
pyramidal  structure  over  one  of  the  chambers;  K,  L,  entrances;  H,  an 
opening  in  the  wall.  On  the  Marianne  group  (//.  16,  fig.  i)  are  found 
ruins  of  the  old  stone  pillars  on  which  cane  houses  were  erected.  Also  in 
Oceanica  these  houses  were  fonuerly  sometimes  built  on  pillars  or  piles 
(comp. //.  13,/^.  5). 

Technical  Skill. — The  Polynesians  and  Micronesians  are  especially  skil- 
ful at  sea.  Their  larger  vessels  almost  invariabl}'  have  outriggers,  but  not 
tlie  smaller  craft,  which  are  made  from  hollowed  tree  trunks  (//.  17, y/^.  7). 
The  catamaran  or  double-boat  form  is  largely  in  use  {pi.  ij.jig.  T-I',  pi-  18, 
Jig.  10).  The  keel  of  the  larger  \essels  consists  of  one  or  more  logs,  to 
which  the  planks  are  fastened  by  cocoa-fibres.  The  sails  are  almost 
always  triangular.  There  are  different  kinds  of  vessels — pleasure-boats 
with  a  platform  deck  (//.  i7,_fig.  n),  frei ght- vessels  (^/.  iS,Jig.  10),  pas- 
senger-boats (pi.  14,  Jig.  2;  pi.  15,  Jigs.  I,  3;  //.  19,  Jig.  5),  fishing-skifis 
{pi.  17,  Jig.  7),  and  war-ships — for  they  even  indulge  in  sea-fighting — 
some  of  which  are  30  feet  long,  and  in  New  Zealand,  for  instance,  skil- 
fully carved  and  decorated  (/>/.  20,  Jig.  15.)  The  standing  figures  in  the 
last-named  illustration  are  the  singers,  who  by  means  of  peculiar  songs 
keep  time  for  the  rowers.  The  oars  are  long  and  pointed  {/>l.  ijjjig.  11; 
pi.  ig,f g.  5\  pi.  20,  Jig.  J s). 

These  people  were  exceedingly  skilful  in  carving,  especially  the 
Maoris  of  New  Zealand.  They  had  finely-car\ed  boxes  {pi.  20,  Jig.  7) 
and  very  pretty  door-ornaments  {pi.  20,  Jg.  2),  and  their  weapons  and 
utensils  were  alike  decorated.  Their  anns  consisted  of  clubs  (//.  17, 
Jig.  2;  pi.  20,  Jigs.  3,  4,  5,  10),  among  which  those  made  of  nephrite 
{pi.  20,  fg.  4)  were  especially  valuable;  different  spears  (//.  17,  fg.  3), 
wooden  swords  {pi.  14,  Jig.  6;  //.  16,  Jig.  7),  hatchets  (//.  20,  Jg. 
13),  daggers,  and  slings.  Stone  hatchets  with  wooden  handles  (//.  16, 
Jig.  8),  etc.  were  generally  used  by  them  at  their  work.  Handsome 
plaited  work  (//.  17,  Jg.  10),  fans  {pi.  ig,Jig.  6),  carved  gourds,  etc., 
were  in  common  use;  while  the  wooden  vessel  on  Plate  14  {Jg.  8), 
which  represents  a  bird  and  was  carved  in  Micronesia,  deserves  men- 
tion, as  it  is  of  unusually  fine  workmanship. 

Poctry\  Music,  Games,  and  Festivals. — As  the  Polynesians  had  many 
games  (stilts,  on  Nukahiva,  pi.  i<),Jg.  8;  swings,//.  20,Jg.6\  kites, 
checkers,  ball-playing,  etc.),  so  were  they  also  susceptible  to  poetrj-. 
The  epic  poetry  of  the  Maoris  is  very  remarkable;  there  is  no  lack  of 
pretty  lyric  effusions,  of  rich  sententious  poetrj-,  even  of  traces  of  mimic 
representation,  and  also  a  certain  eloquence  cannot  be  denied  them.  They 
had  many  musical  instruments — drums  {pi.  16,  Jgs.  4,  5),  shell  trum.pets 
{pi.  14,  Jig.  5),  flutes,  single  and  double,  which  were  in  part  played  with 
the  nose  {pi.  18,  Jig.  3),  and  long  pieces  of  bamboo,  which  were  sounded  by 
striking  {pi.  17,  Jtg.  i).     There  was  no  dance  without  music,  no  festival 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  199 

without  dancing;  they  danced  throughout  entire  nights,  generally  in 
crowds,  all  making  the  same  movements  {pi.  17,  fig.  i).  They  had 
numerous  feasts,  at  which  the  cava-liquor  and  the  ceremonies  connected 
with  its  drinking  played  a  prominent  part.  They  were  not  wanting  in 
ceremonies  and  in  forms  of  etiquette,  especially  toward  individuals  of 
rank,  whom  they  considered  sacred. 

Wars. — Their  frequent  wars,  which  often  arose  from  trivial  causes,  were 
frightful — not,  indeed,  on  account  of  the  bravery  of  the  Polynesians,  for  they 
are  not  at  all  brave,  but  rather  on  account  of  the  stratagems  they  employed, 
the  secret  nocturnal  attacks,  especially  on  the  defenceless,  and  the  terrible 
slaughter  after  victory,  which  spared  neither  woman  nor  child,  and  which 
was  perpetrated  with  the  most  atrocious  cruelties.  The  Maoris  alone  pos- 
sessed a  certain  heroism.  Jeering  challenges,  insults  of  the  enemy,  wild 
war-songs,  and  religious  consecrations  preceded  every  battle,  at  which  cer- 
tain priests  were  always  present.  Cannibalism  no  longer  prevailed  in 
Micronesia  at  the  time  of  its  discovery;  still,  speciallj'-valued  ornaments — 
for  example,  bracelets,  which  only  the  chiefs  were  allowed  to  wear  {pi.  10, 
fig.  8) — were  made  of  human  bones.  In  Polynesia,  however,  cannibalism 
still  existed  in  many  places,  esj^ecially  in  New  Zealand;  but  it  was  almost 
e.xtinct  in  the  island-groups  of  Tahiti,  Tonga,  Samoa,  and  Hawaii. 

Social  Life:  Marriage  and  Rank. — The  women,  on  the  whole,  were 
not  badly  treated,  although,  in  comparison  with  the  men,  they  were  con- 
sidered profane,  and  consequently  were  deprived  of  the  best  parts  of  the 
food.  Their  position  differed  in  the  different  islands.  Before  marriage 
absolute  freedom  existed  everywhere,  which  in  some  parts  of  Polynesia 
degenerated  into  an  extreme  licentiousness  that  was  not  improved  by  the 
arrival  of  the  Europeans.  Marriage  itself  was  strict,  but,  being  contracted 
without  any  special  ceremony,  it  was  easily  dissolved.  It  seldom  received 
religious  consecration,  and  then  only  among  the  higher  ranks.  Stealing 
away  the  bride  was  not  unusual  in  New  Zealand. 

Polygamy  appertained  to  the  rich;  frequently  a  poor  man  could  not 
marry,  being  unable  to  support  a  wife.  Family  life,  thougli  close  among 
the  better  classes  and  in  individual  groups,  was,  on  the  whole,  ver>'  loose. 
Infanticide,  especially  of  girls,  prevailed  to  a  frightful  extent.  Neverthe- 
less, rank  was  inherited  through  the  female,  and  nowhere  was  there  a 
stricter  separation  of  classes  than  here.  Properly,  there  were  but  two 
classes — people  of  rank  and  common  people.  A  third  class,  the  land- 
holders, had  grown  up  between  them,  sprung  by  collateral  descent  from 
the  former;  and  a  fourth  class,  the  slaves,  was  formed  below  the  common 
people.  The  first  class  alone  possessed  souls,  for  they  were  directly  de- 
scended from  the  gods;  consequently,  they  had  a  claim  on  all  property 
and  on  the  lives  of  the  people;  they  alone  were  connected  with  the  gods, 
gave  judgment,  etc.  All  learning  also  was  in  their  hands — a  fair  know- 
ledge of  geography,  some  astronomy,  nautical  information,  knowledge  of 
the  year  of  ten  or  twelve  lunar  months,  in  all  of  which  branches  the 
sons  of  the  nobility  were  instructed,  generally  b}-  means  of  poetry. 


200 


ETHNOGRAPHY. 


Originally  this  nobility  was  also  the  priestly  caste;  later  on  the  secular 
power  was  separated  from  and  gained  superiority  over  the  spiritual,  often 
through  the  efforts  of  a  single  sovereign  or  of  all-powerful  families;  in 
New  Zealand  alone  the  differences  of  rank  were  more  equalized.  Intermar- 
riage of  the  classes  was  a  crime;  consequentl)-,  the  children  of  such  intermar- 
riages must  be  killed  at  once.  Here  we  see  the  religious  views  of  the  Poly- 
nesians put  into  actuaf  political  practice.  Everything  else  relating  to  the 
gods  was  withdrawn  from  the  people,  and  hence  the  extraordinar}'  power 
of  the  taboo — /.  c.  the  religious  interdict  which  the  chiefs  and  the  priests 
could  pronounce  over  every  object;  for  whatever  belonged  to  the  gods, 
temples,  pictures,  etc.,  was  taboo.  Every  one  had  the  greatest  moral  dread 
of  violating  such  a  taboo. 

Religious  Belief. — The  religion  of  the  Micro-Polynesians  was  also  dis- 
figured by  the  sanctity  ascribed  to  their  chiefs.  In  earlier  times  the}-  had 
powerful  individual  deities,  amongst  which  Tangaloa,  the  god  of  the  sky, 
and  Maui,  the  god  of  fire,  both  honored  as  creators  of  the  world,  were 
specially  prominent.  Besides,  every  act,  ever}'  train  of  ideas,  had  its 
special  divinity.  In  addition  to  these,  they  venerated  the  guardian  spirits, 
whose  images  were  placed  or  erected  ever}where — on  the  edge  of  the 
temple  squares  (//.  20,  Jig.  i),  at  the  entrances  of  the  villages,  on  houses 
(//.  20,  Jig.  2),  ships  {pi.  20.,  fig.  15),  arms,  and  utensils  {pi.  '^g,Jig.  8). 
Even  entire  islands  were  surrounded  with  them;  the  famous  colossal 
statues  of  Easter  Island  {pi.  20,  fg.  11)  are  nothing  but  images  of  such 
guardian  spirits.  Even  in  early  times  the  souls  of  the  depty-ted  were 
venerated;  and  this  worship  took  such  dimensions  that  they  were  not 
only  numbered  among  the  tutelar}'  divinities,  but  obscured  the  chief  gods, 
while  in  Micronesia  they  even  supplanted  them.  The  peoj^le  believed 
that  the  soul  after  death,  in  order  to  become  clean,  had  to  be  devoured 
and  voided  by  a  god.  This  piece  of  friendship  was  generally  rendered 
to  an  individual  by  his  giiardiau  spirits,  who  were  consequently  always 
represented  with  horrible  mouths  and  projecting  teeth   {pi   20,  fgs.  i, 

2,  15)- 

/dols,  Temples,  and  Pnests. — Idols  existed  ever}-where  in  Eastern 
Oceanica,  more  rarely  in  Western.  We  have  given  illustrations  of  some: 
the  Raratongan  idol  (//.  17,  fig.  9)  is  about  sixteen  feet  long.  The  idol  is 
the  inner  piece  of  wood,  which  only  the  priest  was  permitted  to  worship; 
twisted  about  it  was  a  wreath,  which  we  portray  at  the  side  of  the  image 
{fig.  4),  and  which  was  called  the  "soul  of  the  god."  Figures  4-6  {pi.  18) 
show  idols  of  Tahiti;  Figure  6  (//.  18)  represents  Tangaloa,  with  all  the 
lesser  deities,  his  offspring;  Figure  7  {pi.  18),  another  god,  with  three  sons; 
Figure  5  {pi.  18),  the  soul  of  an  ancestor;  Figure  4  {pi.  18),  deities  of  the 
fishennen,  from  a  skiff.     They  also  had  female  gods  and  idols. 

Their  temples  were  of  different  sorts — sometimes  only  flat  stone  ter- 
races variously  divided;  sometimes  pyramidal  stair  structures  of  huge 
blocks  of  stone  {pi.  ^%fig.  i),  on  the  top  of  which  idols  were  occasion- 
ally placed;  sometimes  a  collection  of  large  and  small  houses  within  a 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  201 

common  enclosure  {pi.  20,  fig.  i).  They  were  usually  situated  in  sacred 
groves  on  a  mountain  or  on  the  seashore.  The  strange  building  of  Ponapi 
{pi.  15,  fig.  4)  was  probably  a  temple-structure,  serving,  at  the  same  time, 
as  a  fortification.  Offerings  were  very  numerous:  they  consisted  of  animals, 
swine  {pi.  20^  fig.  i),  fruit,  material  for  garments,  etc.,  and  they  were  often 
brought  in  great  quantities.  The  priests  for  the  most  part  constituted  an 
hereditary  caste,  and  were  very  powerful  in  Polynesia,  but  of  less  import- 
ance in  Micronesia. 

Burials  a7id  Monuments. — The  souls  survived  in  the  Hereafter;  and 
as  they,  being  haunting  spirits,  were  very  dangerous,  especially  when 
angered,  it  was  sought  in  every  way  to  gain  their  favor  by  solemn  mourn- 
ings and  intennents,  whose  attendant  ceremonies  were  often  exceedingly 
strange  and  protracted.  In  Tahiti,  for  instance,  the  licva.,  the  nearest 
relative,  clad  in  a  strange  costume,  walked  about  the  grave  for  a  number 
of  days  and  maltreated  with  his  toothed  staff  (//.  19,  fig.  3)  every  one 
he  met.  At  other  graves,  at  the  death  of  a  person  of  rank,  a  sham  battle 
was  enacted  or  a  universal  destruction  of  property  took  place.  The 
corpses  of  the  common  people  were  buried  in  a  sitting  posture,  but  those 
of  individuals  of  rank  were  laid  on  a  wooden  frame  (//.  19,  fig.  3),  and 
after  the  flesh  had  decayed  the  remains  were  brought  to  the  general 
cemetery  {pi.  19,  fig.  4),  where  flat  boards  with  scalloped  edges  were 
erected  as  images  of  the  souls  or  as  guardian  spirits,  and  rich  offerings 
were  made  to  both  on  the  altars.  In  New  Zealand  wooden  memorials, 
wound  around  with  cloths  and  engraved  with  the  tattooing  of  the  deceased, 
were  erected  to  the  dead  {pi.  20,  fig.  9),  or  stones  were  set  up  in  the 
ground  to  their  honor;  the  circle  of  huge  blocks  on  Rota  {pi.  16,  fig.  2)  is 
such  a  graveyard.     Diseases  were  cured  by  the  priests. 

Sla/ns. — Without  doubt,  the  Micro-Polynesians  are  a  highly-gifted 
race.  This  is  sufficiently  evident  from  the  manner  in  which  they  were 
able  to  assimilate  the  new  religion,  together  with  the  civilization,  which 
was  thrust  upon  them  so  suddenly  and  often  with  such  hostile  methods. 
Nevertheless,  great  commotions  occurred  among  them,  and,  corrupted 
as  they  were  by  European  vices,  they  rapidly  diminished.  But  Hawaii, 
for  example,  based  on  the  excellent  foundation  which  the  able  king 
Kamehameha  {pi.  ig,  fig.  10)  gave  it  in  the  first  half  of  this  century,  has 
almost  raised  itself  to  the  level  of  a  modern  state.  Things  are  worse 
in  New  Zealand,  partly  because  of  the  discord  of  war  among  the  Maoris 
when  the  Europeans  came,  and  partly  by  reason  of  the  immigration  of 
the  English  and  their  utter  disregard  of  the  natives. 

Dialects. — The  Polynesian  dialects  agree  in  fundamental  character 
with  those  already  treated  and  with  the  Malayan  idioms,  but  reveal  a 
nuirked  relaxation  in  the  phonetic  part  as  well  as  in  construction.  The 
Micronesian  dialects  are  more  vigorous;  otherwise,  they  are  closely  related 
in  structure  to  the  Polynesian. 


202  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

4.  The  Malaysians  and  Malagassies. 

Physical  Characteristics. — The  Sakalavas  on  Madagascar  are  much 
intermixed  with  Africans.  The  Hovas,  the  pure  Malays  of  the  island, 
are  of  middle  height,  fine  slender  build,  light  olive  complexion,  for 
the  most  part  with  short  and  frizzly  but  also  with  long  and  straight  hair, 
broad  full  nose,  and  full  lips  with  a  projecting  upper  lip  {pi.  28,  Jigs.  4, 
13).  It  is  more  difficult  to  speak  about  the  Malaysians,  as  they,  compris- 
ing so  many  different  stocks,  show  an  equal  variety  of  forms.  Their 
stature  is  in  general  only  medium,  frequently  not  even  robust;  for 
example,  the  pelvis  of  the  Javanese  woman  is  small-boned,  narrow, 
and  from  round  to  oval  (//.  i,  fig.  11,  b.). 

Complcxioti  and  Hair. — Among  the  Malays  proper  the  complexion 
varies  from  olive  to  copper  color;  among  the  Sumatrans,  from  light  to  yel- 
low; among  the  Javanese,  from  brown  to  gold  yellow;  among  the  Dyaks, 
again,  lighter  to  yellowish  white;  among  the  Tagalas,  from  dark  brown 
to  copper-red  and  light  yellow ;  the  same  among  the  inhabitants  of 
Celebes;  while  on  the  eastern  islands  it  darkens  into  blackish.  But  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Moluccas  are  also  frequently  of  a  golden  j-ellow.  The 
hair  is  black,  coarse,  straight,  frequently  frizzled  or  wavy;  in  some  tribes 
ver}-  curly,  in  others,  particularly  in  the  East,  bushy.  The  beard  and 
the  hair  of  the  body  are  very  scant. 

Skull. — The  form  of  the  skull  is  in  general  broad  and  high  (//.  21, 
Jig.  5),  the  back  of  the  head  sometimes  flattened,  sometimes  cur\ed 
(measurements:  Dyaks:  breadth,  75;  height,  77.  ]\Iacassars  of  Celebes: 
breadth,  78;  height,  78.  Madurese:  breadth,  82;  height,  82).  The  cheek- 
bones are  broad  and  high,  mostly  projecting,  the  root  of  the  nose  always 
lying  deep,  sometimes  artificially  pressed  in,  the  nose  itself  full  and  flesh}', 
sometimes  curved  {pi.  21^  Jig.  10),  the  mouth  thick  and  large  {pi.  zi^Jigs. 
3,  6;  pi.  22,  Jigs.  15,  16,  2i\  pi.  28,  Jgs.  I,  2).  Piercing  the  ear-lobes, 
sharpening  the  incisor  teeth,  and  also  artificial  shaping  of  the  skull  are 
general  customs.  Circumcision  is  rare  in  Malaysia,  but  a  very  simj^le 
form  prevails  in  I\Iadagascar. 

CostJtmc. — The  dress  of  the  Malagassies  is  shown  on  Plate  28  [Jigs.  3,  13, 
14).  In  Malaysia  it  is  of  different  kinds,  consisting,  among  the  more  civ- 
ilized peoples  of  the  West,  of  wide  pantaloons,  which  often  reach  but  to 
the  knee  and  are  worn  only  by  the  men;  of  the  sarong,  a  piece  of  cloth 
which  is  fastened  skirt-like  around  the  waist;  of  a  jacket,  which  only  the 
men  wear,  and  a  kerchief  for  the  head  (//.  21,  figs.  3,  4,  7,  8;  pi.  22,  Jig. 
18).  The  Tagalas  dress  somewhat  differently  (//.  26,  fig.  i).  A  fez-like 
cap  {pi.  21,  Jig.  12\  pi.  24,  pg.  2)  is  usual  in  Western  Malaysia.  The 
uncivilized  tribes  are  more  or  less  nude,  with  the  exception  of  a  loin- 
cloth and  the  head-kerchief  (//.  22,  figs.  21,  22\  pi.  23, y?^-.  i;  pi.  24, yf^. 
3;  pi.  26,  fig.  2;  pi.  2-],  fig.  23);  other  particulars  are  shown  by  our  plates. 
They  have  different  ornaments  for  different  festivals,  at  the  most  solemn 
of  which  they  also  have  the  upper  part  of  the  body  nude  (//.  21,  figs.  2, 


ETHNOGRAPHY. 


203 


12).  Tattooing  is  now  practised  only  among  the  uncivilized  tribes;  for 
instance,  the  Dyaks  {pi.  22,  fig.  2i\  pi.  23,  fig.  i). 

Archilcdurc:  Temples  and  Dwellings. — That  the  architecture  of  the 
Malays  should  be  excellent  is  but  natural,  considering  their  high  state 
of  culture.  The  large  and  magnificent  stone  temples  of  Java  are  famous 
(/>/.  22,  fig.  i).  Their  dwelling-houses  are  made  of  wood,  the  walls  gen- 
erally of  bamboo  matting,  and  the  roofs  of  straw  or  leaves.  Form  and 
details  are  shown  in  our  plates  {pi.  22,  figs.  20,  22;  //.  23,  figs,  i,  6;  pi. 
25.  fig^-  1-7;  Pt-  26,  fiigs.  2,  background,  iS;  //.  27,  fig.  25;  pi.  2S,  fi.gs. 
3,  14).  The  entire  house — or,  at  least,  the  projecting  roof — rests  on 
wooden  pillars.  The  dwellings  of  persons  of  rank  are  generally  adorned 
with  carving  (//.  27,  fiig.  25);  they  contain  several  apartments  besides  an 
outlying  kitchen.  There  were  also  wooden  fortifications  erected  on  the 
mountains  (//.  23,  figs.  2,  background,  6). 

Agriculture^  Food,  and  Siiinulanis. — Agriculture  is  highly  developed; 
rice,  spice,  coffee,  tea,  sugar,  maize,  and  innumerable  other  plants  are 
cultivated — in  some  places,  however,  only  for  individual  use.  Some 
implements  are  shown  on  Plate  22  {fiigs.  3,  4),  Plate  27  {figs,  i,  2,  4,  9, 

15)- 

The  chief  food  of  the  East  Malaysians  is  sago.  They  crush  the  pulp 
of  the  ripening  stem  with  a  hard-wood  club  to  which  a  flint  top  is  attached 
{pi.  24,  fig.  7).  The  pulp  is  then  cleansed  and  strained  through  a  sieve 
{pi.  24,  fig.  4),  and  is  baked  in  small  earthen  stoves.  Rice  in  various 
preparations  (//.  24,  fig.  9)  and  fish  are  staple  articles  of  food;  meat  is 
eaten  more  rarely,  although  cattle-breeding  is  quite  extensively  conducted, 
and  the  buffalo,  for  instance,  is  emi3lo)'ed  as  a  draught  and  working 
animal.  As  stimulants  they  use  opium,  tobacco,  spirits,  and,  above  all, 
the  betel-nut,  the  leaf  of  which,  together  with  the  nut  of  the  areca  palm 
and  a  little  chalk,  they  continually  chew;  all  these  they  carry-  with  them 
in  neat  boxes.  Besides  what  has  been  mentioned,  the  Malays  have  very 
many  utensils  and  movable  articles,  as  is  to  be  inferred  from  their  varied 
technical  ingenuity.  They  have  many  sorts  of  table-ware  of  some  degree 
of  fineness  {pi.  24,  fig.  6;  //.  26,  figs.  13,  14). 

Industrial  Arts. — They  are  skilled  in  spinning,  from  yarns  (//.  28, 
fiig.  5)  up  to  .ship  cables  (//.  26,  fiig.  15);  in  all  kinds  of  weaving,  dyeing 
in  high  colors,  leather  fabrics  {pi.  22,  fig.  2),  metal-working,  and  espe- 
cially in  filigree  ornaments,  carvings,  etc.;  also  in  mining  and  different 
mechanical  trades.  Bamboo  canes  and  cocoanut-shclls  are  much  used, 
the  former  as  receptacles  for  water  {pi.  24,  fig.  6);  and  they  have  also 
vessels  of  other  materials  {pi.  27,  fig.  20),  boxes,  etc.  {pi.  24,  fig.  8). 
Plate  28  {fig.  14)  represents  female  slaves  of  the  Malaga.ssies  carrying 
water  in  bamboo  canes.  The  cocoanut-shcll  is  carved  into  spoons,  vessels, 
etc.  {pi.  22,  fig.  ii\  pi.  26,  figs.  5,  6,  7,  13). 

The  Malaysians  have  many  earthen  and  metal  vessels  of  different  sizes 
and  for  various  purposes,  but  the  tampajans  of  the  Dyaks  {pi.  23,  fig. 
4)  demand  especial  mention.     These  are  large  glazed  receptacles  of  very 


204  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

ancient  and  probably  Asiatic  origin,  decorated  at  the  top  with  the  figure  of 
a  lizard  or  a  dragon,  and  supposed  by  the  Dyaks  to  possess  wonderful  virtues 
and  to  be  of  divine  origin.  For  this  reason  fabulous  prices  are  paid  for 
them.  Among  the  industries  of  the  Malaysians,  iron  smelting  is  noteworthy 
on  account  of  the  peculiar  bellows  employed  (//.  24,  _/?f.  i;  pi.  27,  y?^.  12), 
and  they  are  also  skilful  in  metal-boring  (//.  27,  fig.  13).  A  primitive 
gun-barrel  borer  is  seen  on  Plate  27  {/ig.  14);  the  massive  iron  beam  is 
set  in  the  ground,  and  two  boys  turn  the  arms  of  the  lever  of  the  borer, 
to  which  a  sack  of  stones  gives  the  necessary  weight. 

JVcapons. — Especial  care  is  given  to  the  construction  of  their 
weapons,  especially  to  their  favorite  kns,  a  long  sword-like  dagger, 
which  is  carried  in  the  belt  without  a  sheath,  and  without  which 
no  Malay  of  rank  goes  forth  {pi.  21,  fgs.  2,  8,  9,  10,  12;  //.  22,  Jigs. 
18,  21;  //.  23,  fg.  3;  pi.  26,  fg.  3;  //.  27,  fgs.  3,  5,  6,  7,  8).  Only  a 
few  peoples  of  the  East  (Bugis,  pi.  26,  fg.  2;  Tagalas)  have  bows  and 
arrows;  in  the  other  parts  of  Malaysia  these  are  replaced  by  blow-guns 
with  poisoned  arrows  (//.  27,  _pgs.  17-19),  spears,  which  are  sometimes 
thrown  from  peculiar  slings  {pi.  28,  Jig.  6),  clubs,  maces  (//.  28,  Jg.  7), 
swords  (//.  21,  Jg.  8;  pi.  22,  Jig.  21;  pi.  23,  Jgs.  i,  3;  pi.  26,  Jgs.  i, 
2,  3),  wooden  shields  {pi.  23,  Jig.  i);  and  fireanns  are  now  in  general 
use.  They  manufacture  a  coarse  kind  of  powder  {pi.  28,  Jg.  12,  powder- 
horn). 

Commerce. — The  Malaysians  have  ships  of  all  kinds,  from  the  simplest 
skiff  without  outrigger  to  the  three-master  of  the  Malays  of  Malacca, 
and  of  different  European  models,  which  these. people  have  now  adopted. 
Their  smaller  vessels  have  generalh-  the  outrigger,  which  seems  to  be  an 
ancient  Malayan  invention.  From  the  abundance  of  material  we  select 
but  one  illustration  {pi.  26,  Jg.  17).  Some  of  the  Malajsiaus  live  alto- 
gether on  their  boats.  From  all  this  it  is  not  surprising  that  trade 
throughout  Malaysia  should  be  very  important;  people  of  the  highest 
rank  engage  in  it.  Plate  27  {Jg.  23)  shows  how  lively  the  mercantile 
places  of  the  remotest  districts  are.  Voyages  to  New  Guinea  and  Northern 
Australia  are  not  unusual. 

Fine  Arts  and  Afiisical  Instruments. — Their  art-works  also  deserve 
notice.  Painting  and  sculpture  are  not  so  remarkable,  although  they 
paint  much  and  characteristically,  as  is  shown  by  the  superb  head  of 
Buddha  now  in  the  Munich  Glyptothek,  which  is  from  Java  {pi.  22,  Jig. 
14).  It  as  well  as  their  temple  architecture  shows  Indian  influence.  On 
the  other  hand,  their  music  is  of  indigenous  growth.  Besides  flutes  of 
all  kinds  (//.  2i,^Jg.  10;  comp.  also  the  expanding  Pan's  flute,  pi.  2^,  Jgs. 
8,  9),  drums,  and  long  bamboo  sticks,  which  they  strike,  they  have 
gongs  and  wooden  or  metal  basins  of  different  sizes,  frequenth'  several 
small  ones  being  hung  in  a  frame  {pi.  21,  Jig.  11);  further,  they  have 
trumpet-like  and  guitar-like  instniments  {pi.  28,  Jig.  10),  which  last  are 
struck  with  metal  rods;  and  violin-like  instruments,  the  metal  strings  of 
which  are  played  with  bows  {pi.  27,  Jgs.  10,  11;  pi.  28,  Jg.  10). 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  205 

Vocal  Music ^  Poetry.,  and  Entertainments. — They  also  have  fine  voices 
and  correct  ears,  and  sing  much,  often  during  entire  nights,  in  domestic 
entertainments  or  at  dances  and  festivities.  They  also  sing  when  at  work, 
especiallj'  when  rowing,  and,  though  their  songs  are  monotonous,  they 
often  sound  quite  agreeably.  Singing  is  inseparable  from  their  poetry. 
Even  their  dramatic  performances,  which  are  chiefly  executed  by  women 
in  masks  (^/.  22.,  fig.  12)  and  concluded  with  a  marionette  play  (//.  22,  fig. 
13)  or  show,  are  often  sung.  Naturally,  such  representations  are  to  be 
found  only  among  the  most  advanced  peoples  of  these  regions.  The  poet 
composes  his  melodies  himself.  Their  poetry  is  plentiful.  They  have 
long  epic  poems  about  the  deeds  of  their  ancestors,  hymns  about  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world,  etc.,  and  a  quantity  of  short,  four-lined,  generally  impro- 
vised lyric  poetry,  the  so-called  pantuns.  They  also  enliven  life  by  their 
games,  which  are  innumerable  (for  instance,//.  26,fig.  16);  among  others, 
they  are  passionately  fond  of  cockfights  {pi.  26,  fig.  i). 

Social  Life. — Social  life  is  regulated  by  very  strict  etiquette  and  highly- 
developed  politeness.  In  the  larger  places  all,  men  and  women,  can  read 
and  write  Arabic,  and  several  alphabets  have  been  invented  or  adapted  by 
these  peoples.  There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  high  intellectual  capa- 
bilities of  the  Malaysians. 

Afatriniony. — There  are  three  kinds  of  matrimony:  in  the  first  the  hus- 
band buys  the  wife;  in  the  second  both  are  equal;  in  the  third  the  husband 
is  a  sort  of  servant  to  the  wife.  Rank,  nobility,  and  property  are  trans- 
mitted through  the  wife,  on  whom,  though  she  generally  stands  below 
the  husband  and  is  often  ill-treated,  all  relationship  is  based;  and  this  is 
politically  of  the  greatest  importance.  Polygamy  is  permitted.  Marriages 
are  performed  with  ceremony  and  with  festal  pomp  {pi.  21,  fig.  2).  The 
family  life  is  affectionate,  though  infanticide  is  frequently  practised.  The 
naming  of  a  child  gives  occasion  for  a  feast,  at  which,  in  some  neigh- 
borhoods, ablution  with  water  takes  place.  The  feasts  are  chiefly  relig- 
ious, though  they  are  given  for  other  reasons — for  example,  after  conva- 
lescence— and  they  are  expensive,  since  eating  and  drinking  constitute 
their  chief  features. 

Government. — The  earliest  constitution  of  Malaysia  was,  like  that  of 
Polynesia,  patriarcho-religious,  so  that  the  king  and  the  noble  families 
exercised  a  despotic  power.  This  has  been  almost  entirely  retained  among 
the  Hovas,  and  it  is  further  .shown  in  the  peculiar  language  which  in  some 
places  the  common  people  are  obliged  to  use  to  the  nobles,  and  in  the 
court-costume,  which  in  ancient  Tahiti  as  well  as  in  Java  requires  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  to  be  nude  {pi.  21.,  fig.  12).  The  people  of  rank 
have,  of  course,  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  life  more  plentifulh-  than  the 
lower  classes;  for  instance,  only  they  possess  the  precious  tampajans,  and 
(in  Borneo)  they  are  carried  in  special  sedan-chairs  {fil.  23,  fig.  5).  But 
many  of  the  old  customs  have  been  moderated  or  abolished  by  Moham- 
medan and  Christian  influence. 

Justice  was   originally  based   on   this   patriarchal  foundation.     Joint 


2o6  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

responsibility  and  blood-revenge  prevail  extensively  in  Malaysia,  but 
money-payments  compensate  for  all  crimes,  even  for  murder  or  privation 
of  liberty.  Penal  slavery  is  prevalent,  and  slavery,  slave-hunting,  and 
slave-dealing  are  widespread.  There  are  many  punishments  for  smaller 
offences;  as,  for  instance,  among  the  Hovas  criminals  are  compelled  to 
wear  heavy  rings  around  the  neck  or  to  carry  blocks  of  wood  in  their 
arms.  The  figure  on  the  left  (//.  28,7?^.  3)  is  an  example.  Judicial  dis- 
putes are  also  often  decided  by  duels,  oaths,  and  ordeals.  Single  combats 
frequently  occur  in  the  wars,  and  the  wars  often  arise  from  judicial  disputes. 

Warfare. — The  armies  generally  have  champions,  who,  fantastically 
attired  {pi.  zx^fig.  i\  pi.  2"]^  fig.  22),  challenge  the  hostile  champions  to 
single  combat.  The  heralds  and  messengers  of  peace  are  also  fantasti- 
cally adorned  {pi.  22.,  fig.  17),  and  the  ^\^rriors  themselves  are  not  less  prone 
to  excessive  decoration  {pi.  22.,  figs.  8,  10) — at  least  among  the  less  civil- 
ized peoples;  among  the  Javanese,  however,  the  military  costume  differs 
but  little  from  the  usual  dress  (//.  21.,  fig.  8).  The  manner  of  warfare  is 
less  barbarous  than  that  of  Polynesia,  but  othersvise  very  much  like  it, 
stratagems  and  sudden  attacks  being  frequent,  and  poisoned  foot-traps 
very  general.  There  are  but  few  traces  of  cannibalism  among  the  IMalay- 
sians,  yet  the  accumulation  of  heads  of  the  enemy  is  a  chief  cbject  in  war 
— nay,  even  private  excursions  are  made  for  this  very  purpose;  and  they 
usually  have  special  knives,  which  are  used  for  no  other  service  than  this 
"head-hunting"  (//.  2-,  fig.  16). 

Character  of  the  Malaysians. — To  present  in  one  view  the  character 
of  the  Malaysians  is  very  diflScult  on  account  of  the  different  development 
of  the  single  tribes;  we  therefore  give  some  general  traits.  They  possess 
a  sort  of  good-nature  which  easil}-  drifts  into  indolence  and  laziness.  At 
the  same  time,  they  are  vain,  ambitious,  easily  offended,  and  when  offended 
very  revengeful.  Their  great  capability  of  dissimulation  tends  to  turn  their 
anger  into  malice  and  their  avarice  into  craftiness  and  fraud.  When  uncor- 
rupted,  they  are  faithful  and  honest  among  themselves.  On  the  v.'hole, 
they  are  cheerful,  and  are  not  lacking  in  valor,  and  even  chivalry,  which 
impels  them  to  the  "  noble  passion  "  of  piracy.  In  spite  of  their  modera- 
tion, they  are  very  passionate;  they  easily  get  into  a  sort  of  madness,  in 
which  they  run  about  and  destroy  or  slay  all  they  meet.  This  is  called 
"running  amuck."  The  barbarous  Malaysians  are  merry,  open-hearted, 
and  talkative;  but  wherever  a  higher  civilization  is  attained,  honesty  is 
first  lost,  often  also  temperance;  dissimulation,  craft,  and  shrewdness 
increase;  gambling  becomes  common,  and  passion  hides  itself  beneath 
apparent  calm  and  outward  earnestness. 

Religious  Belief — Mohammedanism  is  now  the  prevailing  religion  in 
Malaysia;  it  has  nearly  expelled  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism  from  the 
'islands.  Christianity  prevails  only  on  the  Philippines.  The  religion 
varies  with  the  locality,  and  even  where  it  preserves  its  original  form  it  is 
mixed  with  Indian  and  Mohammedan  elements.  Originally  the  Malay- 
sians believed  in  one  god,  who  dwelt  in  the  sun  or  heavens,  and  from 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  207 

whom  all  other  gods  Cgenerally  personifications  of  the  powers  of  natnre),  the 
universe,  and  mankind  liave  proceeded;  sacrifice  or  direct  worship  was  not 
offered  him.  Next  to  these  gods,  who  were  graded  down  to  elf-like  element- 
ary spirits,  were  the  guardian  spirits  (to  which  foreign  names,  dcva^  djin,  etc. , 
have  been  transferred),  who  were  originally  considered  friendh',  but  later, 
because  they  prepared  the  soul  for  heavenly  life  by  devouring  it,  were  held 
to  be  hostile.  These  latter  had  Hermes-like  figures,  with  gnashing  teeth 
(//.  2"]^  fig.  24)  or  projecting  tongue  (//.  22.,  fig.  22),  and  were  placed  by 
the  wayside  or  on  village  boundaries.  The  Malaysians  venerated  and 
feared  the  spirits  or  souls  of  their  ancestors,  which  were  not  assigned  so 
much  power  as  in  Polynesia,  although  they  were  much  feared. 

Siiprrs/i/ioits. — In  the  room  of  a  dying  person  they  hang  up  a  piece  of 
cloth  or  an  artistically-decorated  leaf  {pL  2"]^  fig.  21),  believing  that  the 
departing  soul  will  leave  the  room  on  it;  the  cloth  or  leaf  is  then  carefully 
destroyed,  because  divine  beings  can  walk  only  on  paths  that  they  have 
already  used,  and  so  the  room  remains  secure  for  the  use  of  the  people. 
From  this  it  follows  that  the  custom  of  the  Polynesian  taboo  prevails  in 
Malaysia,  as,  indeed,  it  does  generally,  together  with  a  mass  of  other 
superstitions.  The  souls  live  in  a  shadowy  Beyond,  in  wliiclv  thev  receive 
reward  or  punishment.  There  were  no  priests,  but  many  feasts  were  cele- 
brated in  honor  of  the  devas  and  souls  (Jiautii),  often  at  night  with  dances, 
etc.  {pi.  22.,  fig.  22).  For  these  latter  sacrifices  were  instituted  only  in 
individual  cases.  Human  sacrifices  were  frequent  at  the  graves  of  the 
nobles,  on  whose  death  a  "head-hunting"  was  inaugurated  in  order  to 
procure  servants  for  them  in  the  Hereafter. 

Burial. — The  corpses  were  disposed  of  in  various  ways.  They  were 
cremated,  which  probably  was  not  everywhere  due  to  Indian  influence, 
and  the  ashes  were  preserved  in  vessels,  or  they  were  dried  in  smoke  or 
left  to  decay  on  exposed  frames  and  then  burned  or  buried;  in  some  places 
they  were  buried  at  once.  Among  the  cultivated  tribes  people  of  rank 
were  first  exposed  on  a  bed  of  state  and  then  buried.  Plate  26  {fig.  4) 
shows  a  bier  from  Celebes.  The  funeral  festivities  were  very  numer- 
ous. Diseases  are  attributed  to  the  influence  of  evil  spirits,  and  are 
cured  by  magicians,  who  are  not  without  power,  and  by  women;  these 
persons  have  also  some  knowledge  of  medicine.  It  is  clear  that  the 
Malays  are  capable  of  European  civilization;  ])ut  if  European  influence 
has  often  only  injured  then,  it  is  due  to  the  manner  in  which  the  Euro- 
peans first  met  them. 

Language. — The  Malayan  languages  are  of  different  degrees  of 
development,  the  Tagala  being  the  most  ad\-anced.  In  the  forms  of 
speech  they  are  nearer  to  the  Polynesian  tlian  to  the  Melancsian,  although 
in  the  roots  they  betray  a  relationship  with  the  latter.  The  construction 
shows  a  rich  application  and  formation  of  elements  that  are  not  yet 
distinct  in  the  Polynesian.  In  customs,  in  phj-sical  structure,  and  in 
speech  all  these  peoples  belong  to  one  great  race.  At  first  sight  the 
Australian  languages  show  no  rehitionship  to  the  Polynesian,  Malaysian, 


2o8  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

and  Melanesian  languages,  but  the  grannnatical  structure  reveals  marked 
similarity. 

It  is  difficult  to  detemiine  the  original  home  of  this  race,  but  it  seems 
to  have  been  in  the  neighborhood  of  ^Malacca  and  Sumatra.  Thence  the 
Polynesians  may  have  first  migrated;  next,  the  Melanesians;  later  on,  the 
Australians;  while  the  Malays  proper  remained  nearest  their  original 
home.  Only  at  a  time  comparatively  recent  did  the  ^Malagassies  migrate 
to  their  present  location. 


OCKANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  4. 


Australians. l.  Native  of  I'orl  Lincoln.  2.  N;itive  of  (luecnshml.  _v  Woman  from  (Juecnslaml.  4.  West  Austra- 
lian. 5-7.  Australian  graves.  S.  Last  Australian  chief  and  family.  9-U.  Ruck-paintings  from  Nurth-wcsl  Australia. 
12.  Kansiaroo-ilance  of  (lie  South  .\u>l[ali;\iis. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate 


Al'STRAl.lANS. — 1.  South  Australian  man.  2.  South  Australian  woman.  3.  Stone-axe,  from  South  Australia.  4.  North 
.\nslralian  village.  5.  .Spear,  ami  6.  Hurling-stick.  7.  Spear-]x>inls.  S.  ,;.  Woixlcn  Ij.altlc-knifc;  />.  lioomcrani;.  9.  A.ie. 
10.  Woollen  shield  (side  view).  II.  I  Jistalf,  with  threads  spun  from  hair.  12.  Decoration  of  kanjpu-oo  teeth,  worn  .at  the 
festival  of  puheity.  13.  Instrument  for  tnaUing  noise,  used  against  evil  spirits,  from  Ka.st  .Australia.  14.  Stone  mortar. 
15.  Drinking-vessel,  made  of  a  human  skull.  16.  \V.ilerb.i{;,  made  of  oixissum  skin.  17.  .M.at  for  c.iriyini.'  an  infant. 
i.S.  Club.  19.  Instrument  for  makinj^  noise,  used  .against  evil  spirits,  from  South  .Vustralia.  20.  Ua-sket  made  of  woven 
nets.     21.  Spc.ar  point.     22.   liasket  carrieil  on  the  liacks  of  the  women. 


OCEANIC    PEOI'LKS. 


Pl.ATK   6. 


r 


8 


Tasmanians. — 1-4.  Natives  of  Tasmania  (men).     5.  Tasnianian  woman  and  child.     6.  Tasmanian  woman.     7.  Boat ; 
.8.  Paintings;  9.  Graves,  from  Tasmania.     10.  Taniicsc  (Tanna  Island).     11.   Iiiliahilaiit  uf  Marc  Island  (Loyalty  Island.). 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  7. 


(MD-% 


Mii-ANh.siANs. — I,  2.  Natives  of  Ku<lscar  liay  (New  Cuinea).  _?.  Nalivcs  of  Ilumlioldt  Hay  (New  Ciiinca). 
4.  'leinple  at  l)orci(Ncw  t'luinea).  5.  Temple  of  a  village  on  lluiiiloklt  Hay.  6.  Calabash;  7.  Caned  ship-Lrnamenl ; 
8.  Arrow -puinl — all  from  IhinilniKli  liay. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  8. 


Mklanrsians. — I.  Village  on    lliinil«)lilt    l!ay,  in    New  Guinea.      2.  \'illaye    on    the   soutli-wcstcrn  coast  of   New 
Guinea.     3.  Native  of  Dorei  (New  Guinea),  in  festive  attire.     4.  Village  on  the  Utanata  River,  in  New  Guinea. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  9. 


Mf.i.ani.si.\ns. — I.  Native  or  Iluniliolclt  IJay  (New  Guinea).  2.  Spe.ir,  from  Redscar  H.iy  (New  (Iiiinea).  3.  Spear, 
from  tlie  Kiiij^smill  Islands.  4.  Ile.idrest;  5.  Pan's  flute;  6,7.  .Shields;  8.  Spear  for  fisliing — all  from  New  Guinea. 
9.  .Spear,  fnmi  Malanla  (Solomon  Islands).  10.  Dagger-handle;  11.  Drum;  12.  E.ir-ring;  13,  14.  Shields — all  from 
Dorei  (New  Guinea).  15.  Dagger  made  from  human  Imnes,  frt)m  IIumlKildl  Bay.  16.  Comb,  from  Dorei.  17.  Bow, 
from  the  south-western  coa.st  (New  Guinea).  18.  Bow,  from  Dorei.  19.  Ix>in-cloth  (south-western  coast).  20,  24.  Do- 
mestic idols  of  I  )orei.  21.  Ixiin-cloth,  from  south-western  coast  of  Humlxjidt  Bay.  22.  Flute;  23.  Mead-rest,  from  Hum- 
boldt li.iy.     25.   Inhalfitant  of  New  Caledonia.     26.  House;  27.  Section  of  same,  in  New  Caledonia. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  lo. 


MeLANIvSIANS.— 1.  Boat  of  New  Caloilonia ;  2,  5.  lioals  of  llic  Admirally  Islands;  3.  lioal  of  MalaiHa  (Solomon 
Islands);  4.  Boat  of  Vanikoro  (I"iU's  Island).  6.  Hut  and  altar;  7.  Section  of  the  hut,  frumlhc  Louisiadc  Archipelago. 
8.  Bracelet  of  hiniian  Iwncs.     9.  Group  of  the  various  islanders. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  ii. 


.Mi.i.ANh:siANs.— I,  4.  Arfakis   (New  Uuiiiea).      2,3.  Skulls  artilicially  misshaped,  of  Samar  (Philippine   Islands). 
5.   li.hal.itant  of  ihe  Adinirally   Islan.ls.     6,7.     Negrilos,  from   Norlh  Luzon.     8,9.  Negrito  skulls,  of  Northwest   Luzon' 


10.   Place  fur  skull^,  uii  ai\  island  of  Torres  Strait. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  12. 


Mkianksians. — I,  2.   Chiefs  in   full   dress,  from  the   Fecjee   Islands.      3.  Manner  of   painting  the   faces  by  the 

I'"(;fjeeaiis.  4.  'rhakonibau,  king  of  ihc  Kcejee  Islands.  5,  7.  I'ishliooks ;  6.  Cap,  of  the  C'annilials.  8,  9.  t'omlis,  fron> 
New  Caledonia.  10.  Spcir;  11.  Haskcl,  from  the  Admiralty  Islands.  12.  Necklace,  from  the  Ixiuisiade  Archipekigo. 
13,15.  Utensils  of  the  Cannibals.  14.  Hatchet,  from  New  Caledonia.  16.  S,-\cred  drinkingves.sels;  18.  .Spears;  19,20. 
Arrangements  of  the  hair;  21.  Belt  for  the  women;  22,  23.  tans;  24.  Cannibal  forks;  25.  "Taboo"  mark — all  of  the 
Feejee  Islands. 


OCEANIC    PKOl'LKS. 


Plate  13. 


Mklanesians.— I.  Temple;  2.  Sacred  stones;  3.  Pots;  4.  Sections  of  sleeping-houses;  5.  Klevation  of  sleeping- 
liouses;  6.  Mastheads;  7.  Tojk  of  pillars  which  siipiiorl  the  ridge  of  the  roof,  from  the  1-eejee  Islands.  S.  Section  of  a 
skilT;  9.  Ship;  lo.  Musical  instruments,  of  the  I-'eejeeans.  11.  Temple  sipiare;  feast  of  human  sacrifice.  12.  Idol  from 
the  I'eejee  Islands. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Pl.ATK    14. 


r<>l.YNl«iANs. — I.  Women  of  Ualan  (Carolino  Islands).  2.  Boat,  from  I.ukiinor  (Caroline  Islands).  3.  Dwelling- 
house  on  Ualaii.  4.  I  louse  of  .xsscmbly  on  Lukunor.  5.  Native  of  I'onapi  (Caroline  Islands).  6.  Sword ;  7.  Comb ; 
8.  Vessel,  from  Pelew  (Caroline  Islands). 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  15. 


./ 


We.it  A 


.1/ 


a-  a.  a 

IS  II 


r                       1 

/J 

/■ 

1. 

^ 

1 

0.  H.  0 


0 


0.j/ 


UK 


Pdl.YNKsiANs. —  I.  liciat,  fr.iiu  Kailack;  2.  Coral  island  ami  lajjoim ;  j.  HoM,  from  Tamatam  (Caroline  Islands). 
4.  I'lau  of  ruins  on  ronapi  ((.'.irolint;  Islands).  5.  Aballiullt;,  chief  of  the  IVlcw  Islands  (Caroline  Group).  6.  Tlacc  of 
public  assembly  at   IVlcw. 


OCEANIC  pp:oplp:s. 


Pl.ATK    1 6. 


I'dlynksi ANs. — I,  2.  Kiiins  on  Tiiiian  ami  Kota  (Mariana  IslamU).  j.  Karik,  chief  of  Ihc  Kailack  Islands. 
4.  Dmni,  from  Kadack.  5.  View  of  an  island  of  ihe  Radack  chain.  6.  Cavalww  I ;  7-9.  Wcajwns;  10.  Xccdic;  11.  Cloth- 
hammer — all  from  the  Tonga  Islands.     12.  Chief  of  the  Tonga  Islands. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  17. 


10 


VoLYNF-siANs. — I.  Noctunial  dance  at  Tonga  (Tonga  Islands).  2.  Tongancsc  club.  3.  Tongancse  costume.  4. 
Wreath,  "  soul  of  the  god."  5.  Kenialo  idol,  fami  Tonga;  6.  I  lead-rests ;  7.  Small  skifl";  8.  Tendant  lahle,  with  a  hook 
below,  from  Tonga.     9.  Idol,  from  Raratonga  (Cook  Islands).     10.   I'lailed  bag,  from  Tonga.     II.  Tongancsc  ship. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  i8. 


I'ni.YNE-SIANs.— I.  Taliili;in  (if  rank.     2.  Woman  and  child  of  Tahiti.     3.  Tahilian  flute-player.     4-7.  Idols  of  Tahili. 
8.  Tahitians.     9.  1-emale  dancer  of  Tahiti.     10.  Ship  of  Tahiti.     II.  I'omare  II.  (Otu),  king  of  Tahili. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  19. 


Poi.vNr.siANs. — I.  Temple  place,  Tahiti.     2.   Impleiiienis  for  laltooing.     j.   I  leva  (priest  of  the  cor|v.e>).     4.   ISurial- 
place  of  Tahiti.     5.  SkitV  from  Nine.     6.  liihabilanl  of  Nukahiva.     7,  9.  Tattoo  niarksj  8.  Stilt,  of  Niikaliiva.     10.  Kaiiie- 

hnmeha,  Wmg  of  the  Saiulwich  Islands. 


Polynesians  and  Micronesians. — i.  Temple-place  (marae)  of  Kamehameha,  on  Hawaii.     2.  Can'ed  door;  3-5.  1  , 
club,  of  the  Maoris.     11.  Stone  images  on  Ea.ster  Island  (Waihu).     12.  Stone  house,  with  subterranean  chamber,  on  Knsii 
Maoris.     16,  17.  Mincopics,  inhabitants  of  the  Andaman  Islands. 


Plate  20. 


Swini;;  7.  (.arvcil  box — all  uf  the  Maoris.     S.   Head  ol  a  kanaka  (Hawaii),     y.  CIrave  momiinent;   10.  Ornamented 
1.      ij.   Maori  chief.     14.   Hul  (JIO  feet  long)  on  Ea-ster  Island,  with  cross-section  view  on  the  right.     15.  War-ship  of  the 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  21. 


Malaysians. — i.  Scout  of  the  district  Amfoang  (Java).  2.  Javanese  bridal  couple.  3.  Javanese  woman  and  child. 
4.  Javanese  of  rank.  5.  Skull  of  a  Javanese.  6.  Children  from  the  interior  of  Java.  7.  Woman  from  lav.-i  lying  her 
husband's  kerchief.  8.  Javanese  in  w.ir  attire.  9,  10.  Javanese  chieftains.  It.  Musical  instrument  (Ci.-tmelaii  Salindro). 
12.  Javanese  in  court  attire. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  22. 


M.\i  ^v^lA^s. — I.  M.iin  temple  in  Suku  (Java).  2,  5.  Inslrumciils  fur  llic  priparuiiiii  ui  ilros  slull>i  j.  rimij;li; 
4.  liulTalu  yoke;  6.  SanilalwiHKl  cuinli  of  llie  women;  7.  Cocoa  sixnin — all  frum  Java.  8,  10.  \Var-ca|)s  of  llie  Hyaks. 
9.  I.incn  liaj;  of  Timor.  II.  Cocoa  comli  of  1  lie  men;  12.  Ma.sk.->;  i_?.  Toy  doll;  14.  .Stone  head,  frtmi  Jav.i.  15,  16.  In- 
lialiilants  of  Aniarassic  (Timor).  17.  IlcraUl  of  .Vniantssie.  18.  Mailurese.  19.  Comb  of  butlalo  horn;  20.  Houses  of 
Timor.     21.  Ngadyus  (Southern  IJorneo).     22.  Uance  of  the  tU  Danan  (Borneo). 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  2.3. 


Mm  AY^IANS. — I.  Dyak;..     2.  (unimoii  |K.'t>plc;  J.  A  iioMcninn,  from  Uanjcnnassing  (Borneo).     4.  T,im|x>jan  (vessel 
for  ornamciil)  of  llic  Dyaks.     5.  Sedan  of  llic  Dyaks.     6.  Dyak  village. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  24. 


ist- 

jiM 

^~ 

^^^ 

jBt^ 

rf 

nuiiiiMii;&i::'^i^^ 

msiil   !|k11biR^ 

ajt'—l—.    l  f    tHSt — 1 

ff^^ 

W\'qSm. 

^^*^^^^^WM^t~ 

Ml.t4  "(^^Bl^^ 

■ 


i. 


10 


Mm  AY>lANs. — I.  Iron  furnace  nl  the  Dynks.  2.  Rct;cni  oi  .-^ir-iiii;  (Malay  Arclil|><.lai;ii).  3.  Interior  of  a  Hyak 
huusc.  4.  Wa-slting  of  sago.  5.  Sago  stove.  6.  Uanil>iH>  rccept.iclc  for  water.  7.  Sagu  club  of  Ccrain.  8.  Unnilxx)  Imx 
(napkin  ca.se) ;  9.  Cakenan,  of  Cclelws.     10.   Maca.ssar  lliitcs. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  25. 


Malaysians.— I.    Vcstilmli-;    2.    InvcllinK-housc;    3.  Slavc-liouse,   of  a   noMc    Macassar.      4.    I'laii   of  the   house. 
5.  Windows  of  its  front;  6.  I'loor;  7.  Supjwrts  of  the  roof. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  26. 


Malaysians.— I.  A  Tafplesc  (I'hilippine  Islands);  2.  Alfiirc  from  the  intcri'.r  of  the  Cclclxs;  3.  Alfurc  in  war  allire. 
4.  Hicrof  the  Macassars.  5,  6.  Sixioiis ;  7.  KunncI ;  8-10.  Karthcn  vessels;  II,  12.  Iron  vessels,  of  the  C'elelies.  13.  Ves- 
sel maile  of  .some  kind  of  fruit.  I4.  Copper  liasin  in  which  the  noble  Maca.ssars  wash  their  hands  at  the  taMe.  15.  Instru- 
ment for  twisting  ropes.  16.  l'ai)cr  kite.  17.  Ship  for  iKisscngers  and  freight  (Celebes).  18.  liainboo  bridge  and  Malayan 
church. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  27. 


Malaysians. — l.  Plough;  2.  Roller;  3.  Knife;  4.  Harrow;  5-8.  Dafgers  (kris) ;  9.  Shovel;  10.  Violin;  11.  Violin 
bow;  12.  Hellows,  tjf  the  Macassars.  13.  (Mmlct  from  the  Celebes.  14.  Guii-liarrcl  borer  of  lx)mlx)k.  15.  rniit-cup  for 
fine  fruits.  16.  Knife  fur  (he  capture  of  the  heads  of  the  enemy.  17.  niow-pipe;  iS.  Quiver;  19.  Toisoncil  bolt,  of  Cel- 
ebes. 20.  liuckel  (palm  leaf)  from  Riittle.  21.  I'iece  of  a  leaf  huny  umlcr  llie  roof  of  a  deceased  person  (Kottie).  22.  .Scout 
of  Solor.     23.  Market  at  Dolilx)  [.\m  Islands).     24.  lialta  village  (Sumatra).     25.  Farmyard  of  a  chieftain  of  Sumatra. 


OCEANIC    PEOPLES. 


Plate  28. 


Malaysians. — i,  2.  Inhabitants  of  Rotlic.  3.  Street  in  Taniatavc  (Madagascar).  4.  Ilova  women  (Madagascar). 
5,  Spinning-wheel;  6.  liandang;  7.  (i.ida;  8-10.  Mu>ieal  in'.Hnmenl.s.  uf  Java.  II.  Music.il  instrument  of  Umtie.  12.  Pow- 
iler-lmrn  made  uf  a  crocodile's  tooth  (Timor).  Ij.  llu\a.s  (.Madagascar).  14.  1-cmale  slaves  canning  water,  of  Tamatave 
(Madagascar). 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  209 


II.    THE   AMERICANS. 

The  aborifi^inal  inhabitants  of  .America  constitute  a  sinrjr  pTeat  race, 
in  wliich  are  to  be  included  the  extreme  northern  peoples  of  the  continent, 
the  Eskimos  and  their  relations  the  Kodyaks,  Malaimiutes,  Aleutians,  and 
also  t!ie  Namollos,  who  have  passed  over  into  Asia.  Some  scientists  class 
into  one  division  with  these  peoples  the  North  Asiatic  tribes,  the  Kam- 
cliatkans,  Yukagirs,  Koryaks  (Tchuktchis),  etc.,  and  this  division  is  called 
the  Arctic  or  Hyperborean,  or  the  Behring  people. 

The  Eskimos  form  a  connecting-link  bet\vee:i  the  Americans  and  the 
Asiatics.  In  many  respects  they  are  similar  to  the  latter  in  physical 
structure  and  manner  of  living,  but  their  language  is  entirely  American 
in  its  structure,  and  their  habits  are  more  like  those  of  the  Americans 
tlian  those  of  the  Asiatics.  In  Western  America  especially  their  clia- 
racter  and  physical  appearance  pass  gradually  and  without  precise  bound- 
aries into  tlie  class  of  distinctly  American  peoples,  and,  in  spite  of  some 
resemljlance  to  the  Asiatics,  they  are  even  physically  distinct  from  them. 

Both  of  these  latter  statements  are  confirmed  by  our  illustrations. 
Compare,  first,  the  Eskimos  (//.  29,  Jiq;s.  i,  3,  4,  7)  with  the  Kolushes 
(/>!.  Z''^,  figs.  5,  II,  15),  also  the  Aleutians  (/>/.  30,7?^.  14)  with  the 
Californians  (//.  40,  fgs.  i,  3);  then  compare  all  these  northern  tribes 
with  the  South  Americans  (as  in  //.  44,  Jigs,  i,  2,  3,  9,  10,  11;  pL  45, 
Jig.  8;  //.  46,  Jigs.  I,  2,  3;  pL  47,  Jigs.  I,  2,  3,  6;  //.  48,  Jgs.  i,  2,  3,  4, 
9;  //.  49,  Jig.  4;  pi.  50,  Jg.  2;  p/.  51,  Jig.  4),  and  great  similarity  will  be 
found  amongst  them.  But  on  comparing  them  with  the  northern  Asiatics 
(/"'•  75.A''-  5;  Pl-  7^yf<^-  5;  A-  79^A?^-  i>  4.  5)  it  will  be  admitted  that 
the  latter  are  very  much  alike  among  themselves,  but  may  easily  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Americans.  The  Tchuktchi  (on  pi.  75,  Jg.  5)  is  a 
sedentary  Koryak,  but  not  a  Namollo,  though  the  Namollos  are  also  called 
Tchuktchis;  consequently,  he  belongs  to  the  Asiatic  tribe,  and  not  to  the 
American.  Although  a  definite  judgment  regarding  the.se  peoples  is  not 
yet  possible,  we  feel  compelled,  on  account  of  the  reasons  abo\'e  men- 
tioned, to  class  the  Ivskimos  and  their  related  tribes  among  the  aboriginal 
Americans. 

ClassiJicaliov  and  Loca/io/i. — The  aboriginal  Americans,  therefore, 
include  the  following  peoples  (see  Map): 

1.  The  Eskimos,  as  above  stated; 

2.  The  Kolushes  (Thliukits),  on  the  western  coast,  from  near  Mount 
St.  Klias  to  south  of  Vancouver  Island; 

3.  The  tribes  of  Oregon,  around  the  Columbia  River; 

4.  Tlie  Kctiais  (Tinn6)  and  the  Athahascas,  from  the  Kwichpak  to 
Hudson   Bay  and   the    Missi.s.sippi,   to  whom,   among  others,   belong  the 

Vol.  I.— 14 


2IO  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Inkalits,  the  Tanana  Indians  (Middle  Yukons),  the  Chippewyans,  and, 
scattered  southward,  the  Apaches  and  Navajos; 

5.  The  Algoiikins^  from  the  Saskatchewan  to  Labrador  and  Nova 
Scotia  on  the  north,  and  to  the  Ohio  and,  east  of  the  AUeghanies,  to  the 
Savannah  River  on  the  south,  including  the  Crees,  Chippeways,  L,euape, 
Blackfeet,  etc. ; 

6.  The  Iroquois  (including  the  Hurons,  Susquehannocks,  Tuscaroras, 
etc.)  on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  upper  Ohio,  and  southward  to  Virginia; 

7.  The  Dakotas  or  Sioux,  on  the  Missouri  and  the  Mississippi  down 
to  the  Arkansas,  to  whom  belong  the  Assiniboius,  Minitarees,  Mandaus, 
and  many  others  of  the  best-known  tribes; 

8.  The  Pawnees,  on  the  Platte  and  Kansas  rivers; 

9.  The  South-eastern  tribes,  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  IMuskokees,  Semi- 
noles,  etc.,  on  the  lower  Mississippi  and  thence  to  the  ocean  and  in 
Florida ; 

10.  The  Mexican  peoples,  among  whom  may  be  included  the  Sonora 
tribes  and  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  New  IMexico,  the  Californians,  the 
Shoshones  or  Utes,  the  Comanches  and  Yumas  of  the  lower  Colorado, 
the  Pimos,  the  Moquis,  Mojaves,  and  others; 

11.  The  Cetitral  Aincrican  tribes,  from  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec 
to  that  of  Panama,  embracing  the  Zapotecs,  the  Mayas  in  Yucatan,  the 
Quiches,  Cakchiquels  and  Xincas  of  Guatemala,  the  Mangues,  Chapanecs, 
Guaymis,  etc. ; 

12.  The  Chibchas  or  Muyscas,  in  the  United  States  of  Colombia. 

13.  The  Caribs  and  their  neighbors,  the  Goajiros,  Arawacks,  Warraus, 
Macusis,  Paravilhanos,  Wapisianos,  and  others,  principally  in  Guiana  and 
Venezuela; 

14.  The  Tiipi  tribes,  in  Brazil,  consisting  of  the  Tecunas,  Miranhas, 
Juris,  IMundnicus,  Muras,  Manhes,  Botocudos,  Puris,  Cambocos,  Pata- 
chos,   Coroados,   Guaranis,   Guarajos,   Omaguas,   and  others; 

15.  The  Pampas  Indians  (Guaycurus,  Tobas,  Mbayas,  Abipones,  Puel- 
ches,  Tehuelches,   Fuegians,   and  Araucanians); 

16.  The  Qiiichiias  (Peru);  and 

17.  Eastward  from  the  Quichuas  the  peoples  of  Bolivia  (Chiquitos, 
Moxos,   Antisans)  and  of  North-eastern  Peru  (Panos,   IMaxurunas). 

Of  these  races,  2  and  3,  4  to  9,  and  10  to  12,  respectively,  belong  more 
closely  together. 

Since  we  maintain  the  unity  of  these  various  peoples,  we  may  be 
asked.  Where  was  the  original  home  of  the  Americans?  Thirty  years 
ago  the  supposition  was  that  the  Americans,  strictly  separated  from  all 
other  peoples  by  both  manners  and  language,  had  originated  by  natural 
development  in  America  itself  To-day  no  one  believes  that.  But 
whence  they  did  come  has  not  been  determined.  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  they  migrated  from  the  north,  coming  from  Asia  across  Behring 
Strait;  but  this  appears  contradicted  by  the  fact  that  peoples  who  become 
accustomed,  as  the  northern  Asiatics  had,  to  a  northern  climate  do  not 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  2ii 

move  southward  again.  Besides,  the  natural  conditions  of  northern 
countries  prevent  such  increase  of  population  as  would  render  emi.cjration 
necessary.  And  further,  the  history  of  the  cultivation  of  Indian  corn 
seems  to  lead  to  tlie  conclusion  that  the  people  who  used  it  liad  spread 
from  the  south  northward.  We  therefore  feel  justified  in  concluding  that 
the  Americans  migrated  from  China  or  Japan  across  the  Pacific  Ocean  at 
a  very  early  period — during  the  latest  diluvial  formation.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  suppose  that  the  migratory  movements  were  intentional  ;  they 
were  no  doubt  produced  by  causes  such  as  are  yet  occasionally  seen. 
Sometimes  the  ocean-currents  were  the  cause,  but  more  frequently  the 
western  winds,  which  are  very  strong  in  winter  and  blow  across  the 
entire  width  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Examples  are  not  rare  of  the  endur- 
ance of  barbarous  people  and  of  their  ability  to  sustain  life  on  the  ocean 
for  long  periods,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  instances  of  com- 
paratively short  passages  across  that  immense  body  of  water. 

If,  then,  the  original  settlers  of  America  were  driven  by  the  winds 
across  the  ocean  from  Asia,  they  most  probably  landed  on  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America,  because  the  winds  generally  blow  from  the  north- 
west. That  tlie  population  of  the  continent  spread  from  that  centre  is 
shown  by  its  equal  distribution,  which  diminishes  toward  the  extreme 
north  and  south,  by  the  distribution  of  the  maize,  and  bv  the  develop- 
ment in  civilization  of  the  tribes  of  Central  .'\merica  and  North-western 
South  America.  If  they  came  from  Asia,  it  is  probable  that  they  sepa- 
rated from  the  ancestors  of  the  great  ^Mongolian  family,  which  would 
account  for  their  Mongolian  resemblance.  This  resemblance  will,  how- 
ever, on  examination  prove  to  be  neither  so  great  nor  so  universal  as  is 
generally  thought.  But  can  we  suppose  that  the  whole  aboriginal  people 
of  America  descended  from  one  or  a  few  drifting,  canoes  of  people?  The 
supposition  is  extravagant.  Whole  hordes  must  have  separated  from 
the  original  centre  of  the  race  in  those  early  times,  just  as  large  bodies 
migrated  in  later  times.  That  only  a  few  should  emigrate  is  not  to  be 
tliouglit  of  for  those  times.  As  they  migrated  in  communities,  so  in  com- 
munities they  entrusted  themselves  to  the  sea,  confirmatory  examples  of 
wliich  are  furnished  by  the  sctllemcut  of  Japan,  the  Malaysian  Islands, 
Australia,  and  Polynesia.  While  many  hordes  perhaps  perish.ed,  one 
m;i\'  have  reached  America  and  gradually  spread.  Many  thousands  of 
years  afterward  the  Namollos,  an  .Asiatic  tribe  of  the  Eskimos,  migrated 
back  from  the  extreme  north  into  Asia,  taking  advantage  of  the  summer 
currents  of  Bchring  Strait,  which  flow  westward;  and  thus  we  find  that 
small  tribe  witli  .Vmcrican  language  and  customs  wedged  in  between 
peoples  of  Asiatic  origin.  Plowever,  all  these  questions  are  shrouded  in 
uncertainties  which  will  probably  never  be  cleared  away. 

Our  opinion  of  the  unity  of  all  these  peoples  is  based,  first,  on  the 
language  of  the  Americans,  then  on  their  pliysical  condition,  and  finally 
on  their  entire  manner  of  living. 

Language. — Philologically,   the    Americans    from    the    region   of  tlie 


212  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Eskimos  flown  to  Cape  Horn  are  a  nnit.  This  unity  is  not  manifest 
iu  the  similarity  of  the  words,  but  in  the  structure  of  the  languages,  and 
the  latter  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  relationship  of  the  peoples.  This 
construction  is  very  singular.  The  verb  cither  places  the  object  between 
the  person  and  the  root — for  instance,  in  Mexican  Jii-naca-qtia^  "I  eat 
meat,"  7ii  is  /,  which  pronominal  form  occurs  only  before  the  verb;  naca-tl 
is  "meat,"  and  qua  is  "to  eat" — or  it  at  least  inserts  an  objective  pro- 
noun and  repeats  the  subject:  iii-c-qiia  in  naca-tl^  "I  eat  it"  (r,  ka^  "it"), 
the  meat.  In  this  latter  manner  most  of  the  American  languages  pro- 
ceed. This  process  is  called  polysyntheiic,  or,  according  to  Humboldt, 
incorporative. 

A  language  so  constructed  has  in  reality  no  sentences;  it  runs  them 
into  long  words  in  which  the  single  words  are  often  much  abbreviated. 
For  example,  in  Cherokee  they  .say  Jiad-liol-i-jun,''' 'Rr'mg  us  the  skiff," 
from  natoi^  "bring,"  atiioxol,  "skiff,"  i  euphonic,  and  ;//«,  "us"  (Stein- 
thal).  Nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  are  not  sharply  distinguished  in  the 
fonnation  of  the  language.  We  make  the  distinction  between  subject 
and  predicate  the  foundation  of  syntax,  and  therefore  say  (to  retain  the 
first  example),  "  I  "  (subject)  "  eat "  (what  is  said  of  the  subject,  descrip- 
tion of  the  sxibject,  and  therefore  agreeing  with  it  in  number  and  person) 
"meat"  (object  of  the  predicate,  of  little  importance  to  the  subject,  as 
its  action  remains  unchanged  whether  it  eats  bread  or  meat). 

But  the  American  says,  ni-Jiaca-qiia,  "  I-meat-eating,"  and  his  mate- 
rial, sensual  conception  does  not  consider  the  condition  or  situation  of  the 
subject,  and  therefore  he  does  not  change  the  verb-root,  but  he  puts  in  the 
foreground  the  relation  of  the  subject  to  the  present  object,  and  cannot 
think  of  the  verb  without  the  subject  itself  or  a  pronominal  representative 
of  it.  To  him  it  is  not,  therefore,  the  principal  thing,  as  it  is  with  us, 
that  I  am  in  a  condition  to  eat,  but  that  I  have  meat  and  am  eating  it. 
So  Humboldt  and  Steinthal  are  correct  in  saying  that  the  American  lan- 
guages make  the  object  or  verb  the  central  point  of  a  sentence,  yet  do  not 
consider  the  verb  as  a  word  denoting  action,  but  on  the  contrary'  contract 
it  into  a  sort  of  adjective,  saying,  iu  place  of  "  I  eat,"  "I  eating" — that 
is,  "I  the  eating  one."  All  the  American  languages  show  a  similar 
structure,  more  or  less  pronounced — most  f;  !Iy  the  Mexican;  while  the 
Eskimo  and  its  related  idioms  rarely  insert  the  object  itself,  but  verj'  reg- 
ularly the  demonstrative  pronoun,  into  the  verb.  The  language  of  the 
Yukagirs,  Kamchatkans,  etc.  is  of  entirely  different  construction. 

Physical  Description:  The  Skull. — It  is  impossible  to  represent  a  typi- 
cal American  skull;  for  although  a  rather  long  or  medium  form  predom- 
inates among  the  Kolushes  and  peoples  of  Oregon,  as  well  as  among  the 
Indians  from  the  Yukon  to  Florida  and  among  the  peoples  of  Mexico, 
Guiana,  Brazil,  and  Peru  (//.  45,  yf^j.  2,  3,  4;  yV.  ^l.fig.  13),  still  some 
tribes  of  the  above-mentioned  peoples  show  variation  and  others  great 
differences.  The  Patagonians  are  distinguished  by  ver}'  broad  skulls, 
while  the  Eskimos  have  narrow  and  high  and  the  Aleutians  lower  skulls; 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  213 

ill  consequence  of  tliis  the  face  becomes  broader  and  the  head  assume?  a 
pyramidal  sliape  (//.  2,  fig.  8;  //.  29,7?^.  3;  pi.  2Pifi-g-  14),  which  we  meet 
with,  highly  developed,  among  the  Mexicans  {pi.  \\,fig.  i;  pi.  j^2,/ig.  4), 
but  which  is  at  the  same  time  peculiar  to  the  most  ancient  skulls  of  North 
American  tombs.  Almost  everywhere  an  artificial  shape  was  given  to  the 
skull  by  compressing  it,  especially  in  Peru,  on  the  Columbia  River  (the 
Flatheads),  in  Mexico,  among  the  Eskimos,  etc. 

Stature  and  Form. — Their  stature  is  good  on  the  average  (/>/.  32,7?^.^. 
I.  3;  #  ZZ^fiS^-  I,  2,  5,  6;//.  41,/^.  i\  pi.  ^^,figs.  9,  10,  11;//.  46,/^. 
4;  pi.  47,  fig.  4;  //.  48,  fig.  4) — generally  above  the  middle  height,  some- 
times (Patagonians,  Puelches)  gigantic,  up  to  7  feet  6  inches,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  as  among  the  Eskimos,  the  tribes  of  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
and  some  Brazilian  peoples,  hardly  attaining  5  feet.  In  many  places 
the  women  are  especially  small  (//.  42,  fig.  3;  pi.  ^i^^fig.  2;  pi.  45,7??'.  8). 
Hands  and  feet  are  often  remarkably  small — as,  for  instance,  with  the 
Eskimos  {pi.  2%  fig.  4),  in  Mexico,  Peru,  Brazil — the  legs  curved  a  little 
to  the  outside,  which  makes  their  carriage  awkward.  As  the  latter  peculi- 
arity is  found  not  only  among  the  Eskimos  (//.  2%  fig.  5),  but  also  among 
the  Kolushes  and  in  Mexico,  it  probably  is  not  caused  by  continual  sitting 
in  the  skiffs.  Undersized  figures  with  broad  shoulders  and  short  necks  are 
often  found  among  the  Mexicans  and  their  relations  {pi.  /\2.,figs.  6,  9),  in 
South  America,  and  especially  among  the  Patagonians  {pi.  49,  fig.  i ;  pi. 

50,  fig.  2);  not  seldom  a  disproportion  is  seen  between  the  large  rump  and 
the  too  small  limbs  {pi.  2,6,  fig.  y,pl.  50,  fig.  i);  while  the  Onichuas  and 
Pampas  Indians  often  have  a  head  somewhat  too  large  {pi.  50,  fig.  i;  //. 

51,  fig.  2).  The  Eskimos,  on  the  contrary,  are  .short,  but  stout,  fleshy, 
and  fat  (pi.  29,  figs.  4,  5,  7;  pi.  ^o,  fig.  14);  an  extraordinarily  high  blood- 
temperature  is  said  to  have  been  observed  in  them. 

Color. — The  color  of  the  skin  is  shaded  from  a  whitish  hue,  through 
yellowish-brown  and  cinnamon  color,  to  a  blackish  tint;  real  copper-red, 
except  when  arlificialh' produced,  occurs  rarely.  However,  light  and  dark 
shades  are  found  among  the  most  closely  related  tribes;  thus  the  Eskimos 
in  Greenland  are  gray,  while  the  .\lcutiaus  are  of  a  dark-yellow  brown. 
Redness  of  cheeks  is  often  perceptible,  and  the  skin  is  smoother,  some- 
times also  softer,  than  that  of  Europeans,  and  altogether  less  hairy. 

Hair. — Some  tribes — the  Eskimos,  for  instance  (//.  29, 7?<^.f.  i,  2,  4) — 
have  an  abundance  of  hair  in  tlie  beard;  generally  it  is  scant  (//.  2%  fig. 
3;  //.  30,7?^.  14),  and  is  then  usually  extracted  with  special  instruments. 
The  hair  on  the  head  is,  on  the  contrary,  very  long  and  abundant,  some- 
times, even  among  the  men,  hanging  as  low  as  the  belt  (//.  Z^^fiig.  12;  pi. 
33. .A?--  i;  /''■  44-  y^C-  6;  pi.  i^dj'igs.  2,  3;  //.  47. /.c-^.  2,  3;  //.  49,  fig.  i; 
pi.  S^if'.?-  4;  comp.  pi.  2g,fi/gs.  i,  3).  Generally,  although  not  always, 
it  is  black,  mostly  straight  and  coarse,  and  only  seldom  shows  indication 
of  curl  {pi.  44,  fig.  6;  pi.  46,  fig.  2;  pi.  48,  fig.  6;  pi.  49,  fig.  4;  //.  51, 
fig.  2),  still  more  rarely  (upper  Maranon  or  Amazon")  of  much  curl. 

It  is  worn  differently,  sometimes  very  long  (Norlli  America),  sometimes 


2 1 4  ETIINO  GRAPH  Y. 

cut  about  the  back  of  the  neck  and  the  forehead  (Aleutians,  Califoniians, 
pi.  T,OyJi^.  14;  //.  40,y?o-.  1),  sometimes  quite  short,  or  shaved  or  burnt 
off  except  one  long  curl  (scalplock;  conip.  />/.  2g,  Ji^.  3),  or  except  a  crown 
of  hair  on  the  top  of  the  skull,  as  among  the  Botocudos  (p/.  47,  yf^.  6;  //. 
48,7?^^.  1-4),  or  in  other  shapes  (//.  44,7?^.  7).  Sometimes  it  is  parted, 
braided  (//.  42,  /^.  5;  //.  50,  yf^.  2,  9;  //.  51,  //V.  4),  or  is  left  in 
disorder. 

Features. — Still  less  can  a  general  type  of  features  be  set  up,  which  is 
quite  natural,  considering  the  vast  extent  of  the  continent.  The  Eskimos 
do  not  differ  more  in  features  from  the  Algonkins  than  these  do  from 
the  Botocudos,  Califoniians,  or  Tupis.  The  forehead  is  often  small  and 
retreating  {pi.  32,  figs,  i,  3;  pi.  n.fig.  i;  //.  35;  pi.  zb.fig.  3;  pi.  \o,fig. 
i;  pi.  i,2,figs.  3,  5,  6;  pi.  \\,fig.  7;  //.  46,/.?-.  2>\pf-  Al.figs-  I,  3,  5;//.  48, 
fig.  2;  //.  \'^ifig-  i),  which  was  considered  beautiful  by  the  Mexicans  {pi. 
^2.,  fig.  4),  but  is  often,  as  our  plates  show,  of  a  different  shape.  We  find 
the  invariable  dark  eyes,  sometimes  sloping,  among  the  western  Eskimos 
(//.  29,  fig.  3;  //.  30,  fig.  14),  among  the  Inkalits  {pi.  2,1  ^  fig-  15).  and  the 
Kolushes;  in  Mexico  {fil.  42,  fiig.  4),  in  Brazil  {pi.  46,  fig.  i;  pi.  47,  fig. 
2;  //.  49,  fig.  i),  and  in  Patagonia;  but  in  general  they  are  perfectly  hori- 
zontal. They  are  rarely  large,  and  often  have  a  drooping  appearance, 
especially  when  the  expression  of  the  features  is  earnest  or  sad.  The 
nose,  always  pressed  in  at  the  root  {pi.  29,7?^.  i;  //.  30,  fig.  14;  //.  53, 
fig.  15),  is  frequently  much  curved  and  large  (North  Americans,  pi.  31, 
fiig.  12;  //.  32,/^.  i;  //.  33,  figs.  I,  2,  5,  6;  Mexicans,  //.  A^-^fig-  i;  P^- 
42,  figs.  3.  4.  5;  Brazilians,  pi.  48,  fig.  i;  Guianese,  pi.  44,  fig.  5).  It 
is  the  same,  but  also  broad  and  flesh}%  among  the  Peruvians  {pi.  50,  fig. 
^i  P^-  SSt/'gs.  15,  18)  and  tlie  inhabitants  of  the  Pampas  {pi.  $'^,fig.  2); 
frequently  straight  and  broad,  especially  in  the  south  and  in  California 
(//.  40,  fig.  i);  and  also  small  and  short,  as  among  the  Aleutians  {pi. 
30,  fig.  14),  and,  for  instance,  the  Californians  (//.  40,  fig.  i)  and  the 
Brazilians  {pi.  48,7?^.  6).  The  noses  of  the  Kolushes  (//.  2>^ifig.  n),  of 
the  Botocudos  {pi.  48,  fig.  3),  and  others  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
peculiar  form  of  the  Eskimo  nose  {pi.  29,  fig.  i). 

The  mouth  is  found  to  be  large  almost  everywhere,  and  the  lips,  espe- 
cially the  lower  lip,  thick;  which  fonn  also  is  not  infrequent  among  the 
Eskimos,  while  among  the  Mexicans  the  upper  lip  projects.  The  chin 
appears  well  formed  everj'where;  the  oval  shape  of  the  face  prevails  in  the 
north,  among  the  Athabascan  peoples  (//.  31,  fig.  12),  and  also  in  Mexico 
and  Peru,  but  throughout  the  rest  of  South  America  and  among  the 
Eskimos  the  round  shape  predominates.  Piercing  the  ear-lobes  and  the 
lower  lip  is  practised,  especially  amongst  the  Botocudos,  to  a  most  exag- 
gerated degree  (/>/.  ^S,  figs,  i,  2,  3,  4);  their  ear-  and  \\^-^\\igs  {boloques) 
can  be  seen  in  natural  size  on  Plate  47  {figs.  7,  8). 

This  custom  also  prevails  among  the  Brazilian  peoples,  and  their 
ornaments  are  often  still  more  barbarous  and  grotesque  {pi.  44,  fig.  7; 
pi.  47,  fig.  12);  while  those  of  the  Eskimos  (//.  29,  figs.  2,  3),  Aleutians 


ETHNO  GRAPHY.  2 1 5 

{pi.  T,i,_/ig.  3),  and  Koluslies  {pf-2,'^-,  Jig-  5)  are  of  a  (genuine  American  cha- 
racter. In  the  extreme  north  tlie  nose  is  frequently  pierced  (//.  T,i,Jigs. 
II,  12);  so,  too,  in  Central  America  as  well  as  in  the  south  (//.  44,  fig. 
7).  Tattooing  is  almost  uni\-ersal,  though  each  individual  has  but  little 
of  this  ornamentation,  which  is  mostly  applied  to  tlie  neck,  mouth,  and 
cheeks  (//.  ^o,figs.  i,  3;  pi.  44,/^^.  5,  7;  pi.  \(>.,  fig.  3;  pl-  M-,fig-  3;  P'- 
A^^/'g-  6;  //■  A9ifig-  5)1  and  also  to  the  forehead,  nose  (//.  44, 7?^ J.  5,  9, 
10),  breast,  and  upper  arm  {pi.  2,2,,  fig-  5".  #  i7,J>g^'-  3.  6;  comp. //.  49, 
fig.  5,  the  legs),  but  is  rarely  spread  over  the  entire  body  (//.  47,  fig.  5). 

Painting,  mostly  red,  black,  yellow,  and  white,  is  practised  frequently; 
the  Patagonians  on  Plate  50  {fig.  2),  for  instance,  have  their  faces  painted 
red,  and  the  Californian  on  Plate  40  {fig.  7,  to  the  right)  has  a  Spanisli 
uniform  painted  on  himself  as  a  decoration.  The  custom  of  painting  for 
festive  occasions  (for  instance,  //.  34)  prevails  from  the  Eskimos  to  Tierra 
del  Fuego.  Circumcision  is  practised  by  some  Brazilian  tribes,  and  was 
fonuerly  customary  in  Central  America. 

Intcrmixlitres. — The  mixed  breeds  of  the  Americans  with  other  races 
are  numerous,  vigorous,  and  fertile,  which  is  also  true  of  the  mi.xed  breeds 
of  the  Oceanic  races.  In  America  there  are  entire  tribes  and  populations 
which  are  mixed.  In  Peru  mixtures  of  Caucasians  and  Indians  are  called 
Mestizos,  Cholos  in  Chili,  Mamalucos  in  Brazil;  those  of  Negroes  and 
Indians  are  called  Zambos,  and  to  them  the  Brazilian  Cafusos  {pi.  48,  y?f. 
10),  with  their  immense  wigs,  belong.  The  peculiarities  of  both  parent 
races  can  easily  be  distinguished  in  the  offspring;  thus,  the  Cholo  {pi.  53, 
fig.  18)  exhibits  the  melancholy  expression,  the  broad  wide-open  nos- 
trils, the  disproportion  between  rump  and  limbs,  the  bristly  hair  of  the 
American  combined  with  the  high,  slender  stature  and  lighter  color  of 
the  European. 

Civilization. — A  marked  contrast  is  apparent  in  an  historical  survey  of 
the  civilization  of  the  American  peoples.  We  find  among  them  highly- 
civilized  peoples  by  the  side  of  perfectly  barbarous  ones;  and  as  the  latter 
differ  among  themselves  in  manner  of  living  according  to  their  environ- 
ment and  climate,  so  we  find  among  the  former  two  entirely  distinct 
developments  of  civilization,  and  from  them  down  to  the  barbarians 
various  intermediate  steps.  Even  one  and  the  same  tribe  sometimes 
shows  different  stages  of  development,  which,  considering  the  antiquity 
of  the  American  peoples,  is  natural. 

Mounds. — We  have  first  to  speak  of  the  peculiar  earthworks  which 
are  found  generally  in  the  river-valleys  south  of  the  Great  Lakes  from  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  to  Texas.  They  are  long  tumuli,  more  rarely 
excavations,  in  the  shape  of  animals,  representing  snakes,  birds  (//.  39, 
fig.  10;  perhaps,  also,  fig.  8),  lizards,  bears,  adders,  or  men  (perhaps  fig. 
8);  often  the  shapes  are  not  distinct  (//.  39,  fig.  7).  The  earthworks  are 
very  large:  Figure  6  (//.  39)  measures  about  100  feet;  Figure  10,  over  200 
feet;  Figure  8,  188  feet  in  length,  140  feet  in  breadth;  the  longest  work  in 
Figure  7  (a  lizard?),  which  is  crossed  b\-  a  modern  road,  measures  more 


2i6  ETIIXOGRAPHY. 

than   lOO  feet,  and  some  not  given  attain  the  length  of  looo  feet.     The 
work  shown  in  Figure  2  (//.  39)  encloses  a  space  of  4500  square  feet. 

All  these  monuments  {pi.  2>l^fKK-  8;  pi.  2i%figs.  2,  5-10,  arc  from  the 
Wisconsin  region)  seem  to  have  been  sacred  places;  Figure  2  was  certainly 
at  the  same  time  a  fortified  place,  and  others  lie  securely  on  hills  or  on 
land  projecting  into  the  rivers  {fig.  8).  Mounds  of  various  shapes,  gene- 
rally terrace-fonned,  with  eroded  summits  (//.  37,  fig.  8,  7  feet  high;  //. 
2)<),fig.  5,  23  feet  high),  which  served  as  tombs  and  as  temple-places  and 
places  of  sacrifice,  are  also  numerous.  Frequently  they  are  in  the  vicinity 
of  such  animal-shaped  reliefs  and  connected  with  them  by  artificial  roads. 
Remarkable  examples  from  Ohio  are  shown  on  Plate  39  {figs,  i,  3),  also 
specimens  of  pottery  {Jig.  4)  found  in  them.  The  mounds  and  animal  figures 
were  built,  as  is  proved  by  the  skulls  which  are  sometimes  found  in  the 
fonner  and  by  objects  in  the  latter,  as  also  by  many  similar  works  of  the 
Americans  of  to-day,  by  the  ancestors  of  the  North  American  Indians  (Nos. 
4  to  9  of  our  enumeration  on  p.  209),  but  at  an  extremely  early  period. 

In  some  places  these  sacred  spots  have  been  used  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, furrows  passing  over  them,  undoubtedly  the  remains  of  farming, 
and  have  received  the  name  of  "garden-beds"  (//.  39,  fig.  9).  The 
reliefs  certainly  could  not  have  been  furrowed  before  their  ancient  sig- 
nification had  been  forgotten.  This  early  method  of  farming  is  entirely 
different  from  that  of  the  Indians  of  to-day,  who  sow  tlieir  maize  on  sep- 
arate little  mounds  called  "corn-hills"  (//.  39,  fig.  6);  the  method  of  to- 
day, however,  was  already  extensively  known  at  the  time  of  the  discovery 
of  America.  It  is  possible  that  in  the  course  of  millenniums  the  con- 
structors of  the  animal  figures  w'ere  driven  away  by  southern  agricultural 
tribes,  perhaps  belonging  to  Mexico,  and  that  very  much  later  the  descend- 
ants of  the  former  inhabitants  resumed  their  old  places. 

We  dismiss  these  speculations  in  order  to  consider  what  remains  of  the 
actual  life  of  the  Americans.     We  begin  in  the  north. 

Dress  and  Ornaments. — The  dress  of  the  Eskimos  consists  of  an  upper 
garment,  of  sealskin;  a  middle  gamient,  extending  from  the  waist  to  the 
knees,  of  bear-  or  dogskin;  and  boots,  of  turned  sea-dogskin  with  soles 
of  whalebone.  The  upper  garment,  alwa\'s  furnished  with  a  hood,  which 
can  be  turned  down  (//.  29,  fiig.  7),  and  which  they  like  to  trim  with  fine 
furs,  is  lined  with  the  skins  of  sea-birds.  They  often  wear  several  coats, 
one  over  the  other.  Everything  is  neatly  sewn  with  sea-dog  sinews  and 
bone  needles  {pi.  2c),figs.  4,  6,  7;  //.  2Pifig^-  2,  12,  13,  14).  In  the  inte- 
rior of  their  dwellings,  which  they  keep  ver\'  hot,  they  go  about  almost 
naked  (//.  29,  fig.  5).  Peculiar  caps  of  artificially  bent  wood,  decorated 
with  carved  whalebone  or  glass  beads,  and  also  with  the  highly-valued 
beard-bristles  of  the  sea-lion,  are,  or  were,  a  principal  ornament  of  the 
Aleutians  (//.  ^o^fig.  14;  pi.  Si,fig.  2),  and  similar  ornaments  are  worn 
by  the  western  Eskimos  (//.  29,  fig.  3).  The  Kolushes  and  also  the 
Californians  (//.  40,  figs,  i,  3)  wear,  where  they  have  not  received  cloth- 
ing   from    the   Russians,  besides   a   covering   around   the   loins,  only   a 


ETIIXOGR.  IPIIY.  2 1 7 

blanket  of  homespun  wool  or  a  skin,  which  they  throw  about  the 
shoulders  like  a  cloak  and  tie  at  the  neck  (/>/.  31,  figs.  5,  11).  Gene- 
rally they  arc  nude. 

The  north-eastern  Indians  (from  the  Yukon  to  Florida)  had  a  similar 
attire  (//.  31,  fig.  15);  their  garments — a  blanket,  shirt,  pantaloons,  and 
moccasins  {pL  32,  figs,  i,  3;  //.  33,  figs,  i,  6) — were  mostly  made  of 
leather,  which  they  skilfully  prepared,  painted  (//.  38,  fig.  6),  and  em- 
broidered (/>/.  31,  fig.  15;  pi.  32,  fig.  3).  They  also  had  woven  materials 
made  of  bufHilo-hair  and  of  plant-fibres,  and  handsome  cloaks  made  of 
feathers.  Feathers  or  caps  made  of  them  were  worn  especially  at  their 
dances  {pi.  ZZ^fitg-  2).  The  Califoriiians  also  sometimes  pasted  feathers 
over  their  entire  bodies,  as  is  shown  by  the  picture  of  the  dancer  (//.  40, 

fiig-  !)■ 

An  especial  festive  ornament  was  made  by  sewing  feathers  to  a  piece 

of  red  material,  which  was  worn  along  the  back  like  a  long  bristling 
mane  (//.  33,  fig.  6).  Feathers  served  to  decorate  the  pipes  of  peace  (/>/. 
32,  fig.  15),  also  as  emblems  of  various  deeds  (//.  2)^.,  fig.  12;  pi.  32,  fig. 
^■>  /''•  ZZ^fiS-  5;  P^-  34)1  according  to  the  bird  to  which  they  belonged,  the 
manner  in  which  they  were  placed,  the  place  where  they  were  worn — 
whether  on  the  head,  the  spear,  etc.  (//.  33,  figs,  i,  6) — and  the  shape 
which  was  given  them,  either  the  quill  or  the  plume  being  split  and  faced 
with  red  {pi.  2fi,fig.  2).  As  a  matter  of  course  the)'  had  necklaces  {pi. 
40,  fig.  2)  and  other  ornaments. 

The  so-called  wampum-belts  (//.  36,  fig.  9),  of  polished  shells  or  colored 
glass  beads,  were  highh'  valued,  and  played  a  prominent  part  as  gifts  pre- 
sented on  the  occasion  of  treaties.  In  the  house  they  gathered  their  long 
hair  into  a  knot,  and  generally  removed  their  superfluous  gannents  {pi.  33, 
f'g-  5;  A-  35)>  also  at  dances  (//.  33,  fig.  2;  //.  34).  The  women  dressed 
much  like  the  men,  only  with  less  ornament  and  withotit  feathers  {pi.  32, 
fig.  3).  Snowshoes  {pi.  ^2,  figs.  18,  19)  are  worn  in  different  shapes  by  the 
different  peoples.  The  Eskimo  tribes  and  the  Athabascas  use  glasses  to 
protect  the  eyes  from  the  glare  of  the  snow  (//.  30,  fig.  5;  pi.  32,  fig.  13). 

The  attire  of  the  natives  of  South-western  North  America,  who  are 
related  to  the  Mexicans,  can  be  seen  on  Plate  36  {fig.  3),  Plate  42  {figs. 
3i  5i  6,  9),  Plate  43  {fig.  i);  the  costumes  and  materials  of  Figures  3  (//. 
36)  and  5  (//.  42)  are  of  European  origin.  The  South  Americans  gen- 
erally wear  a  belt  around  the  hips  and  cloaks  about  the  shoulders.  They 
are  frequently  nude,  the  men  concealing  only  the  foreskin  or  covering  the 
member  with  leaves  or  pieces  of  stuff  (/>/.  46,  fig.  4;  //.  47,  fig.  n;  pi  48, 
fi.^-  a)-  Our  illustrations  make  further  descriptions  sujierlhunis.  Feather 
ornaments,  although  not  of  such  special  significance  as  in  the  North,  are 
popular  (//.  44,  figs.  I,  3,  5,  6,  7,  9,  10,  11  ;  pi.  45,  figs,  i,  8;  //.  46,  fig. 
3;  //.  47,  figs. -4,  12;  pi.  .(9,  fig.  2);  also  chains  about  the  neck,  arms  (//. 
44,  _/;?x  5,  6),  and  legs  (//.  47,  fig.  4;  pi  49)  fig-  2),  also  various  kinds  of 
hats  {pi  50,  fig.  2),  and  the  most  grotesque  masks  at  dances  and  festivities, 
which,  however,  are  not  badly  designed  (//.  45,  fig.  8). 


2i8  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Usage  and  etiquette  in  the  smallest  details  reign  nowhere  more  power- 
fully than  among  people  in  their  natural  state.  Thus,  almost  everAthing 
in  the  attire  of  the  Indians  on  Plates  32,  2>Z^  34  has  its  meaning,  which 
we  will  here  explain,  so  that  our  pictures  maj'  be  more  intelligible.  The 
Indians  in  Plate  33  {J'lg.  2)  and  Plate  34  have  a  wolf's  tail  on  the  shoe, 
which  indicates  that  the  bearer  has  performed  some  deed  of  bravery  in 
war.  The  design  in  the  hair-ornament  of  Figure  5  {pi.  2)'^  signifies  that 
he  has  stabbed  an  enemy  of  rank;  the  split  turkey-feather  in  the  same 
place  (comp.  pi.  36,7?^.  2),  that  he  has  received  an  arrow-wound  in  battle; 
the  erect  feathers,  that  he  has  slain  enemies  in  a  hand-to-hand  conflict ; 
those  horizontal,  that  he  has  killed  an  enemy  in  sight  of  the  adverse 
party;  the  hand  which  is  painted  in  yellow  color  on  his  left  breast,  that 
he  has  made  many  captives. 

The  spear,  which  is  bonie  as  shown  in  Figtire  i  (//.  33"),  is  supplied 
with  a  bowstring,  and  is  only  ornamental.  The  handle  of  the  leather 
whip  serves  as  a  whistle.  The  figure  in  the  background  (Jig.  i)  has  the 
verj'  popular  breast-ornament  of  porcupine-quills.  The  Indians  are  inex- 
pressibly vain  about  their  finer}-,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  every 
particle  of  it  signifies  some  important  event  of  their  lives. 

Dzfcllings. — The  dwellings  of  the  Eskimos  are  generally  built  of  stone 
and  wood,  sometimes  of  wo'od  only,  or  of  snow-blocks.  They  are  usually 
occupied  by  several  families,  each  having  its  own  fireplace,  and  also  its 
own  sleeping  compartment  on  a  wooden  platfonn  divided  off  by  skins. 
During  the  day  they  sit  on  this  platform  at  their  work,  the  women  with 
their  legs  crossed  under  them  and  the  men  with  theirs  hanging  down  {pi. 
2%  fig.  5).  The  entrance  consists  of  a  low,  crooked  passage.  Through 
this  the  fresh  air  passes  into  the  interior,  though  sometimes  the  dwelling 
apartment  has  also  windows  of  sealskin.  The  dwellings  and  utensils 
show  no  cleanliness — generally  their  hungrj-  dogs  are  the  only  cleaners — 
but  the  tents  built  in  summer  of  poles  and  hides  are  neater,  and  are 
inhabited  by  only  one  family.  The  interior  of  such  a  tent  is  separated 
from  the  entry  by  an  embroidered  curtain  of  sealskin  {pi.  29,  fig.  6). 
They  have  a  variety  of  household  goods;  provisions  are  kept  in  separate 
small  houses.  Their  chief  articles  of  food  are  dried  fish,  seal  and  reindeer 
flesh,  and  they  drink  only  water. 

The  Aleutians  build  their  houses  partly  under  ground  and  cover  the 
upper  parts  with  soil  and  grass  {pi.  2,^.,  fig.  i).  Whilst  the  Eskimo  houses 
are  like  those  of  the  Pawnees  on  the  upper  Platte,  the  villages  of  the 
Kolushes  resemble  the  Cherokee  villages  on  the  upper  Tennessee.  Thej' 
are  constructed  of  wood,  and  in  front  of  each  house  there  is  a  scaffolding 
for  storing  goods,  drying,  etc.  {pi.  37,  fig.  5).  In  the  interior  a  bench 
along  the  walls,  covered  with  mats,  serves  for  a  sleeping-place.  The 
building  of  the  northern  Indians  is  inferior. 

The  ^landaus  erect  circular  huts  formed  of  poles  fastened  together  at 
the  top  and  covered  with  leather  or  bark.  The  hut  is  also  provided  with 
a  rather  long  entr)-  (//.  34;  //.  35;  pi.  36,  figs,  i,  8).     This  style  of  hut 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  219 

is  widespread.  Plate  Tfi  {/'J^-  8)  contains  the  plan  of  one:  /i,  the  wall,  of 
short  posts;  g,  entry;  /,"  leather  curtains;  d,  board  wall  to  prevent  draught; 
c,  part  for  the  horses;  a,  fireplace,  over  which  hangs  the  kettle,  with 
smoke-hole  above;  /',  pillars  united  at  the  top  with  joists,  which  carr)'  the 
roof;  e\  seats  of  willow-ware  covered  with  mats;  ?',  bunk  of  the  famih-, 
from  which  {pi.  35)  the  whole  interior  can  be  overseen.  Such  huts 
usually  cover  from  fifty  to  sixty  square  feet.  They  form  villages, 
which  are  generally  located  in  secure  places  and  fortified  with  palisades 
(//.  36,  Jig.  i).  Besides  these,  the  Indians  have  portable  summer  tents, 
which  are  often  covered  with  brightly-painted  leather  {pi.  2,-j,  fig.  i). 
They  have  numerous  household  goods,  as  everything  is  kept  in  the 
houses.     They  sleep  either  on  mats  or  in  peculiar  leather  bunks  \pl.  33, 

fig-  4)- 

The  houses  of  the  barbarous  Mexican  peoples  of  North  America  are 
arranged  as  on  Plate  43  {fig.  i).  Our  plates  also  show  the  South  Ameri- 
can dwellings,  which  are  sometimes  quite  rude  and  sometimes  of  good 
quality  {pi.  44,  figs.  4,  8;  pi.  45,  figs,  i,  5):  the  interior  of  a  pointed 
hut  like  Figure  5  (//.  45)  is  shown  by  Figure  4  (//.  44).  Several  fam- 
ilies generally  occupy  each  hut.  Hammocks  are  universally  used  as  beds 
(/>/.  44,  fig.  4;  //.  45,7?r.  1 ;  //.  48,  figs.  7,  9).  Plate  49  {fig.  2)  exhibits 
different  styles  of  huts;  Plate  45  {fig.  6)  and  Plate  48  {fig.  9)  are  the 
simplest  Brazilian  forms.  The  huts  of  the  Goajira  Indians  (Gulf  of 
Maracaibo)  are  built  on  poles,  and  partly  extend  over  the  water  {pi.  ^3, 

SIcflgcs  and  .Skiffs. — Their  sledges,  which  are  to  them  in  winter  what 
their  skiffs  are  in  summer,  are  made  of  pieces  of  wood  or  bone  fastened 
together  by  straps  and  drawn  by  dogs  (/>/.  30,  fig.  6).  During  winter  they 
stow  away  their  .skifTs  on  special  frames.  The  skiffs  are  of  two  kinds. 
Some,  which  they  call  boats  for  women,  are  made  of  framework  covered 
with  the  hide  of  the  sea-dog,  and  are  capable  of  holding  six  or  eight  per- 
sons (//.  30,  fiig.  2);  the  others,  which  arc  called  kayaks,  are  hunting- 
boats,  and  are  about  fifteen  feet  long,  though  thc\-  hold  only  one  person, 
who  sits  in  a  hole  in  the  deck  (//.  y),fig.  1).  The  !uen  are  very  skilful 
both  in  guiding  them  and  in  using  their  weapons  from  them. 

The  skifTs  of  the  Kodyaks  (//.  30,  figs.  8-10)  and  of  the  Aleutians 
resemble  those  of  the  Eskimos,  whilst  those  of  the  Kolushcs  are  made  of 
liollowed  trees.  The  other  Americans,  who  live  inland  near  lakes  and 
rivers,  have  not  accomplished  anything  noteworthy  in  boatbuilding.  They 
all  use  hollowed  trunks  of  trees  (//.  ZT.fiig.  6;  //.  '\(>,  fig.  4),  though  fre- 
quently they  merely  wade  through  the  streams  (//.  48,  y?!^-.  4).  The  round 
leather  skills  of  the  Mandans  (//.  35;  //.  ^6,  fig.  i)  and  the  balsas  of  Lake 
Titicaca  are  peculiar.  The  latter  consist  of  double  leather  pipes,  and  are 
propelled  by  oars  (//.  53,  fig.  17). 

Fishing  and  Hiinliiig  Wiapons. — The  weapons  have  generally  a  loose 
point  attached  to  the  shaft  by  a  long  rope — a  style  which  exists  also  among 
the  eastern  .\inericans  {pi.  i8,fig.  2).     A  bladder  is  fastened  to  the  shaft, 


220  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

so  that  it  will  float  (//.  30,  fig.  i).  The  hunter  keeps  the  rope  coiled  on 
a  frame  in  the  forepart  of  the  kayak,  and  the  bladder  lying  behind  him. 
As  soon  as  he  has  cast  his  harpoon  at  an  animal  he  throws  the  bladder  into 
the  sea,  whilst  the  rope  is  rapidly  unwound  by  the  animal  in  its  frantic 
efforts  to  escape  (//.  2P.,fig.  i).  For  hunting  sea-fowl  the  Eskimos  use 
an  iron-pointed  spear  with  several  bone  barbs  on  the  shaft  {pi.  30,  fig.  3), 
which  increase  the  chances  of  intercepting  the  irregular  flight  of  the  prey. 
They  also  use  a  peculiar  throwing-stick. 

AgHculture  and  Stock- Raising. — Agriculture  was  in  a  flourishing  state 
among  many  tribes  of  North  and  South  America  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery.  Maize,  pumpkins,  manioc,  cotton,  etc.  were  grown.  The 
maize,  which  was  pounded  in  peculiar  mortars  {pi.  35,  to  the  left),  was 
the  chief  article  of  diet.  The  more  barbarous  tribes,  of  course,  lived 
on  the  product  of  the  chase  {pi.  47,  fiig.  6;  //.  48,  figs.  4,  9)  and 
fishing. 

Stock-breeding  was  not  carried  on  extensively  in  North  America,  but 
in  South  America  it  is  practised  by  many  Caribbean  and  Brazilian 
tribes,  and  principally  by  the  Pampas  Indians,  who  can  hardh-  be  imag- 
ined without  their  horses.  In  North  America  the  dog  was  in  ancient 
times  the  only  domestic  animal,  and  its  flesh  was  used  as  food.  The 
people  now  have  horses  also,  and  several  tribes  keep  droves  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  They  keep  tame  animals  for  amusement,  such  as  birds,  apes, 
deer,  etc.  (//.  44,  fig.  6). 

Stinuilauls. — Intoxicating  drinks  were  first  introduced  to  the  north- 
eastern Americans,  in  spite  of  their  earnest  opposition,  by  the  Europeans; 
but  several  of  the  South  American  tribes  had  a  liquor  similar  to  the  cava 
of  Polynesia,  and  something  like  it  is  found  among  the  Kodyaks  in  the 
north-west.  Their  universal  use  of  tobacco  is  well  known.  Great  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  workmanship  of  pipes  {pi.  32,  figs.  12,  14-17).  In 
the  tombs  of  the  Indians  pipe-heads  are  frequently  found,  generally  made 
of  a  much-prized  reddish  stone,  and  representing  divers  figures  (//.  38, 
figs.  7,  9,  10,  12),  some  of  which  have  reference  to  the  sanctity  of  the 
tobacco  {//.  38,  figs.  7,  9,  12),  which  they  consider  a  gift  of  the  Great 
Spirit,  and  use  at  ever)-  festivity  and  solemn  transaction  {pi.  32,  fig.  15; 

pl  36,  fig-  5)- 

Utensils. — For  cooking  and  table  use  they  have  pots  (//.  37,  fig.  3), 

various  earthen  vessels  {pl.  41,  fig.  6;  //.  43,  fig.  i;  pl.  44,  figs,  i,  2,  3, 
4,  8;  //.  45,  fig.  i),  wooden  bowls,  which  are  sometimes  nicely  carved 
(/''•  31.  fig-  4),  spoons  (//.  32,  fig.  6;  pl.  37,  fig.  4),  etc. 

Industrial  Arts. — The  Eskimos  possess  great  manual  dexterity  in  bone- 
and  wood-car\dng,  sewing,  embroidering  {pl.  31,  fig.  13),  braiding  (//. 
31,  fig.  6;  //.  40,  fig.  6),  and  metal-working.  They  forge  the  metals 
cold,  both  copper  (which  abounds  in  North  America)  and  iron  (which  they 
either  mine  or  acquire  by  barter).  They  manufacture  dagger-like  knives 
with  inlaid-work  {pl.  31,  figs.  7-9),  rings,  idols  {pl.  30,  fig.  7),  etc. 
The  northern  Athabascas  possessed  similar  attainments;  the  other  Indians 


ETHXOGR.  IPIIY.  221 

{generally  used  stone  tools,  axes  (//.  38,  fig.  3),  knives,  etc.  Discoveries 
made  in  tlieir  tombs  show  that  they  were  more  skilful  at  an  earlier  period; 
as,  for  example,  the  amulet  (/>/.  38,  fig.  5)  is  made  of  copper.  At  present 
the  barbarous  South  Americans  accomplish  very  little  (//.  46,  fig.  4;  pi. 

48,  fig.  5)- 

Painting  and  Sculpture. — The  Indian  sculptures  in  stone — as,  for  in- 
stance, the  pipe-heads  {pi.  38,  figs.  7,  9,  12) — deserve  praise.  Though  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  sonie  of  their  carvings  are  quite  handsome,  still  the 
industrial  attainments  of  the  Americans  are  insignificant.  Their  leather- 
work  (//.  36,7?^.  6;  //.  38,  fig.  6)  is  excellent  and  tasty,  and  the  paintings 
with  which  they  decorate  the  leather  are  passable.  They  paint  a  record  of 
their  deeds  or  ancestrj^  on  their  hide-cloaks  (//.  38,  ftg.  6),  huts,  shield.^, 
etc. ;  and  these  paintings  are  of  great  importance,  being  in  the  nature  of 
hieroglyphics.  They  make  similar  records  on  memorial  stones  {pi.  32, 
fig.  2),  on  tablets  of  birch-bark,  and  on  metal  plates,  all  of  which  they 
sacredly  preserve,  and  at  times  read  for  the  instruction  of  their  young  people. 

Some  of  them  have  a  religious  purport  {pi.  i^^^ifi^-  1\  P^-  Z^^A?-  ^X 
for  the  magician-priests  preserve  in  this  manner  the  songs  and  rules  of 
their  secret  societies  {pi.  "^"J^fig.  9).  They  are  of  course  diiTicult  to  inter- 
pret. Plate  38  {fig.  11)  shows  the  beginning  of  a  petition  of  the  Chip- 
peway  chiefs  to  Washington.  The  animals  a  to  g  are  the  coats  of  arms 
(totems)  of  the  several  petitioning  tribes;  «,  that  of  the  conductor  of  the 
petitioners,  whose  path  to  Washington  is  marked  by  the  line  //  the  lines 
from  eye  to  eye  signify  unity  of  opinion;  those  from  heart  to  heart,  the 
"one-heartedness"  or  unity  of  purpose  of  all  the  petitioners;  //,  the  Great 
Lakes  whence  the  enibas.sy  came;  and  the  line  passing  beside /<  signifies 
the  road  to  the  inland  lakes. 

Figure  5  {pi.  36)  refers  to  tribes,  not  to  individuals:  an  Iroquois  chief, 
wound  about  with  rattlesnakes  as  a. sign  of  his  superhuman  .strength, 
receives  the  homage  of  Mohawk  warriors.  The  rock-paintings  of  the 
South  American  Indians  {pi.  45,  fig.  7)  are  unimportant. 

Pitetry  and  Music. — The  poetry  of  the  American  peoples  deser\'es  some 
attention.  Though  often  their  imagination  runs  riot  and  becomes  absurd, 
yet  their  tales  contain  much  that  is  really  beautiful  and  thoughtful.  The 
Indians  are  justly  famous  as  orators. 

Their  musical  accompli.shments  amount  to  nothing,  their  only  instru- 
ments being  drums,  clappers  (//.  34,  to  the  left;  //.  49,7?^.  2,  .second  figure 
to  the  left;  //.  49,  yff.  3,  a  calabash  filled  with  stones  on  a  staff),  and  divers 
flutes  (//.  y2,.,fis;s.  9,  11).  In  Hrazil  the\-  have  a  speaking  trumpet  which 
they  use  for  invitations  to  festivities  and   for  summons  to  war  {pi.  47, 

fiS-  9)- 

Social  Life. — In  North  .\merica  the  men  are  occupied  with  the  political 
assemblies,  at  which  strict  ceremony  prevails.  Fixed  forms  of  politeness 
prevail,  especially  amongst  strangers.  Although  the  North  American 
appears  outwardly  sedate,  he  is  not  free  from  violent  passions  nor  devoid 
of  a  sense  of  humor. 


222  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

There  arc  varions  games  (//.  ^2,  fig.  5;  //.  3S,  y?^.  4),  nor  is  there  Lack 
of  feasts,  which  al\va\s  have  religions  meanings,  snch  as  the  feast  of 
pnberty,  which  was  often  connected  with  crnel  ceremonies  (tearing  of 
the  flesh,  letting  of  blood,  etc.),  the  harvest  festival,  etc.,  at  all  of  which 
dances  and  grotesque  processions  were  prominent  features.  The  dancers 
wear  masks  representing  the  animal  from  which  the  dance  derives  its 
name,  or  ven,-  grotesque  costumes  {pi.  2^2)1  fis-  2;  pi-  34;  pt-  40,  fig.  7), 
and  indulge  in  miich  noise. 

In  South  America  the  feasts  are  similar,  but  less  spirited.  The  princi- 
pal ones  are  the  strange  nocturnal  dance  of  the  Puris  (//.  A,%  fig.  i) ;  the 
three  days'  feast  and  procession  of  the  Tecunas,  celebrated  in  honor  of  a 
two  months'  old  child  {pi.  4S,^g.  8);  and  the  drinking-feast  of  the  Cania- 
cunas,  at  which  a  half-fermented  liquor  is  drunk  from  a  hollow  tree-trunk, 
accompanied  by  singing,  or  rather  howling  {pi.  4g,fig.  2).  The  longer 
these  dances  last,  the  more  passionate  and  dissolute  the}'  become;  and 
they  often  conclude  with  the  war-dance  (//.  47,  fig-  4). 

Weapons. — In  tlie  north  the  weapons  besides  the  bow  and  arrow  (//. 
Zl^  fig-  2;  pi-  3S,  fig-  i;  pi  Ao.figs.  4,  5)  consisted  of  spears  {pi.  H.ftgs. 
I,  6;  //.  34),  battle-axe,  tomahawk  (//.  32,/^^.  i;  pi.  Z2>,  fig.  5),  clubs  {pi. 
2,2,  figs.  4,  8;//.  34),  wooden  shields  (//.  2,2,^fiig.  i),  and  blowing-pipes. 
Firearms  are  now  used  almost  everywhere.  Of  the  arms  of  the  South 
Americans,  which  are  shown  by  our  plates  (//.  44,  fiigs.  4,  9-1 1;  //.  46, 
fig-  5;  pi-  4^ifi'g-  4)  pi-  5'^yfig-  2,  etc.),  we  call  attention  to  the  very  long 
spears  of  the  Patagonians  (//.  50,  fig.  2)  and  to  the  bodogite  of  the  Gua- 
ranis,  their  neighbors  (//.  48,  fig.  8),  the  latter  weapon  being  a  sling 
shaped  like  a  bow,  in  the  double  cord  of  which  the  stones  to  be  slung 
are  placed. 

//'(7;-.T.— War  was  always  formally  proclaimed,  and  was  waged  (except 
among  the  Eskimos,  who  are  wholly  ignorant  of  it)  with  great  ferocity, 
but  sanguinary  open  battles  seldom  occurred.  Foraging-expeditions  in 
search  of  scalps  or  boot)'  were  common.  Peace  was  concluded  by  burying 
the  battle-axe  or  solemnly  smoking  the  pipe  of  peace,  which  was  pre- 
ciously decorated  {pi.  2,"^,  fig.  15;  pi.  Z^^fiS-  S)-  Scalps  were  retained  by 
the  victor  as  a  decoration  for  his  spear-.shaft,  etc.  (//.  2Zi  fiS-  i))  or  they 
■were  stretched  on  a  frame  (//.  36,  fig.  2),  around  which  the  women  danced 
at  times.  In  ancient  times  many  tribes  tortured  their  captives,  believing 
that  this  revenge  was  helpful  to  the  souls  of  their  own  slain. 

Cannibalism,  which  prevailed  in  earlier  periods  more  than  in  later,  was  by 
no  means  universal  in  North  America.  The  heart  was  eaten.  The  Caribs, 
or  Cannibals — from  whom  the  word  cannibalism  is  derived — lived  in  South 
America  (Guiana,  Brazil),  but  they  were  not  greater  man-eaters  than  other 
tribes,  by  some  of  which,  it  is  said,  dead  relatives  were  devoured.  The 
IVIundurucus  (on  the  IMadeira)  cut  off  the  heads  of  their  enemies,  and  after 
drying  and  stuffing  them  carried  them  about  with  them  (//.  4~,fig.  5.)  In 
South  America  utensils  w-ere  sometimes  made  of  the  bones  of  the  enemy, 
drinking-cups  of  their  skulls. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  223 

Family  Life. — I^ife  for  the  woman  in  South  America  means  continual 
work,  the  men  either  doing  nothing  or  being  engaged  in  war  (//.  0,6,  Jig. 
5),  liunting,  or  roaming  {pi.  \%,fig.  4).  A  glance  at  the  family  life  of  the 
N^orth  Americans  is  more  cheerful,  although  the  woman  is  badly  treated, 
having  to  perform  hard  work,  even  to  building  the  huts  (the  men,  how- 
ever, construct  the  skiffs)  and  carrying  everything;  sometimes  she  is 
exposed  to  the  most  barbarous  abuse.  Love  between  parents  and  chil- 
dren is  strong.  The  manner  in  which  children  are  carried  is  shown  on 
Plate  42  {fig.  3),  Plate  45  {fig.  8),  Plate  47  {fig  6),  Plate  48  {fig  4),  Plate 
49  U^S^-  2,  5)-  The  Athabascas  have  particular  little  chairs  for  the  chil- 
dren (//.  2)'^,fig.  15).  The  Algonkin  and  related  tribes  have  leather  cradles, 
which  are  fastened  to  a  board  and  carried  on  tlie  back  (//.  2>^,fig.  6). 

The  children  are  rarely  educated.  The  giving  of  the  name  is  cele- 
brated with  a  feast,  and  the  feast  of  puberty  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
for  at  it  the  youth  receives  his  "medicine;"  that  is,  by  means  of  a  dream, 
tlie  "dream  of  life,"  he  seeks  to  find  out  the  animal  in  wliich  his  guar- 
dian spirit  has  been  incorporated.  The  skin  of  that  animal  is  considered 
an  amulet.  It  is  carried  by  the  Indian  on  Plate  2)2>  U'S-  ^)  i'^  ^^^  white 
bundle  on  his  shield. 

Matrimony. — Marriage  is  easily  contracted  and  easily  dissolved;  polyg- 
amy is  permitted,  but  is  not  frequently  practised  on  account  of  its  cost;  and 
adultery  is  rare  and  severely  punished.  Although  perfect  freedom  is 
allowed  the  females  before  marriage,  their  life  is  generally  moral.  But 
cases  of  passionate  love  are  not  infrequent,  and  the  favor  of  women  is  duly 
appreciated:  young  men  among  the  Dakotas,  for  instance,  carry  bundles 
of  rods  corresponding  to  the  number  of  their  successful  love-adventures 
{pi.  32,  fig.  10). 

Govirntnoit. — The  government  seems  to  have  been  based  on  the  famih-. 
Among  the  Eskimos  and  the  Kolushes  each  family  is  independent,  but 
among  the  latter  people  we  find  several  families  united  into  a  clan  which 
has  .some  animal  for  its  guardian  .spirit  and  sign  or  coat  of  arms.  Such 
coats  of  arms,  or  "totem.s,"  are  shown  on  Plate  38  {fig.  11):  b  is  the  so- 
called  "man-fish,"  a  being  partly  fish,  partly  man,  whicli  the  Chippewav.s' 
myths  represented  as  living  in  the  upper  lakes.  The  bird  {pi.  32,7?^.  2) 
also  seems  to  be  a  totem. 

The  so-called  "bands"  or  associations,  with  certain  laws,  customs, 
and  signs,  which  are  found  among  the  American  peoples,  have  probably 
derived  their  origin  from  these  clans.  Such  a  band  among  the  IMandans 
were  the  "Dogs,"  whose  festive  co.stnme  and  ensign  (clapper)  are  por- 
trayed on  Plate  33  {fig.  2).  Certain  dances  are  pcrfonncd  exclusivclv  hv 
these  societies;  as,  for  instance,  the  buffalo  dance  by  the  Buffalo  Band 
(//.  34),  at  which  particularly  famous  heroes  wear  the  head  of  a  buffalo. 
Another  society-badge  is  shown  on  Plate  36  {fig.  4).  The  different  .socie- 
ties had  also  signal-jupes  of  different  shapps  and  tojics,  which  the  members 
■wore,  together  with  tlic  badges,  around  the  neck  (//.  y.ijig.  '^\\  pi.  2)1., 
f'S-  2). 


224  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Several  tribes  often  united  in  confederacies  as  a  check  upon  excessive 
division.  The  same  conditions  obtain  in  South  America.  In  the  north 
great  councils  or  assemblies  of  the  people  are  held  with  much  solemnity, 
but  in  the  south  they  are  more  lax. 

Death-and-Biirial  Cej'emonies. — Among  the  Eskimos  the  dead  are 
buried.  The  corpse  is  never  carried  out  through  the  door,  but  through 
the  window  or  the  wall  of  the  tent,  while  the  inmates  shout  after  it,  "No 
one  else  to  be  had  here  " — a  custom  which  we  shall  also  find  among  the  Chip- 
peways  of  the  upper  lakes.  They  fear  that  the  deceased  might  draw  the  liv- 
ing after  him,  and  they  believe  that  his  path  should  not  be  trodden  by  the 
living.  When  he  is  buried  all  his  effects  are  put  on  his  grave,  and  the 
lamentations  for  him  are  frequently  repeated  during  the  space  of  about 
one  3'ear.  The  practice  of  making  offerings  at  the  grave  existed  among 
the  Kodyaks,  W'ho  buried  the  dead  in  the  manner  shown  on  Plate  30 
^Jig.  11),  and  among  the  Aleutians,  who,  as  did  many  North  American 
Indians,  embalmed  the  corpses  and  suspended  them  in  boat-like  coffins  or 
interred  them  in  caves  or  in  painted  tomb-boxes.  The  latter  manner  of 
burial  also  prevails  among  the  Kolushes  (/>/.  31,  Jig.  10);  coffins  in  the 
shape  of  ships  are  used  by  the  Kenais  (Athabascas, //.  'i^ifig-  14);  many 
other  tribes  east  of  the  Rock}-  Mountains  lay  out  the  dead  on  scaffoldings, 
either  simply  wrapped  in  cloths  or  placed  in  coffins  {pi.  ZlifiS-  2);  others 
bury  prominent  individuals,  especially  great  warriors,  in  a  sitting  posture; 
and  the  Aleutians  inter  all  males  in  that  manner  {pi.  37,  fig.  8).  This  prac- 
tice is  now  steadily  vanishing.  The  bones  are  collected  by  many  tribes 
and  put  in  large  charnel-houses  which  belong  to  the  tribe  in  common. 

We  have  already  considered  the  old  grave-mounds  (p.  216;  pi.  37,  fig. 
8;  P'-  39i  fig-  5);  they  are  at  present  iised  preferably  by  the  Indians  for 
their  graves,  which  are  built  in  various  ways,  often  quite  artistically. 
Such  a  superstructure  of  the  simplest  kind,  and  reminding  us  in  a  meas- 
ure of  Plate  30  {fig.  11),  is  shown  on  Plate  37  {fig.  7).  Cremation  of 
corpses  occurred  rarely.  Often  the  grave  was  decorated  with  a  pole 
carrj'ing  the  totem  of  the  deceased  (//.  37,  fig.  2,  to  the  left;  //.  34,  to 
the  left,  the  pole  with  the  skin,  with  which  compare  pi.  20,  fig.  9).  In 
some  places  lamentations  for  the  dead  found  very  singular  expression: 
offerings  to  the  dead  were  plentiful,  and  chiefs  of  high  rank,  when 
dying,  often  partook  of  their  own  funeral  meal.  Similar  customs  pre- 
vailed throughout  South  America. 

Religious  Belief. — The  soul  was  believed  to  be  immortal;  the  dead 
lived  on  in  the  Hereafter  in  an  earthly  manner — the  good,  the  warriors, 
etc.  happily,  the  wicked  and  the  cowards  in  a  penitential  condition.  Tb.e 
Indians  also  believed  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead  exercised  an  influence, 
generally  an  evil  one,  on  the  living;  however,  the  souls  of  powerful  ances- 
tors (for  which  the  stars  were  taken  in  some  places)  ofteu  became  guardian 
spirits.  These  latter  act  a  prominent  part:  they  appear  to  the  individual 
in  his  "dream  of  life,"  either  as  an  animal  or  a. plant,  which  then  becomes 
his  totem.     Accordingly,  many  animals  are  sacred  to  them,  such  as  the 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  225 

rattlesnake  {pi.  36,  fig.  5),  the  beaver,  the  bear,  etc.  The  sun,  the  moon, 
stars,  and  fire  were  worshipped. 

The  belief  in  an  evil  being,  which  had  to  succumb  to  the  good  spirit, 
existed,  and  inferior  spirits,  fairies,  elfs,  giants  {pi.  38,  fig.  8),  water- 
sprites,  etc.,  are  not  wanting.  An  example  is  shown  on  Plate  36  {fig.  7). 
This  Indian  picture  represents  the  spirit  of  a  meteor  running  away 
because  he  imagines  the  woman  who  is  eating  roasted  chestnuts  to  be 
a  fire-eater.  All  the  Americans  possessed  a  deep  religious  feeling,  and 
they  often  prayed  to  their  gods  in  a  sensible  manner.  They  undertook 
nothing  without  religious  preparation.  But  their  religion  had  a  dark 
side,   for  the>'  were  superstitious  to  a  high  degree. 

Idols. — Idols  were  by  no  means  common:  the  principal  images  seem  to 
have  been  tliose  of  the  guardian  spirits,  among  which  are  to  be  classed 
the  old  earth-reliefs  (//.  39,  figs.  6,  7,  8,  10),  although  among  them  the 
famous  snake  monument,  about  seven  hundred  feet  in  length,  is  prob- 
ably a  representation  of  the  Great  Spirit  or  of  the  Evil  Spirit;  and  those 
of  ancestors,  whose  images  were  worn  as  amulets  (//.  30,  fig.  7;  //.  38, 
fig.  5).  Other  idols  occur  throughout  the  continent,  often  of  a  grotesque 
shape.  Barbarous  images  of  the  sun  are  found  in  South  America  fre- 
quently in  rock-sculpture  {pi.  45,  fig.  7,  at  the  bottom,  to  the  left,  and 
the  strange  figures  in  fig.  8,  probably  represent  gods). 

Temples  were  rare,  and  did  not  at  all  exist  in  the  extreme  north  of 
America.  But  the  priests — called  angekok  by  the  Eskimos,  medicine-men 
in  North  America,  pioclics  by  the  Caribs  and  Tupis — possessed  great 
influence.  The  pricsth'  office  was  not  easily  attained,  for  candidates  were 
obliged  to  submit  to  many,  and  often  painful,  trials.  Among  some  tribes 
of  North  America  supernatural  power  was  attained  only  by  the  consump- 
tion of  human  flesh,  by  which,  as  it  were,  a  second  soul  was  acquired. 
The  priests  were  principally  those  who  offered  sacrifice,  which  consisted 
of  animals,  fruit,  and  also  children,  the  latter  especially  in  order  to 
gain  victory  or  a  rich  harvest;  but  generally  they  were  only  magicians, 
fortune-tellers,  conjurers  of  ghosts,  and  healers  of  the  sick  in  an  absurd 
or  immoral  manner.  Among  the  Patagonian.s,  for  instance,  they  wore 
female  attire.  They  performed  their  jugglings  in  special  huts,  the  medi- 
cine-huts of  the  North  Americans  serving  the  latter  as  temples. 

All  disease  was  held  to  be  the  result  of  demoniacal  possession,  and  was 
therefore  to  be  cured  by  exorcisms,  though  some  rational  remedies  were 
occasionally  applied.  The  priests  were  despised,  though  they  were  feared 
on  account  of  their  power,  and  were  sometimes  killed  when  their  medicine 
or  incantation  had  not  the  desired  result.  Besides  the  assistance  of  the 
priests,  various  magic  agencies  were  employed;  thus,  for  instance,  Plate 
33  ^fis-  3)  shows  a  magical  nuMuuncnt  of  the  Dakotas  which  was  probably 
also  a  society  emblem. 

The  priests  gained  a  special  influence  by  means  of  the  .secret  religious 
associations  which  were  found  everywhere  both  in  North  and  South 
America   (Dakotas,   Caribs,  etc.).      The    much-despised  men   who   wore 

Vol.  I.— 15 


226  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

female  attire  fonned  such  a  society,  but  there  were  also  other  societies  of 
higher  rank  into  which  persons  from  different  tribes  were  admitted  with 
solemn  ceremonies.  We  shall  mention  only  the  Meda  League,  whose 
members — magicians  and  physicians  of  power — were  supposed  to  stand 
in  close  relation  to  the  gods. 

Their  sacred  songs  descriptive  of  their  rites  were  written  in  hiero- 
glyphics, a  specimen  of  which  is  given  on  Plate  37  {fig.  9).  a  is  the 
medicine-hut  of  the  Meda  League,  containing  the  Great  Spirit,  and 
represents  the  song  which  must  be  sung  by  each  candidate  :  "The  Great 
Spirit's  house,  of  which  you  have  been  told,  I  will  enter  it;"  b  repre- 
sents the  novice  with  a  crown  of  feathers  and  a  pocket  of  adder-skin  (r), 
and  is  the  sign  for  a  second  song  by  the  novice;  the  curved  line  which 
follows  denotes  recess,  during  which  a  meal  was  taken;  (f  is  a  man  carry- 
ing a  dish;  ra  steam-bath  which  every  novice  had  to  take,  such  baths 
being  a  main  feature  in  the  religious  life  of  the  Americans;  f  is  the  arm 
of  the  priest  who  receives  the  presents  {g)  brought  by  the  novice;  li  is  the 
]\Ieda  tree  with  its  magical  roots.  The  whole  is  a  representation  of  an 
initiation  into  the  Meda  League,  and  at  the  same  time  a  mnemonic  guide 
for  the  songs  accompanying  the  admission. 

The  preceding  affords  an  outline  of  the  life  of  the  American  aborigines: 
it  only  remains  to  make  some  supplementar)'  remarks  about  the  civilized 
tribes.  We  have  already  seen  that  many  barbarous  peoples  were  closely 
related  to  the  highly-cultivated  Mexicans.  Plates  40-43  contain  types  of 
these  peoples,  and  Figures  8,  9  (//.  40),  8,  9,  10,  11  {pi.  41),  copied  from 
ancient  ]\Iexican  paintings,  show  us  the  costumes  of  the  ancient  Mexicans. 
The  garments  were  made  of  cotton.  Montezuma  does  not  appear  in  the 
picture  in  grand  gala  costume,  as  he  wears  neither  ear-bells,  bracelets,  nor 
a  ring  in  his  lower  lip.  Pie  carries  a  flower,  the  favorite  decoration  of 
the  Mexicans,  and  a  cane  with  odoriferous  resin.  The  band  in  his  hair, 
and  above  all  his  bare  feet — sandals  made  of  fibres  of  the  cactus  were 
commonly  worn — are  marks  of  his  rank. 

The  king,  whose  right  was  derived  from  God,  possessed  unlimited 
power  and  received  the  most  exaggerated  veneration.  He  was  not  per- 
mitted to  walk,  but  was  always  carried.  Succession  to  the  throne  was 
hereditarj'  in  the  female  line,  but  the  nobles  had  great  influence  in  deter- 
mining the  selection.  Next  in  rank  to  the  king  were  the  nobility,  which 
were  divided  into  several  classes.  The  king,  assisted  by  several  high 
officers,  was  supreme  judge  and  commander-in-chief 

The  Mexicans,  who  were  often  brave  to  fearlessness,  went  to  war 
almost  entirely  nude,  as  the  warrior  on  Plate  40  {Jig.  8),  illustrates — the 
net  which  he  carries  is  to  capture  the  enemy — but  generally  a  thickly-lined 
jacket  of  cotton  and  a  wooden  helmet  were  worn  {pi.  40,  fig.  9),  as  were 
also  guards  for  the  anns  and  legs  {pi.  ^2^  fig.  4).  The  shields  were  made 
of  cotton  trimmed  with  feathers  {pi.  40,  fig.  9).  The  weapons  consisted 
of  slings,  clubs,  bows  and  arrows,  swords,  knives  of  obsidian,  and  spears 
which  were  in  part  thrown  with  a  spiral  throwing-strap.     The  costume 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  227 

of  the  Mexicans  (Indians)  of  to-day  is  shown  on  Plate  41  {Jig.  i).  The 
blouse  of  the  man  is  striped  blue  and  white,  his  pantaloons  are  of  goat's 
leather. 

We  see  their  dwellings  on  Plate  41  {Jigs.  6,  7),  the  latter  representation 
scarcely  differing  from  the  dwelling  of  a  related  barbarous  tribe  shown  by 
Figure  i  {pi.  43).  The  ancient  Mexicans  excelled  in  architecture,  and 
their  large  cities  were  ornamented  with  magnificent  stone  palaces,  which 
(in  iMexico)  were  partly  built  on  j)ile-work.  Their  bridges,  aqueducts, 
and  temples  were  also  admirable.  On  Plate  43  {Jig.  5)  are  shown  sections 
of  a  remarkable  engraved  stone  pillar  from  the  ruins  of  Tula  in  the  Valley 
of  Mexico;  Figure  9  is  a  cross-section  of  a  stone  bridge  near  Tezcuco,  and 
Figure  11  represents  a  restoration  of  the  celebrated  pyramid  of  Papantla 
in  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz.  The  art  of  arching  was  known  to  them,  as  is 
proved  by  the  remarkable  hill  of  Xochicalco,  which  is  most  probably  an 
ancient  fortification  or  a  fortified  temple-place  {pi.  41,  Jigs.  4,  5).  The 
hill  is  conical,  smooth,  and  surrounded  by  terraces  each  20  metres  (65]-^ 
feet)  in  height,  and  at  its  base  by  a  broad  deep  ditch,  g.  The  level  top 
was  ornamented  by  a  high  pyramidal-shaped  terraced  structure  (like  ^/. 
42,  Jig.  i),  whose  large  blocks  of  stone  were  united  b)-  polished  joints  and 
were  entirely  covered  with  reliefs.  Lying  concealed  in  the  hill  are  sub- 
terranean chambers  which  were  entered  at  A  {pi.  41,  Jigs.  4,  5)  by  long, 
widely  branching  passages  {C-E)^  and  which  were  ventilated  by  means 
of  arches  (//)  reaching  to  the  surface  of  the  hill  (a  section  of  one  is  shown 
at  J).  Back  of  the  dressed  natural  rock  (/)  there  is  the  open  space  6", 
which  is  supported  by  two  pillars  {E),  also  of  dressed  stone,  and  con- 
structed like  the  chamber  on  Plate  41  {Jig.  2). 

This  latter  illustration,  as  also  Figure  3,  represents  details  from  the 
ruins  of  Chichen  Itza  and  Uxmal,  extensive  cities  built  by  the  Mayas,  a 
people  related  in  culture  to  the  Aztecs.  The  construction  of  the  ceiling  is 
very  peculiar:  it  may  be  called  a  triangular  beehive  arch,  the  walls 
approaching  each  other  up  to  a  small  horizontal  plane  on  the  ceiling  {pi. 
41.  y^^""-  3)-  The  head  depicted  on  Plate  A2>{A?-  1°.  Northern  Yucatan), 
which  is  no  doubt  an  idol  with  genuine  Central  American  features,  as  is 
shown  by  the  curved  thick  nose  and  the  projecting  upper  lip  (comp.  //. 
^2,  Jig.  4),  affords  an  cxaini)Ie  of  the  sculpture  of  the  Mayas. 

This  model  is  found  at  other  places — in  the  ruins  of  Palenque  in 
Guatemala,  at  the  temple  of  Xochicalco  in  Mexico,  etc.  It  represents  the 
deity  of  the  temple  as  a  victorious  hero,  with  two  worshippers  in  garb  of 
slaves  supplicating  liini.  Particularly  noteworthy  are  the  helmet  decorated 
with  feathers,  ribbons,  and  flowers;  the  .sceptre,  whose  point  carries  the 
eagle,  which  was  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  city  of  Mexico;  and  the  striking 
costume,  consisting  of  a  close-fitting,  long-sleeved  jacket,  network  collar, 
a  belt  decorated  front  and  back  with  heads  of  the  enemy  and  below  bv  a 
leopard  skin,  of  guards  for  the  legs,  and  of  a  fan.  This  representation 
was  generally  repeated  at  both  sides  of  the  temple-entrance. 

Also  important,  as  being  an  artistic  production,  is  the  granite  vase  (//. 


22S  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

43,  fig.  8)  which  was  dug  up  on  the  Mosquito  coast,,  and  which  is  of 
decided  Mexican  workmanship,  for  its  ornamentations  are  exactly  like 
those  of  the  ruins  of  Mitla.  The  images  of  animals  {pi.  ^^jfigs.  4,  6,  7) 
found  at  different  places  in  Central  America,  and  which  serv'ed  as  bound- 
ary-marks, are  of  inferior  workmanship.  In  them  we  may  recognize 
guardian  spirits,  who  were  frequently  worshipped  in  Mexico  in  the  guise 
of  animals. 

In  other  respects  the  religion  of  the  Mexicans  resembled  the  religions 
of  the  other  American  peoples :  they  had  one  invisible  supreme  God,  who 
was  the  first  caiise  of  all  things,  and  who  was,  in  some  regions,  worshipped 
quite  monotheistically.  The  sun  was  also  worshipped,  being  confounded 
with  the  Supreme  Being,  and  the  natives  of  Managua  (on  Lake  Nicaragua), 
gave  the  name  of  "sun"  to  the  snake  image,  three  feet  in  diameter  (pi. 
43,  fig.  3,  right),  which  was  associated  with  other  rock-painted  hiero- 
glyphics, now  partially  destroyed,  but  depicted  on  Plate  43  (fig.  3,  left). 
Besides  these  chief  gods  there  were  innumerable  others,  some  of  which 
seemed  to  be  deified  human  beings,  others  to  have  been  received  from 
immigrant  or  conquered  peoples. 

The  Mexicans  had  likewise  lower  deities,  demigods  and  domestic 
divinities,  and  a  quantity  of  mythological  traditions,  flood-legends,  myths 
about  the  creation,  and  various  kinds  of  superstitions;  their  prayers  were 
oflTered  in  a  crouching  posture  (//.  42,  fig.  4),  and  were  uttered  with  great 
feeling;  and  their  ethical  rules,  which  were  applied  in  education,  and  which 
were  frequently  based  on  ancient  written  traditions,  have  about  them  an 
air  of  elevated  morality.  Chastity  was  generally  prevalent.  One  law  of 
their  religion  required  each  individual  to  confess  his  sins  to  the  priest, 
and  if  then  he  did  not  falsify  to  the  all-seeing  God,  he  was  forgiven  and 
cleansed.  Nevertheless,  the  refinement  of  this  conception  and  many  others 
of  a  similar  character  failed  to  exclude  from  their  religious  rites  the  most 
barbarous  sacrifices. 

Sacnfices. — Human  beings  were  sacrificed  on  all  important  occasions, 
the  nourishment  of  the  gods  being  supposed  to  consist  of  the  blood  and 
heart  (seat  of  the  soul)  of  man.  However,  in  general  only  flowers,  fruits, 
incense,  and  part  of  their  food  were  oflTered.  The  temple-structures,  in 
which  the  skulls  of  the  sacrificial  victims  were  preserved,  were  very  exten- 
sive, all  of  them  fortified  and  enclosing  a  number  of  buildings,  taverns, 
dwellings,  warehouses,  etc.  The  real  teocalli  (house  of  the  gods)  was  sit- 
uated in  the  courtyard.  Plate  42  {fig.  i)  represents  one  without  temple-sur- 
roundings, as  was  frequently  the  case.  Chapels  with  idols  were  quite  nu- 
merous; the  images,  as  a  rule,  were  absurd,  but  figures  of  a  finer  order  have 
occasionally  been  found  (//.  41,  fiig.  12;  pi.  42,  fig.  4;  //.  43,  fig-  6). 
The  chapels  were  situated  on  pyramids,  as  were  also  the  altars  of  sacri- 
fice, such  as  is  seen  in  the  centre  of  the  four  pyramids  {pi.  42,  fig.  i). 
The  priests,  who  were  very  influential,  formed  a  separate  class  of  various 
degrees.  Priestesses,  and  especially  temple-servants,  etc.,  were  numerous; 
there  were  also  \&ry  severe  religious  orders  and  the  priests  practised  strict 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  229 

asceticism.  The  belief  in  an  eternal  life,  and  in  reward  and  punishment 
in  the  Hereafter,  prevailed  everywhere,  and  accordingly  the  interment  of 
tlie  dead — which  were  generally  buried,  though  sometimes  cremated — was 
solemn. 

Industrial  ajid  Inicllrctital  Aajiiirniicnts. — Having  seen  in  all  this  the 
high  degree  of  development  attained  by  the  ^Mexicans,  we  shall  find  a 
similar  stage  of  progress  in  their  industrial  and  intellectual  acquirements. 
Their  works  in  metal,  their  textile  fabrics,  and  their  commerce  had 
readied  a  considerable  advancement,  and  their  well-developed  chronology 
deser\'es  especial  attention.  Other  American  tribes  calculated  time  accord- 
ing to  the  moon  and  the  sun,  but  the  Mexicans  had  a  complete  calendar, 
zodiac,  etc.  Tliey  also  had  paper  made  of  cactus-fibres,  and  the  use  of 
hieroglyphics  was  general.  Besides,  they  kept  public  records,  of  which 
we  give  a  small  specimen  on  Plate  42  {Jig.  2)  relating  to  the  founding 
of  Tenochtitlan  (Mexico).  The  coat  of  arms  of  the  city,  visible  in  the 
centre,  is  an  eagle  on  a  cactus;  for,  according  to  an  ancient  prophecy,  the 
wanderings  of  the  Aztecs  were  to  cease  where  an  eagle  should  settle  on  a 
cactus.  The  ten  heads  signify  the  ten  founders  of  the  city  ;  the  sign 
under  the  cactus,  the  weapons  of  subjugation;  the  plants  and  cross-bars, 
the  fertility  and  irrigation  of  the  country. 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  the  otlier  great  civilized  people  of  America,  the 
Peruvians  (Quichuas  and  their  nearest  relatives  the  Aymaras),  and  shall 
include  with  them  several  neighboring  tribes,  the  Moxos,  Chiquitos,  etc., 
although  they  are  probably  not  closely  related. 

Costume. — The  costumes  of  all  these  peoples  are  .shown  on  Plate  50 
{fig^-  3'  9).  Plate  51  (Jgs.  I,  4,  5),  Plate  53  {fig.  iS).  The  Peruvians 
before  the  subjugation  wore  garments  of  cotton,  the  women  wearing  long 
skirts,  the  men  shirt-like  over-gannents  which  reached  to  the  knee.  The 
Moxos  still  wear  such  garments,  either  of  cotton  or  of  the  fibres  of  the 
fig  tree  (//.  51,  Jig.  4).  The  costume  of  the  king  (Inca)  and  of  the 
nobility  was  different  from  that  of  the  people;  on  Plate  52  {fig.  1)  we  see 
an  Inca,  but  probably  not  without  a  later  European  modification  of  the 
costume.  His  principal  distinction  was  a  crest  of  feathers  on  his  frontlet 
and  a  red  tassel  on  his  forehead.  The  nobles  wore  a  similar  tassel  on  the 
left  ear,  and  all  persons  of  rank  wore  heavy  ear-drops. 

Government  and  Religion. — The  constitution  was  similar  to  that  of 
Mexico,  the  king  being  an  absolute  monarch  and  sacred  person;  a  nobility 
of  various  grades  stood  between  him  and  the  oppressed  people.  The 
religious  views  of  the  Peruvians  (Quichuas  and  Aymaras)  resembled  those 
of  tlie  other  tribes  of  America;  they  had  one  supreme  God,  whom  tlicv 
worshipped  as  a  pure  spirit,  altliough  they  erected  temples  in  his  honor 
and  made  offerings  to  him.  The  sun  was  extensively  worshipped  as  the 
family  god  of  the  Incas,  who  wore  its  image  as  an  oniament  (//.  ^2^  Jig. 
i).  There  were  also  many  other  gods,  amongst  which  the  moon,  the 
ocean,  the  earth,  and  an  evil  spirit  in  the  interior  of  the  earth — the 
Mexicans  likewise  believed  in  sucli  a  beiug — besides  a  number  of  ele- 


230  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

inentan'  spirits,  desen-e  mention.  We  find  here,  too,  legends  of  the  Cre- 
ation and  the  Dehige,  as  also  stone  giants  (//.  38,  fig.  8)  like  those  whose 
acqnaintance  we  made  above  (p.  200);  likewise  spirits  in  the  forms  of 
animals  and  plants,  abstract  deities  of  the  different  trades,  and  worship  of 
the  souls  of  former  sovereigns,  some  of  whom  seem  to  have  been  deified. 

It  is  remarkable  that  here,  as  well  as  in  Mexico,  the  cross  was  used  as 
a  sacred  symbol  {pi.  52,  fig.  i)  before  the  advent  of  the  Europeans,  and 
was  utilized  as  an  ornament  in  architecture  also — for  instance,  in  the 
temple  (//.  52,  fig.  2) — -but  of  greater  importance  is  the  fact  that  here  too 
was  found  that  pious  and  sincere  faith  which  so  frequently  distinguished 
the  American  Indians.  This  was  exhibited  in  the  magnificent  temples 
which  they  erected  everywhere;  in  the  great  respect  paid  the  priestly 
hierarchy  and  the  cloistered  Virgins  of  the  Sun;  in  the  religious  feasts,  at 
which  confession  of  sins,  fasting,  and  severe  penance  were  practised. 

Sacrifices. — Their  sacrifices  were  numerous,  and  consisted  of  flowers, 
fruits,  animals  (often  in  large  numbers),  articles  of  value,  and  on  espe- 
cially important  occasions  of  human  beings,  who  were  generally  willing- 
victims.  Sacrifices  were  offered  in  the  temples  or  on  certain  stone 
pyramids  with  broad  flat  tops,  easy  of  access,  where  they  also  recited 
their  prayers  {pi.  52,  fig.  8).  There  were  other  less  prominent  altars  in 
the  open  air,  especially  near  ponds  and  springs,  as  they  believed  man  to 
have  proceeded  from  the  water,  and  at  spots  where  passers-by  would  be 
likely  to  offer  gifts  (//.  53,  fig.  14). 

Idols. — Idols  were  numerous.  The  large  stone  image  (//.  53,  fig.  16) 
of  Tiahuanuco  (south  of  Lake  Titicaca),  which  is  of  excellent  workman- 
ship, is  especially  interesting.  It  is  in  a  crouching  posture  (comp.  pi. 
50,  figs.  5-8;  //.  52,  fig.  5),  one  hand  on  the  knee,  in  strange  costume, 
with  a  necklace  of  buttons,  some  of  which  are  also  displayed  on  the 
turban.  The  lines  under  the  mouth  suggest  tattooing  (comp.  //.  40,  figs. 
I,  3).  Inferior  gods  of  a  domestic  character  called  canopa,  made  of  gold, 
silver,  etc.,  are  found  everywhere;  they  are  represented  with  long  ears, 
because  the  people  of  rank,  in  consequence  of  their  heavy  ear-ornaments, 
were  also  long-eared  (//.  52,  fig.  4;  pi.  53,  fig.  2);  while  the  thick  head 
reminds  us  of  the  national  peculiarity  of  the  Peruvians  (comp.  pi.   50, 

Earthen  Vessels  and  Utensils. — The  shape  of  many  of  their  earthen 
vessels,  which  they  made  vers-  gracefully,  possessed  a  religious  siguil- 
icance.  A  specimen  is  illustrated  on  Plate  53  {fig.  i).  Ivlaize  was  believed 
to  be  sacred,  its  divinity  finding  various  representations  (//.  53,  fig.  2); 
and  such,  we  may  suppose,  was  that  on  the  handle  of  a  vessel  {pi.  53, 
fig.  i),  consisting  of  a  head  made  entirely  of  spikes  of  maize.  The 
vessel  shown  on  Plate  52  {fig.  5)  represents  a  priest  with  a  sacrificial  cup; 
his  strange  attire,  a  hooded  gown  with  bright-colored  belt,  and  his  crouch- 
ing praying  posture  (comp.  //.  42,  fig.  4),  deser\-e  attention.  Figure  7 
{pi.  53)  ma)-  be  similarly  interpreted,  perhaps  as  being  a  pious  pilgrim; 
and  so  too  we  may  recognize  religious  significations  in  the  ornaments  on 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  231 

Plate  52  {fig.  7),  Plate  53  {figs.  3,  8,  10,  15).  The  Peruvians  were  very 
skilftil,  and  exliibited  great  taste  in  the  nianufactnre  of  their  vessels, 
which  were  often  double  (//.  52,  fig.  6)  and  even  quadruple.  Tiicir 
work  in  metal,  by  dint  of  good  methods  of  smelting,  despite  their 
unskilful  mining  shows  some  remarkable  results  in  the  way  of  utensils 
{pi-  ii^fis^-  I.  3-6)  and  artistic  objects  (//.  ^2,  figs.  11-13;  //.  53,7?^.  2). 
For  their  sun-temples,  which  were  covered  with  golden  tiles,  their  gold- 
smiths manufactured  chairs  and  entire  gardens  of  gold,  held  sacred  to 
the  sun,  and  of  silver,  which  were  sacred  to  the  moon.  Together  with 
these  utensils  we  note  also  their  weapons,  among  which  v/ere  slings, 
spears,  wooden  shields,  and  lassoes. 

They  had  fixed  army  and  war  regulations.  They  accumulated  the 
heads  of  the  enemy  and  made  them  into  drinking-cups  and  ornaments. 
Necklaces  were  not  unfrequently  made  of  the  teeth  of  enemies.  All  large 
cities  were  fortified,  and  there  were  besides  many  fortresses,  generally 
erected  on  rocky  heights,  surmounted  by  a  citadel  and  surrounded  by 
concentric  walls.  The  ruins  of  such  a  fortification  situated  south-east 
of  Lake  Titicaca  are  shown  on  Plate  53  {fig.  19). 

Structures. — Their  highroads,  their  bridges,  their  palace  and  temple 
structures,  are  famous.  While  their  private  houses  in  the  numerous 
populous  cities  were  built  of  unburnt  brick  (adobes),  and  sometimes  of 
cane  or  .stone — the  number  of  apartments  being  greater  or  less  according 
to  the  means  of  the  owner — they  yet  built  their  temples  and  palaces  of 
ashlar,  often  of  huge  stones,  whose  joints  were  generally  made  invisible 
by  polishing.  The  doors  are  always  very  high,  and  narrower  at  the  top; 
sculptured  ornaments  occurred  rarely.  A  temple-structure  of  this  kind 
is  portrayed  on  Plate  52  {fig.  2),  and  the  remains  of  one  of  the  innumer- 
able Inca  palaces,  with  six  encircling  walls,  on  Plate  52  {fiig.  3).  Plate 
50  {fitg.  4)  illustrates  the  present  architecture  of  the  Quichuas. 

Music. — Their  music  is  highly  praised;  their  instruments  consisted 
of  Pan's  flutes  (//.  53,  fiig.  11),  kettledrums  (//.  51,  fitg.  i),  zithers,  etc.; 
while  the  Moxos  had  long  bamboo  tubes,  which  they  beat  (//.  51,  fig.  5). 
Some  of  their  dances  of  the  present  day  and  the  strange  co.stume  worn  at 
them  are  depicted  on  Plate  51  {fiigs.  i,  5). 

Science. — Their  scientific  accomplishments' also  were  not  insignificant. 
They  seem  to  have  had  an  elementary  and  rude  kind  of  hicroglvphics, 
although  the  interpretation  of  their  various  stone  sculptures  is  not  quite 
clear  (for  instance,  //.  53,  fig.  9).  Of  great  importance  were  the  quipiis 
{pi.  53,  fig.  12),  which  consisted  of  heavy  cords,  from  which  variously 
colored  thinner  ones  branched  off,  and  which  were  knotted  once,  twice, 
or  three  times.  The  colors  signified  dilTcreut  objects,  red  denoting  war  or 
soldiers;  green,  maize,  etc.;  the  single  knots  represented  10,  the  double 
ones  100,  and  the  treble  ones  1000.  In  this  manner  the  quipus  served  as 
the  record  of  complicated  transactions  and  accounts.  Their  use  and 
explanation  constituted  a  special  science  and  occupied  learned  profes.sors. 
Other  specialists  were  in  possession  of  astronomical  learning:  they  had 


232  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

a  ver}'  ingenious  time  measurement;  others,  again,  had  knowledge  of 
medicine,  geography,  and  so  on.  There  were  also  professional  poets, 
and  the  works  of  the  Onichuas  in  poetry  and  eloquence  are  not  unim- 
portant. 

They  believed  in  immortalit)-,  recompense  after  death,  and  either 
buried  the  dead  or  entombed  them  in  various  structures,  which  were  some- 
times shaped  like  towers,  sometimes  like  ovens  {pi.  \%  fig.  5;  pi. ^o,  fig.  i, 
background).  These  contained  the  dead  either  singly  or  in  greater  num- 
bers; in  the  latter  case  the  corpses  were  distributed  in  larger  chambers  and 
placed  along  the  walls.  The  corpses,  to  which  artificial  eyes  (//.  47,  fig. 
10)  made  of  a  yellow  shining  substance  were  sometimes  given,  were  gener- 
ally placed  in  a  crouching  posture,  because  this  was  the  posturcof  prayer, 
and  were  thickly  wound  about  with  cloth.  The  dead  Incas  were  embalmed 
and  placed  on  golden  chairs  in  the  temple  of  the  sun.  Many  other  corpses 
have  been  preser\'ed  by  the  pectiliar  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  dry  air 
{pi.  50,  figs.  5-8).  Valuable  articles  were  often  deposited  in  the  graves. 
Numerous  slaves  were  slain  at  the  tombs  of  the  nobles,  and  sometimes 
the  wives  became  willing  victims  of  the  death-sacrifice. 

General  Conchisio7is. — Our  description  has  shown  so  many  common 
customs  and  so  similar  a  physical  structure  from  Cape  Barrow  to  Cape 
Horn  that  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  population  of  this  wide 
expanse  was  of  the  same  race  throughout;  and  this  conclusion  is  all  the 
more  evident  as  we  have  not  specially  sought  to  bring  together  the  sim- 
ilarities. The  fundamental  traits  of  these  peoples  are  also  in  unison,  espe- 
cially if  we  consider  the  different  circumstances  in  which  they  lived.  Tl:e 
Eskimos,  separated  into  single,  independent  families  scattered  over  an 
immense  and  inhospitable  region,  and  chiefly  depending  on  animal  noxir- 
ishment,  cannot  possess  the  taciturn,  solemn  earnestness  of  the  Indians 
whose  mode  of  life  is  conventional.  But  neither  in  the  Indians  nor  in 
the  aborigines  of  Mexico  and  Peru  did  that  exterior  seriousness  exclude 
a  cheerful  temperament,  which  could  enjoy  a  game  such  as  the  ball-play- 
ing that  was  so  popular  in  IMexico. 

All  Americans  are  hospitable,  brave,  proud,  and  sensitive;  at  the  same 
time  they  have  powerful  passions  and  lasting,  deep  feelings.  These  traits 
are  exhibited  in  their  religious  and  family  life  and  in  their  tribal  rela- 
tions, by  their  devoted  faithfulness  and  gratitude,  as  well  as  by  their  vehe- 
ment revengefulness.  Grave  offences  rarely  occur.  Cleanliness,  which  was 
often  found  among  the  barbarous  or  half-civilized  tribes,  was  a  permanent 
quality  of  the  civilized  peoples.  The  very  depth  of  the  American  charac- 
ter accounts  for  the  earnestness  which  the  Indian  easily  assumes,  and  also 
for  the  readiness  with  which  he  yields  to  indolence;  and  its  darkest  shadow 
is  not  cruelty  to  an  enemy,  which  we  have  accounted  for,  but  the  treat- 
ment of  women. 

The  intellectual  capacities  of  the  American  races  are  of  a  high  order, 
as  has  been  proved  by  our  entire  description;  this  is  true  not  only  of  the 
Peruvians  and  ^Mexicans,  but  also  of  many  other  North  American  tribes, 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  233 

as  the  Eskimos,  and  of  many  in  South  America,  as  the  Caribs  and  the 
Araucanians.  The  Americans  should  not  be  judged  by  their  present  con- 
dition nor  by  single  degraded  individuals,  as  is  so  often  done.  The  fault 
was  not  wholly  theirs  if  they  have  been  hostile  to  European  culture,  which 
almost  everywhere  they  manifested  a  capacity  for  adopting.  And  if  many 
tribes  have  passed  away  without  apparently  accomplishing  anj'thing  for 
the  benefit  of  mankind,  others  deserve  great  credit. 

Mexican  and  Peruvian  civilization  is  annihilated,  and  impartial  his- 
tory knows  by  what  means;  but  the  fact  that  the  Spaniards  could  so 
easily  and  in  so  short  a  time  establish  new  kingdoms  and  civilizations 
was  mainly  due  to  the  merit  of  the  destroyed  peoples.  These  had  pre- 
pared the  soil  on  which  the  EuroiDean  prospered,  and  yet  the  culture 
attained  by  the  latter  was  comparatively  inferior  to  that  which  the  natives 
liad  reached  by  their  own  unaided  exertions. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  29. 


lIvi'r.Kluiki  IN.. —  1.  L-Uuih.  ..I  i.n.>.i,l.ui.!.  J,  Ui^Urii  K^kimii.  3.  InhaliUniil  iif  Kul/clmc  Sniiul,  Ahf-ka  (WislLrii 
Kskimo).  4.  Kskiiiio  (om  I'riiicf  Kc(;iiil  Hay  (lirocnliiiul).  5.  Winter  liousc;  6.  Summer  lent,  in  KiL>lcni  llrccnlanil. 
7.  Kskiiiiu  wum.in,  fnim  U|>crnavick  (Urvcniaiul). 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  30. 


llvi'iRiioRi:,\Ns.— I.  Kasl  Crccnlandcr  in  his  kayak.  2.  Itoal  of  I  he  KasI  Crvcniaiulcrs.  3.  Casting  sixrar  (for  sea- 
fowl)  of  the  Rskiino.  4.  (Irccnlanil  li>h  siK-ar.  5.  Snow-Rlasses  of  llic  \Vc-.lcrn  Kskinu>.  6.  Eskimo  sIcdKC.  7.  Idols 
from  a  grave  in  Kasl  C.rccnlaml.  8.  Pad.llc;  o.  10.  Hoat,  of  the  K.Kly.iks.  U.  Manner  of  burial  among  the  Western  Es. 
kimo.     12,13.  Kur  coau  of  the  Malainiiuio  {  Al;i.-ka).     14.  Inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian  Islands. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  31. 


IIvi'KRiioRKANs. — I.  PwcllinK  of  llio  Alculiaiis.     2.  Cap;  j.   l.ip  urnaincnt,  of  llic  Aleutians.     NiiKTii  Ami.kiians. — 

4.  Vessel  (llaiilali)  of  ihc  Koliislics.     5.   Kolush  woman.     6.   Haskel  of  llic  Koliislies.     7,  9.   Dagijers  of  ilic  Koliislics. 

5.  Daig^er  of  ihe  Inkalits.  10.  I'ainlcil  lomli  liox  of  (lie  Koluslies.  11.  Alil  Indian  (Vancouver  Island).  12.  Tanana 
Indian  (.Maska).  i ;.  I''ini;cr  covering  of  (he  Alaska  women,  used  when  sewing.  14.  t'oqise  rccciXaclc  of  ibc  Inkalit.s 
(Alaska).     15.  Child's  chair  of  the  Inkalits,  made  of  hirch-lKirk. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  32. 


|3£E 

F  ■      MJ^J                 ll 

1  F-           '*-'.  VI 

^.-■^._3 

North  Amkricans. — l.  A  Dakota  warrior.  2.  Indian  monument,  willi  memorial  inscriiHions.  3.  A  Dakota  woman 
and  Assinil>i>in  female  ctiiUI.  4.  A  cliil>  of  ilic  DakoL-i-s  (Mamlan).  5.  A  disk  frum  an  Imli.in  mound,  used  in  a  p;ame. 
6.  Sjxxjn  of  the  Knluslies.  7.  Leather  laj;  of  the  DakoLxs.  8.  .V  club  of  the  Dakot.as.  9.  Flute;  10.  K<k1s— memorials 
of  successful  love — of  the  Dakotxs.  11.  Doulile  pilK-  of  the  Mandans.  12.  A  pijie  of  the  Mandans.  Ij.  Snow-glasses. 
14.  .'\  |>i|H.- of  the  lnkalit.s.  15.  "  Pijic  of  |>e.ice ;"  16.  A  pi|>e-he,i(l ;  17.  A  piiiccle.iner,  of  the  Dakota  nation.  1 8.  Snow- 
shoe  of  the  Inkalits.     19.  Snow-shoe  of  the  Dakolas. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  33. 


North  Amkricans. — l.  Assinilx)iii  Indians.  2.  Minitaree  warrior  in  the  costume  of  the  "  dog-dance."  3.  Magical 
monument  of  the  .Vssinilioins.  4.  licd-lwx  of  the  North  American  Indians.  5.  Chief  of  the  Mandans,  decorated  willi  the 
>ii;ns  of  his  w.ir  achievements.     6.  Chief  of  tlie  Mandans  in  his  festive  dress. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  34. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  35. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  36. 


North  Amkricans. — i.  Village  (background)  and  skiffs  of  Ihc  Mandans.  2.  Scalp  of  a  man;  feathers  use»!  as  me- 
morials of  extraordinary  deeds.  3.  Navajo  Indian.  4.  Tribal  sign  of  the  Mandans.  5.  Tainting:  lroi|Uois  chieftain  receiv- 
ing the  homage  of  Mohawk  warriors.  6.  Porlahle  cradle  of  the  North  American  Indians.  7.  Tainting:  The  Meteor  spirit. 
8.  Plan  of  a  North  American  hut.     9.  Wampum-belt  and  string  of  beads. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  37. 


NnuTM  Amkruvns.— I.  Summer  lent  of  a  chiefiaiii.  2.  ScaflToMings  for  coriwes.  3.  Indian  poi ;  4.  >|«..n.  5.  Vil- 
lage of  the  Chcrokces.  6.  North  American  skiff  models.  7.  Indian  grave  in  the  region  of  l-ike  Michigan.  S.  .Section  of 
an  old  grave-mound  near  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin.  9.  Hieroglyphics;  Meda  song,  or  initiation  into  the  Meda  League  (see 
page  226). 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  38. 


North  Amkru  ans.— i.  Arrow.  2.  Kisli  spear.  3.  Stone  axe.  4-  ll«»-  5-  ''•"•  '"  '><■■  "'"'^''  ••>'"""  ''"•"  l*'^"'  '^'^'" 
an  Indian  ^Tave.  6.  Tainted  luiffaUi  skin  (wearing  apparel).  7,  9,  10,  12.  riix:lieads,  frum  Indian  graves.  8.  PainUng: 
Stone  giants.     11.   I'ainliiii;:    Tlie  beginning  of  a  [lelition. 


AAIKRICAXS 


Plate  39. 


,u 


-"ir^ 


10 


NuRTii  Amkrkans. — I,  Ancient  eartlnvorks  near  Hoiielon,  Ohio.  2.  Ancient  tlouMc  encldsiire  on  the  Wisconsin  River. 
3.  I'aialkl  nicmnils  near  I'iketon,  ( lliio,  4.  Specimens  of  |xitlery,  from  moumls  in  ( )liio.  5.  .Ancient  j^ravemoiiml  near 
.•\/lalan  (vicinity  of  Milwaulice,  Wisconsin).  6.  .Ancient  animalsliaped  moumi  anil  "coniliills."  7.  .\ncient  cartliworks, 
near  Milwaulvee,  Wisconsin.  8.  .\ncient  artificial  mound,  of  a  crossslia|)e,  with  the  so-called  "garden-beds."  9.  lYolile 
of  the  garden-beds.     10.  Ancient  hill,  eaglc-shapcd. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  40. 


/'■^V/     1    ' 


Mexicans. — 1,3.  California  Indians.     2.  Necklace;  4.  Bow;  5.  Ami\v.s;  6.  Kalln)jlia.skcl,  of  the  California  Indians. 
7.  Dancers  of  tlie  California  Indians.     8,  9.  Warriors,  from  Mexican  paintings.     10.  (Jhoslliouse  in  Vanikora  ^Sanla  Cruz). 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  41. 


u  V* 

m 

fo  TV 

i 

£ 

jj  i^'  ^ 

w. 


o y ji" 2Z 1-1 

Mkxicans. — 1.  >fcxicnns  of  Michoacan  (after  clay  figures).  2.  Room  at  Cliichen,  Mexico.  3.  Inlcrior  of  chamber  at 
rxmal,  Mexico.  4.  Fortified  hill  at  Xochicalco,  Mexico;  5.  Dan  of  the  s.ime.  6.  Interior  of  a  hut  of  a  native  Mexican. 
7.  rre-.CTit  haliitation  of  the  native  Mexicans.  8.  Inhaliilant  of  /.a|i;Uera  (Nic.araKua) ;  9,  lo.  Women  of  the  IlMastccxs; 
II.  Montcv.uma  II.  in  court  attire — all  from  ancient  Mexican  iiainlings.     12.  Mexican  idol. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  42. 


*r"T^"~11l 


I  r 


#m 


Wa 


Mkxkans.— I.  Mexican  place  of  sacrifice,  near  Milla.     2.  Mexican  liien>i;lypliics.     3.   Mojavcs — man  and  woman. 
4.  Mexican  lemple  sculpture.     5.  .McKiuis.     6.  I'inio  women.     7,  S.  Iduls  of  iho  Zapolccs.    9.  Aicuco  Indiaii. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  43. 


^N,^. 


■^i^r^ 


—  —       -t.  ^-, 


Mexicans.— I.  House  of  ilie  Moquis.  2.  Houses  of  the  tloajira  Indians.  3.  Rock-jxiinlings  of  Managua  (NicaraRua). 
1  Kuliyioiis  slonc  niomimont.  5.  Sections  of  a  pillar  at  Tula,  Mexico.  6,  7.  Stone  images.  8.  CJranite  vase  fiuni  Ilon- 
■  liiras.  9.  Cross-section  of  a  stone  bridge  ne;u  Teicuco,  Mexico.  10.  Gigantic  head  at  ls.-inial.  II.  IVranii.l  of  I-apanlla, 
\  era  Cruz. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  44. 


0  10  u 


SouT..  AMERICANS.-..  Wapisbno  Indian;  2.  Wapisiano  girl  (eleven  years  old);  3-  Wapisiano  woman.     4.-  Inlerior 
nfaWapisianohm.     5.  WapUiano  chieftain.     0.  Warrau  woman.     7.  Ma.xuxu«a.     8.  \  Ulage  of  the  Car.bs.    9.  Macus.. 

10.  I'aravillianu ;   II.  Warrau. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  45. 


Snt'Tll  Amkricans.— I.  MaCHsi.     2-4.  Skull  of  a  Coroado  Imlian.     5.  Village  ..1  ilic  M:icums.     (..   Iliii  ..1  ihc  lal.i 
chus.     7.  Rock-sculptures  on  the  \'apura  River,  Soulli  America.     8.  Festive  procession  of  the  Tccunos. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  46. 


S(U  111  Americans. — i.  Miranha  girl.     2.  Coretu.     3.  Mauhc.     4.  Miranlias  building  a  buai.     j.  lutlilivs  un  a  pred- 
atory excursion. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  47. 


t::^^k:i,'p:^i^--'M^^ 


\0 


SiifTii  Amkrrans. — I.  Juri.  2.  Mura  Indian.  3.  Mundnicu.  4.  War-dance  of  the  Juris.  5.  Mundrucu  warrior, 
Willi  ilic  head  of  an  enemy  on  his  spear.  6.  Holocudos.  7.  Diameter  and  height  of  an  ear-|ihig;  8.  t)f  a  lip-plug  of  the 
liotocuilos.  9.  Speakinijlrumpet  of  the  Botocudos.  10.  Artificial  eyes,  from  I'eruvian  graves.  II.  Loin-covering; 
12.  Forehead  oinajiicnt,  of  the  Botocudos. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  48. 


South  Amiruans.— i,  2.  ISotocudos;  3.  Botocudo  youth.  4-  WaiKlcrinR  Botociulo  family.  5.  Knife  of  the  Bolo- 
cudos.  woni  ahum  the  neck.  6.  Puri  woman.  7.  Hammock  of  the  Piiris.  8.  Ikxloguc,  or  ballbow,  of  the  Botocudos. 
9.  I'uris  in  their  luit.     10.  Cafusa   wom.-in,  willi  strange  head-dress. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  49. 


South  Amf.ricans. — i.  Dance  of  the  Piiiis.     2.  Dancing-feast  of  the  Camacunas.     3.  Musical  instnimcnt  of  the 
Cainacunas.     4.  Camacuiia    woman.     5.  Guarajo  family. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  50. 


SdiTli  Amkricans. — I.  Toha  Indian;  in  llic  backpntinil  Ihc  C'omlorluiasi,  near  .\sani;.uo  (tVni).  2.  rnlagonians. 
3.  Quichuas  (IVru).  4.  Quichua  habitalion,  near  Cochabainba  (Holivia).  5,  6.  Aymora  mumiuics.  7,  8.  (juidiua  munv 
mies.     9.  Ayniai-as. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  51. 


Soirn  Ami.ricans. — i.  Dance  of  llit  Aymaras.     2.  I'ayaguas.     3.  Grave  of  an  Aymara  clijcf.     4.  Moxos  Indians 
5.  Religious  dance  of  ihe  Moxos. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  52. 


South  Americans, — Costume  or  the  king  (Incn).     2.  Temple  ruins  on  an  island  of  Ijike  Titicaca.    3.  Remains  of 

llie  Inc.xs'  palace.     4.  Iilol  of  (jold ;  5.   Ancient  vessel,  in  llic  slia]x;  nf  a  priest;  '>,  7.  N'cssels,  of  the  time  of  ilic  Incas. 
8.  Ancient  place  uf  sacrilice  at  lluaiita  (I'eni).     9,  10.  Skull  of  an  ancient  I'eruvian.     II,  12.  Clubs;  13.  Sce|>trc  |x>int,  of 

Inca  times. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  53. 


South  Amkricans:— i.  Vessel ;  2.  Idol  of  silver:  3.  Vessel:  4.  War-club:  5.  Axc-Ioop,  of  copper;  6.  Tniplcmcnl  of 

copper;  7.  Vessel   represenling  .1  pilyiim;  8.  Another  fonn  of  vessel;  9.  Slone  sculptures;  10.  Dccomted  vessel;   II.  Tan's 
flute;   12.  Quipus— all  of  the  old  Penivians.     13.  Skull  of  an  Aturc.     14.  Place  of  sacrifice  near  Timama.  Peru 
IVruviaii  vase.     16.  Mead  of  an  old  Peruvian  colossal  statue.     17.   Peruvian  balsa.     18.  Uiolo  of  Are. 
tion,  of  Inca  times. 


requiin. 


15.  Old 
19.  Koitifica- 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  235 


III.  THE    MONGOLIANS. 

The  population  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  from  which  Europe  is  sepa- 
rable neither  geographically  nor  ethnologically,  is  divided  into  four  prin- 
cipal groups:  (i)  the  Mongolian;  (2)  the  Dravidian;  (3)  the  Arabic-African; 
(4)  the  Indo-European. 

The  first  group,  which  constitutes  the  chief  population  of  Asia,  belongs 
almost  exclusively,  and  the  second,  which  is  the  least  important,  belongs 
exclusively,  to  that  continent. 

These  races,  with  the  exception  of  the  Dravidian,  have  moulded  the 
destiny  of  the  world  in  the  past,  and  in  all  probability  will  shape  it  in 
the  future.  The  peoples  whom  we  include  under  the  name  of  Mongolians 
have  especially  influenced  the  history  of  mankind,  for,  like  the  civilized 
nations  of  America,  they  waged  wars  not  only  of  defence  or  retaliation, 
but  also  of  conquest;  and  at  the  same  time  they  exhibited  a  capacity  for 
founding  and  maintaining  great  and  desj^otic  governments. 

At  several  points  they  developed  independent  and  highly  important 
civilizations,  as  in  China,  Japan,  and  Farther  India,  while  other  related 
races  show  works  of  civilization  le.ss  important,  but  nevertheless  worthy 
of  mention.  Almost  all  the  peoples  belonging  here  have  shown  them- 
selves capable  of  receiving  foreign  culture,  as  the  Turks,  Hungarians, 
Finns,  oftentimes  the  Chinese,  and  at  present  the  Japanese.  The  two 
latter  possess  the  faculty  of  receiving  such  culture  without  losing  their 
national  manners  and  their  originality. 

Unity  of  Type. — The  group  of  peoples  whom  we  class  as  Mongolians 
forms  an  ethnologic  division  of  the  human  race;  that  i.s,  a  division  which 
is  based  on  the  consideration  and  study  of  their  physical  structure,  lan- 
guage, character,  achievements  in  religion,  art,  politics,  etc.;  in  one  word, 
which  is  based  on  their  psycho-physical  growth  and  condition.  Only  by 
a  complete  investigation  of  all  these  things  can  a  truly  scientific  division 
of  the  human  race  be  made. 

It  is  possible  that  the  different  peoples  of  any  great  division  are  of  dif- 
ferent origin;  that  is,  that  they  independently  separated  from  the  original 
stock  of  the  human  race,  and  by  separate  migrations  reached  new  homes, 
the  uniformity  of  which  gradually  rendered  their  various  characters  homo- 
geneous. But  the  ca.se  seems  diflerent  with  the  Mongolian  race,  which  is 
spread  over  regions  .so  vast  and  diverse  that  they  could  not  possibly  have 
produced  a  uniform  influence. 

The  homogeneity  which,  as  we  shall  sec  immediately,  is  shown  by 
these  peoples  undoubtedly  has  its  origin  from  connnon  descent  and 
ancient  inheritance;  their  ancestors  seem  to  have  emigrated  in  common 
from  their  original  home,  and  later  on  to  have  branched  into  the  separate 


236  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

tribes  of  the  IMongolian  race.  All  peoples  belonging  to  the  latter  are  fairly 
separated  from  those  not  Mongolians  if  we  draw  a  line  from  Cape  Cambodia 
through  the  Caucasus  to  the  Crimean  peninsula,  thence  to  the  extreme 
western  point  of  the  lower  Volga,  thence  northward  into  the  White  Sea. 
Outside  of  these  boundaries  there  are  but  few  peoples  belonging  to  this 
race — chiefly  the  Finnish  tribes  in  Northern  Europe,  and  the  Hungarians, 
and  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  the  last  two  of  which,  according  to  his- 
tor}',  emigrated  later.  We  give  to  the  whole  race  the  usual  name  of 
Mongolians,  as  no  one  of  the  geographical  names  proposed  is  worthy  to 
supplant  it. 

Subdivisions. — A  race  so  large  has  of  course  subdivisions,  and  as,  in 
order  to  draw  a  boundary-line  between  the  races,  their  whole  existence 
and  growth  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  so  must  the  subdivisions  be 
principally  based  on  linguistic  dissimilarities.  There  result  from  this  two 
main  groups: 

The  first,  with  monosyllabic  languages.^  the  inhabitants  of  the  south- 
eastern portions  of  Asia,  Farther  India,  Thibet,  and  China,  w-hom  we 
embrace  under  the  name  of  the  Indo-Chinese  peoples. 

The  second,  with  polysyllabic  languages,  who  again  separate  into 
several  independent  subdivisions,  although  they  all  seem  to  have  pro- 
ceeded from  a  common  centre. 

In  the  polysyllabic  group  we  include,  first,  those  peoples  who  are  cus- 
tomarily called  Altaic  or  Ural-Altaic,  and  whom  we  should  like  to  call 
Uralo-Caspi-Japanic,  or  more  concisely  Ural-Japanic  peoples,  because 
their  territor}-,  with  the  exception  of  the  European  offshoots  already 
mentioned,  is  pretty  accurately  bordered  by  the  lines  which  are  drawn 
from  both  extremities  of  the  Japanese  islands,  including  Saghalin,  to  the 
south-east  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  north  in  a  cur\'e,  through  the 
lower  course  of  the  Lena,  to  the  north  end  of  the  Ural  Mountains  (see 
Afap).  Secondly,  the  North  Asiatic  remnants,  single  tribes  of  doubtful 
position,  belong  here — the  Yenisei  Ostyaks,  the  Yukagirs,  Tchuktchis, 
and  Kamchatkans,  whom  we  unite  in  one  group,  although  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that  they  belong  to  one  group;  but  it  is  certain  that  they 
are  closely  related  to  the  Ural-Japanic  peoples.  Thirdly,  the  peoples  of  the 
Caucasus  must  be  mentioned,  who  are  the  most  independently  developed 
branch  of  this  race. 

Physical  Characteristics :  Stature  and  Form. — Before  we  pass  to  the 
description  of  the  individual  tribes  it  will  be  necessary-  to  treat  in  detail 
the  uniformity  which  authorizes  or  rather  compels  us  to  include  them  in 
one  and  the  same  race.  It  is  especially  the  physical  stntcture  which  must 
here  be  considered,  and  which  we  shall  describe  in  general  outlines, 
according  to  Pallas. 

The  Mongolian  peoples  are  middle-sized  or,  especially  the  female  sex, 
under-sized.  This  is  true  of  the  Ural-Altaic  peoples,  the  Japanese,  Chinese, 
Thibetans,  and  Indo-Chinese,  and  also  of  the  Yukagirs  and  their  relations, 
as  our  plates  show  (Ural-Altaic  peoples,  //.  62.,  Jig.  5;  pL  6t„  Jigs.  2,  4,  6, 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  237 

7,  8;  //.  66,  fig.  2;  pi.  67,  fig.  6;  //.  68,  yTg-j.  4,  5;  //.  69,  A^j.  4,  11;  //. 
70,  /^J.  I,  3;  //.  71,  /^j.  2,  3;  pi.  12,  fig.  7;  //.  73,  A^-f-  4.  5;  pi-  74,  A^ 
4;  pl-  75.  /.^--f-  2,  8;  China,  pi.  ^d,  fiig.  5;  //.  57,  A'-^-  4.  6;  Tliibet,  pi.  61, 
figs.  2,  6,  8;  Farther  India,  pi.  58,  figs,  i,  3;  //.  60,  fig.  3;  Yukagirs  and 
relations,  //.  75,  fig.  5;  //.  76,  fig.  3;  //.  77,  fig.  6;  //.  78,  figs,  i,  4,  5; 
//.  79,  A-f-  I,  4i  5)-  Disproportions  in  bnild  are  shown  pretty  uniformly 
in  a  frequently  thick  head,  short  thick  neck,  the  rump  a  little  too  long, 
and  lank  extremities;  the  legs  are  not  unfreqnently  crooked.  The  arms 
are  also  sometimes  curved  toward  the  outside,  and  both  hands  and  feet 
are  usually  small.     All  these  peculiarities  are  shown  on  our  plates: 

First,  the  thick  head  and  short  neck  of  the  Ural-Japanic  peoples  {pi. 
68,  figs.  3,  4,  5,  Tunguses;  pi.  69,  A^.  i,  4,  Buriats;  //.  70,  fig.  3, 
Yakoots;  pi.  70,  fig.  i,  Calmucks;  //.  73,  fig.  5,  Tartars;  pi.  75,  fig.  2, 
Finns;  //.   75,  fig.   8,   Ostyaks;   among   the   Tiiibetans,  pi.  61,  A^.   2, 

6,  8;  Japanese,  //.  62,  fig.  3;  pi.  63,  figs.  4,  6,  8;  Ainos,  //.  66,  fig.  2; 
among  the  Yukagirs  and  relatives,  pL  75,  fig.  5;  //.  76,  figs,  i,  2;  pi.  "j-j^ 
fig.  6;  //.  78,  figs.  4,  5;  pL  yg,  figs,  i,  4,  5). 

Secondly,  the  badly-formed  extremities  are  ven,'  marked  among  them 
iPl-  78,  fi£-s.  4,  5;  pi-  7%  A?^-  I,  4.  5;  among  the  Japanese,  //.  63,  figs. 

7,  8;  the  Ainos,  pi.  66,  figs,  i,  2;  tlie  other  Altaic  peoples,  //.  68,  figs. 

4,  5;  pi-  69,  fig-  11;  pl-  70,  A?-  i;  pi-  7.3,  A-  5;  pi  75;  A^-  8;  among 
the  Thibetans,  //.  61,  figs.  2,  6,  8).  The  manner  of  sitting  common  to 
them  all,  crouching  with  legs  crossed  under  them  (//.  69,  fig.  11;  //.  71, 
figs.  2,  3;  pl.  73,  fig.  i),  seems  to  have  some  connection  with  their 
stature. 

Color. — Tlieir  complexion  also  shows  much  likeness.  The  funda- 
mental color  is  a  very  light  leather  or  "wheat"  yellow,  which  often 
changes  into  white,  even  to  a  sickly  colorless  hue,  but  also  to  darker 
shades,  even  to  a  blackish  brown.  The  dark  coloring  prevails  in  the 
north  and  south-east  of  the  continent;  the  central  portion  of  it,  as  Japan 
and  China,  shows  a  leatliery  yellow  as  the  prevailing  color;  toward  the 
west  there  is  a  whitish  tint  of  the  skin,  whicli,  however,  is  often  dark- 
ened by  the  manner  of  living,  uncleauliness,  etc. 

Hair. — The  hair  is  everywhere  black,  generally  straight,  rarely  frizzled 
{pl.  61,  figs.  2,  6,  8),  mostly  coarse  and  hard,  but  in  China  pretty  fine. 
The  hair  of  the  beard  and  body  is  scant,  and  only  in  exceptional  cases  of 
great  abundance  {pL  54,  fig.  5;  pl.  56,  fig.  2;  pl  57,  fig.  8;  pl  61,  fig. 
2;  pl.  66,  figs.  I,  2,  6;  pl  71,  figs.  2,  3;  //.  73,  fig.  2;  pl.  75,  fig.  2); 
besides,   it  is  generally  extracted. 

Skull  and  Features. — The  shape  of  the  head  of  all  these  peoples  shows 
a  uniformity,  although  this  does  not  appear  at  first  si.t^ht.  The  m.ajority 
of  the  Mongolian  tribes  liave  braclncephalic  forms;  the  Chinese,  Japanese, 
and  the  Ksthonians  are  inesoceplialic;  still  others,  like  some  Tliibctan 
tribes,  have  even  dolichocephalic  shapes  {pl.  6i,  fig.  5);  but  the  roof 
of  the  skull  is  always  square,  and  even  where  it  passes  into  the  oblong 
fonn    it  is  still   always   square,  and   it  is  never   round  (//.   61,  fig.   5). 


23S  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Projecting  jawbones  are  either  not  found  at  all  or  tlie  projection  is  very 
small;  but  the  arches  project  in  breadth,  making  the  face  verA'  broad, 
almost  rhombic;  the  forehead,  together  with  a  strongly  curved  roof  of 
the  skull,  becomes  narrow  at  the  top,  and  the  chin  is  narrower  than  the 
cheeks  (for  instance,  pi.  66,  fig.  5;  //.  67,  fjg.  4;  //.  68,  Jig.  5;  pi.  74,  Jig. 
8;  pL  76,  Jigs.  I,  2).  On  this  account  the  upper  part  of  the  face  is  often 
very  broad,  but  the  entire  face  is  round;  narrow  faces  occur  only  rarely 
{pi.  70,  Jig.  2).  The  roof  of  the  nose  is  often  pressed  in  (//.  61,  Jigs.  5, 
6;  pi.  69,  Jigs.  I,  2);  its  septum  is  flat,  so  that  the  nose  scarcely  projects, 
or  only  very  little,  beyond  the  cheeks  and  forehead  (//.  56,  Jig.  3;  //.  57, 
Jig.  2;  pi.  61,  Jig.  6;  pi.  62,  Jigs.  1-4;  pi.  63,  Jigs,  i,  3;  pi.  70,  Jig.  \\  pi. 
74.  figs.  6,  7,  8;  pi.  75,  Jigs.  6,  7,  8).  ^  ^ 

The  slanting  position  of  the  eyes,  of  which  the  inner  corner  often  lies 
deeper  than  the  outer,  is  in  connection  with  the  low  position  of  the  root 
of  the  nose.  While  our  illustrations  confirm  this  peculiarity  among  the 
different  tribes  of  the  race  (Ural-Japanic  peoples,  ph.  62,  63;  //.  64,7?^.  9; 
pi.  66,  Jig.  5;  //.  67,  fig.  4;  pi.  68,  fig.  3;  pi.  69,  fig.  4;  pi.  70,  figs.  I, 
3;  Kor}-aks,  //.  76,  figs,  i,  2;  Kamchatkans,  //.  78,  fig.  5;  pi.  79,  fig. 
5;  Indo-Chinese,  pi  55,  fig.  4;  //.  56,  fiig.  5;  pi.  57,  fig.  3;  etc.),  they 
also  show  that  it  is  by  no  means  a  reliable  mark  as  to  the  race,  for  a 
number  of  individuals,  as  well  in  the  east  as  in  the  north,  and  especially 
in  the  west,  do  not  have  it  {pi.  54,  figs,  i,  7;  pi.  56,  figs,  i,  3,  4;  //.  57, 
figs.  2,  5,  8,  10;  //.  61,  figs.  2,  6,  8;  pi.  66,  figs,  i,  2;  //.  68,  figs.  4,  5; 
pt-  70,  fig-  2;  pi.  71,  figs.  2,  3;  pi.  -jT,,  figs.  I,  2;  //.  7S,fig.  5;  pi.  77^  fig- 
6;  //.  78,  fig.  4;  //.  79,  fig.  4;  //.  80). 

Equally  universal  is  a  certain  twinkling  and  pressing  together  of  the 
small  eyes  (for  example,  pi.  56,  fig.  4;  pi.  57^figs-  5>  8;  //.  68,7?^.  4;  //. 
74,  fig-  7;  /''•  76,  T??-^-  I,  2;  //.  78,  fig.  5,  etc.),  which  is  closely  related 
to  the  first-mentioned  peculiarity.  As  the  cheekbones  project  broadly, 
and  the  bones  of  the  nose  lie  deep,  the  skin  of  the  upper  eyelid  is  drawn 
downward  to  the  nose,  thus  covering  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye.  Plate  i 
{figs.  1-4)  shows  four  eyes  which  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  this  pecu- 
liarity. In  Figure  i,  d  a  I?  c  is  the  upper  e}-elid,  which  in  /;  already 
covers  a  portion  of  the  pupil  a  I),  and  in  c  is  drawn  so  low  down  as  com- 
pletely to  cover  the  inner  corner.  It  is  seen  somewhat  more  distinctly 
in  Figure  2,  still  more  in  Figure  3,  while  the  eye  of  the  Dyak  {fig.  4) 
almost  fully  exposes  the  corner. 

Not  unfrequently  the  fold  of  skin  of  the  upper  eylid  hangs  so  low  as 
to  half  cover  the  lashes  on  opening  the  eye.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  this  peculiarity  should  appear  different  with  diflTerent  indi- 
viduals, sometimes  more  or  less  pronounced,  and  sometimes  wholly  absent. 
Among  young  people  and  stout  persons  it  is  plainly  perceptible;  and 
also  among  individuals  whose  nasal  frames  are  very  much  compressed, 
as  the  Japanese,  etc. ;  but  it  is  less  perceptible  where  the  bones  are  more 
elevated,  as  is  the  case  among  the  Indo-Chinese  peoples  {pi.  61,  figs.  2,  5, 
6,  8).     In  consequence  of  this  construction  of  the  eye  the  tears  in  weeping 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  239 

frequent!}'  flow  through  the  nose.     The  pupil  is  everj-where  black  or  at 
least  very  dark. 

Of  the  other  peculiarities  of  the  face  it  must  be  remarked  that  it  often 
looks  inflated  or  swollen,  partly  on  account  of  the  formation  of  the  cheek- 
bones, partly  from  a  tendency  to  fatness  peculiar  to  this  race.  Several 
such  swollen  faces,  which  are  especially  common  to  young  people  and 
children,  are  shown  by  our  plates  (for  instance,  //.  54,  fig.  7;  pi.  55,  fig. 
3;  pl-  57.  fiS-  2;  //•  61,  figs.  2,  6,  8;  //.  62,  figs.  1-5;  pi.  63,  figs,  i,  3,  4, 
6;  pi.  66,  fiig.  5;  //.  67,  figs.  4,  6;  pi.  68,  figs.  4,  5;  //.  69,  figs.  1,  ^\  pi 
70,  fig.  i;  //.  74,  figs.  6,  7,  8;  //.  75,  figs.  6,  7,  8;  pis.  78,  79).  They 
are  couamon  to  almost  all  tribes  of  this  race.  The  lips  are  almost  inva- 
riably full  and  fleshy,  the  chin  round  and  rather  small,  the  teeth  good 
and  durable. 

The  peoples  of  Farther  India  vary  in  many  respects  from  this  type,  and 
still  more  so  those  of  the  Caucasus  and  numerous  individuals  among  the 
Turks,  Hungarians,  and  Finns.  It  prevails  more  extensively  in  the  north 
and  east,  than  in  the  extreme  south  and  west,  of  the  region — is  more 
pronoimced  among  the  uncultivated  tribes  and  individuals  than  among 
the  cultivated.  The  physical  constitution  of  the  Caucasians  makes  it 
hazardous  to  class  them  with  the  Mongolian  race.  Some  scientists  unite 
them,  with  the  Indo-Germanic  peoples,  the  Semites,  and  the  Basques, 
into  another  race,  and  still  others  represent  them  as  a  distinct  branch  of 
the  human  species,  ha\'iug  no  relation  to  other  races.  Our  opinion  dis- 
tinctly is  that  the  ethnologic  position  of  the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus  is 
still  an  open  question.  Our  reasons  for  placing  them  in  one  class  with 
the  Mongolians  are  the  following: 

First:  The  IMongolian  type  shows  great  change  toward  the  west,  becom- 
ing more  European;  and  this  is  in  accordance  with  our  supposition  that 
the  types  of  races  are  produced  by  the  gradual  influence  of  their  natural 
surroundings.  Thus  we  find  the  Finnish  natives  of  Europe  frequently  of 
European  type,  with  blue  eyes  and  brown,  blond,  or  red  hair.  Again,  a 
modification  of  the  Mongolian  type  has  taken  place  with  the  Hungarians 
and  Turks  {pi.  72,  figs,  i,  2),  who,  by  their  large  stature,  muscular  pow- 
ers, condition  of  hair  {pi.  72,  fig.  2\  pi.  75,  fig.  2),  shape  of  face  and 
skull,  formation  of  the  nose,  position  of  the  eyes,  etc.,  can  scarcely  be 
distinguisiied  from  the  Indo-Germanic  nations,  particularly  the  Asiatic 
types  of  them,  as  the  Armenians,   Kurds,  etc.  (conip.  pi.  73,  figs.  6,  9). 

But  the  European  type  is  by  no  means  the  only  one  prevailing 
amongst  these  nations :  the  old  Mongolian  traits  not  unfrequently 
occur.  Thus  among  the  Hungarians  individuals  are  often  found  who 
unite  with  a  small  figure  and  scant  beard  a  tliick  neck,  a  round  head 
with  a  low,  retreating  forehead,  flattened  occiput,  .slanting  eyes,  short 
flat  nose,  and  thick  lips.  Some  have  attempted  to  find  the  catise  of 
this  modification  of  the  t>-pe  by  intcnninglings  with  Europeans;  and 
we  are  far  from  denying  either  the  intcnninglings  or  their  influence. 
But  in  what  the  latter  consists  has  neither  been  so  thoroughly  nor  so 


240  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

widely  investigated  as  to  furnish  a  basis  for  scientific  conclusions.  It 
is  impossible  to  explain  all  these  changes  by  referring  them  to  inter- 
mingling. It  would  be  strange  indeed  if  therein  the  Indo-European  type 
had  so  completely  gained  the  ascendency,  and  it  would  be  especially 
remarkable  in  the  Caucasus,  where  at  least  as  much  contact  took  place 
with  the  Mongolian  as  with  the  Indo-Gennanic  peoples. 

Nations  where  there  is  no  mixture — as  many  of  the  wild  Turcomans 
in  the  inhospitable  steppes  around  the  Caspian  Sea — have  the  same  non- 
Mongolian  features  {pi.  72,  fig.  5).  Likewise  the  Nogais  Turks  between 
the  Caspian  and  the  Sea  of  Azov,  as  well  as  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea, 
exhibit  frequently  quite  European  countenances  {pi.  72,  fig.  8;  pi.  73,  fig. 
T)\  pi.  74,yig-  i)-  We,  might  assume  that  the  intermixture  of  Indo-Ger- 
manic  blood  was  so  great  that  in  process  of  time  the  Mongolian  traits 
were  absorbed;  but  so  extensive  a  fusion  throughout  all  classes  has 
never  taken  place  here.  This  theory  of  blood-mixture  does  not  solve 
the  difficulty,  but  merely  sets  it  back.  How,  from  what  sources,  has 
the  Indo-European  type  formed  itself?  Surely  not  by  mixture.  And  that 
the  European  was  not  the  original  type  of  mankind  (according  to  the 
development  theor}')  has  long  been  an  acknowledged  fact  (comp.  p.  29). 

If  different  influences  could  ennoble  the  type  in  this  case,  why  not  also 
in  the  case  of  the  IMongolian  race  ?  For  it  is  by  no  means  so  unchange- 
ably fixed  as  has  often  been  assumed.  Our  plates  prove  this  when  we 
glance  at  the  inhabitants  of  Farther  India  and  the  Ainos;  and  among  the 
Mongolian  peoples  in  a  narrower  sense  many  differences  of  type  are  to  be 
seen.  Therefore,  the  conclusion  is  justified  that  in  spite  of  their  Euro- 
pean type  the  people  of  the  Caucasus  are  to  be  considered  as  belonging 
to  the  Mongolian  race.  In  the  earliest  times,  subsequent  to  the  separation 
from  the  original  centre  of  mankind,  they  belonged,  together  with  the 
IMongolians,  to  a  single  centre  of  population.  Having  left  this  at  an 
early  date,  and  being  confined  to  their  mountains  and  the  surrounding 
regions,  they  gradually  took  upon  themselves  their  present  character- 
istics. They  have  long  lived  in  their  mountain-valleys  secluded  and 
independent,  as  their  so  numerous  and  widely  different  tongiies  plainly 
prove. 

Second  :  As  further  e\idence  that  they  belong  to  the  Mongolian  race, 
many  physical  peculiarities  may  be  adduced  which  they  share  in  com- 
mon with  it.  The  disproportion  between  the  buttocks  and  the  limbs, 
already  mentioned,  is  seen  also  in  the  Tcherkesses,  whose  thighs  are  often 
somewhat  short  and  whose  feet  are  very  small;  and,  inasmuch  as  the 
handles  of  their  weapons  are  surprisingly  small,  so  must  their  hands  be 
— like  the  real  IMongolian.  Latham,  the  well-knowm  English  ethnologist, 
calls  the  Caucasians  "modified  Mongolians,"  and  Pallas  likewise  found 
many  Mongolian  features  among  them,  which  he  deemed  referable  to  the 
intermixture  of  Nogais  blood. 

The  type  of  the  Crimean  Tartars  (pi.  73,  fig.  3)  appears  again  in  the 
Caucasus,  while  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  these  mountains  possess  a 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  241 

full  European,  and  frequently  very  handsome,  exterior.  They  present 
an  elegant  and  yet  herculean  build — the  hips,  however,  remaining  small 
— rather  long  not  round  faces,  prominent  noses,  large  and  mostly  brown 
eyes,  brown  but  also  blond  and  red  hair,  with  much  hair  growing  on  the 
body  {pi.  80,  figs.  1-3,  7-12). 

Language. — We  are  next  met  by  a  question  of  the  highest  importance: 
In  what  relationship  do  the  languages  of  the  Caucasians  stand  to  each 
other?  Are  they  related  to  those  of  the  other  peoples  of  Mongolian  stock 
which  were  referred  to  above?  We  saw  that  the  similarity  of  the  Amer- 
ican languages  in  general  did  not  depend  so  much  upon  similarity  of 
rools  as  upon  the  fact  that  the  grammatical  forms  resembled  each  other 
in  characteristic  points,  and  that  this  similarity,  more  or  less  wide- 
spread, was  sufficient  to  indicate  the  original  relationship  of  all  these 
tribes  (p.  211). 

If  we  now  turn  to  the  principal  forms  of  speech  of  the  different  Mon- 
golian peoples,  we  do  not  find  precisely  that  which  we  found  among  the 
Americans,  but  a  state  of  affairs  much  akin  to  it,  which  might  render  an 
original  relationship  and  unity  of  speech  by  no  means  impossible.  If  we 
do  not  find  the  same  forms  of  speech  everywhere,  we  do  find  in  all  idioms 
belonging  here  only  such  forms  as  may  or  must  have  developed  themselves 
from  a  common  foundation;  which  is  the  case  all  the  world  over  when  we 
take  the  factor  of  development  into  consideration. 

Not  only  do  the  more  perfected  of  these  languages  use  the  same  ele- 
ments with  greater  strength  than  the  less  perfected,  but  we  also  have 
transitions  from  the  latter  to  the  forni'^r,  which  show  clearly  the  process 
of  gradual  refinement  of  the  tongues.  Therefore,  the  original  root  of  the 
Mongolian  tongues  throws  much  light  upon  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  speech;  it  shows  us  a  whole  scale  of  tongues,  which,  starting  from 
the  most  simple  possible  form  of  human  speech  (/.  r.,  the  nionos\'llabic), 
progresses  through  more  and  more  jierfcct  formations  to  a  point  (in  the 
Finnish)  which  docs  not  essentially  differ  from  the  height  of  development 
as  found  in  the  Indo-Germanic. 

There  are  three  points  which  this  mother-speech  teaches  clearly, 
and  although  they  are  well  known  everywhere,  we  must  at  least  allude 
to  them  on  account  of  their  great  importance: 

First,  nations  who  have  attained  considerable  culture,  either  by  them- 
selves or  from  foreign  sources,  exhibit  a  highly  developed  speech,  in  which 
the  forms  of  thought  attain  a  fitting  expression.  This  is  the  case  among 
the  Mongolians  with  the  Chinese  and  the  Finns,  among  the  .\mcricans 
with  the  Mexicans  and  Ouichnas,  with  the  Semites  of  the  Arabic- African 
races,  etc. 

Secondly,  no  ethnologic  race  shows  only  undeveloped  tongues:  with 
almost  all  we  find  true  formal  elements  of  speech,  as  among  the  Mongo- 
lians in  Chinese  and  Finnish,  and  so  at  le;ist  approximately  in  the  Mex- 
ican and  in  the  Semitic  speeches,  etc.  The  Malayan  and  Tagala  belong, 
at  least  in  part,  here. 

Vol.  I.— 16 


242  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Thirdly,  if  a  certain  number  of  tongnes  remain  rude  and  undeveloped, 
it  does  not  follow  that  all  the  nearly-related  tongues  remain  upon  the  same 
level  of  development,  as  the  highly-developed  Finnish  proves. 

Thus  we  have,  first,  the  monosyllabic  tongues  of  China,  Farther  India, 
and  Thibet,  which  last  two  form  the  transition  to  the  polysyllabic  of 
the  Ural-Japanese.  All  the  idioms  in  this  category  make  no  distinction 
between  verb,  substantive,  and  adjective,  but  the  same  word  may  appear 
as  either.  The  words  have  no  outward  form  of  diflerence;  and  what  is 
a  very  remarkable  fact — and  indeed  unique — is,  that  the  words  appearing 
in  the  spoken  language  are  often  pure  roots,  so  that  the  original  form  of 
sound  which  the  linguistic  genius  of  this  people  created  has  been  applied 
in  the  language  just  as  they  formed  it,  without  noteworthy  changes,  and 
so  remains.  Unintentional  changes  in  the  sounds  of  the  words  have 
gradually  crept  in,  but  these  need  not  concern  us  here. 

All  these  elements  of  speech  are  monosyllabic,  as  originally  the  roots 
of  all  tongues  were  either  monosyllabic  or  reduplicating;  and  it  appears 
that  the  psycho-physical  foundation  upon  which  the  linguistic  genius  of 
this  people  rested  insisted  upon  and  long  clung  to  this  monosyllabism ; 
for  only  in  later  times  were  groups  of  roots  formed  by  collocation  into 
polysyllabic  words,  in  which  the  original  formative  elements  had  lost 
their  meaning.  These  linguistic  elements  of  conventional  and  modified 
meaning  usually  follow  the  radical,  either  as  independent  words  or  as 
loosely-attached  suffixes,  of  wliich  a  number  sometimes  may  come  after 
a  word.  The  use  of  prefixes  is  also  not  rare.  They  are  much  employed 
in  the  languages  of  Farther  India. 

By  means  of  this  binding  together  of  single  words  these  languages 
supply  to  a  degree  the  lack  of  inflections — not  perfectly,  however,  for 
imity  and  plurality,  sex,  person,  case,  moods,  etc.  are  all  wanting.  They 
express  these  conceptions  by  independent  words,  often  leaving  it  to  the 
speaker  to  think  out  and  add  the  various  relations.  That  this  is  a  very 
rough  procedure  is  plain,  and  yet  the  Chinese  adopts  it  just  as  do  the  other 
tongues.  The  means  by  which  these  idioms  devoid  of  inflection  are 
enabled  to  render  the  expression  of  thought  is  by  the  relative  position  of 
the  words. 

The  Chinese  language  has  this  v/ell  marked,  its  rule  being  to  place  the 
attribute  before  the  subject,  the  subject  before  the  predicate,  and  the  pred- 
icate before  the  object.  This  order  is  also  observed  by  the  tongues  of 
Farther  India,  and  they,  as  well  as  the  Chinese,  make  use  of  certain  par- 
ticles, inasmuch  as  the  position  of  the  word  is  not  enough  to  give  a  clear 
idea  of  the  various  relations,  the  particles  rendering  the  doubtful  meaning 
quite  clear.  By  their  aid  the  attribute,  object,  etc.  can  be  determined. 
There  are  also  particles  which  express  the  relations  of  the  predicate.  Fre- 
quently a  certain  manner  of  speaking  decides  in  cases  which  would  other- 
wise remain  doubtful  in  meaning. 

In  spite  of  all  this,  these  tongues — even  the  Chinese — do  not  stand 
high.     The  best  that  the  latter  can  do  is  to  give  a  correct  exposition  of 


ErilNOGRAPHY.  243 

common  log-ical  relations;  further  than  this  the  language  expresses  noth- 
ing: individual  ideas  are  presented  in  an  isolated  form,  and  therefore 
vaguely;  the  defining  power,  as  we  possess  it  in  the  formation  of  our 
words,  is  wanting  with  them  or  added  by  means  of  independent  words. 
The  same  root,  according  to  circumstances,  may  mean  "great,"  "great- 
ness," "  to  make  great,"  or  "  to  be  great."  Of  course  the  tongue  of  the 
Chinese,  witli  its  fixed  position  of  the  word,  is  a  mucli  more  compact  one 
than  ours  (the  German).  Tlieir  thoughts  are  more  abstract,  their  ideas 
not  so  keen,  less  positive,  so  much  with  them  coming  into  one  word  which 
we  separate  with  sharper  comprehension.  The  best  that  the  Chinese  mind 
possesses  comes  to  them  from  without,  through  their  thouglits  into  their 
speech,  the  speech  itself  giving  only  the  most  commonplace  ideas.  The 
languages  of  Farther  India  are  somewhat  less  abstract,  but  on  that  very 
account  less  logical. 

The  language  of  Thibet  shows  the  same  use  of  monosyllabism,  but 
at  the  same  time  an  effort  toward  a  firmer  connection  of  the  words;  it  is 
rich  in  inseparable  suffi.xes  or  suffixed  words,  for  from  the  fact  that  all 
attributes  (for  which  signs  of  cases,  articles,  plurals,  etc.  serve)  follow  the 
substantive,  even  dependent  ones,  such  as  signs  of  cases,  plurals,  etc.,  the 
substantive  becomes  often  verj-  long.  The  .same  is  true  of  the  verbal  roots 
and  their  affixes. 

Prefixes  also  are  not  rare.  If  the  attribute  stands  before,  it  will  fre- 
quently receive  a  particle,  which  is  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case;  thus,  for 
our  "the  good  man"  it  would  be  "good — relating  to — man,"  or  "the 
man  of  goodness."  The  subject  in  the  case  of  verbs  of  doing  has  fre- 
quently an  instrumental  sufiix,  so  that  the  sentence  "the  king  does  this" 
would  be  expressed  in  the  Thibetan,  "this — king-by — do.  .  .  ."  The 
position  of  the  words  here  is  also  quite  constant,  the  verbal  root  having 
always  the  last  place.  The  different  conceptions  are  much  more  sharply 
divided  into  substantives,  adjectives,  and  verbs. 

In  studying  the  polysyllabic  Mongolian  tongues  the  Japanese  will  first 
demand  our  attention.  Here  also  there  is  no  inflection:  sex,  plurality, 
declension,  and  conjugation  are  formed  by  independent  words,  which 
mostly  follow  the  leading  idea,  or  by  sufTixcs  blend  with  it.  The  first 
vowel  sound  of  these  suffixes  often  assimilates  to  the  vowel  sound  of  the 
stem-word,  so  that  there  are  traces  of  a  kind  of  vocal  hannony.  Some  of 
tlicsc  suffixes  deserve  closer  attention.  They  have  a  predicate  suffix  si 
(Hoffmann,  Jnpnitsiiir  Sprdn/clcrr)  and  various  attribute  suffixes,  which 
are  employed  for  the  more  precise  defining  of  the  .subject.  So  also  the 
genitive  suffix  ,^<^?,  whicli,  where  there  is  an  accented  predicate,  is  applied 
to  the  (apparent)  sulyect. 

If  it  be  asked,  "'A7r;/r  'erw  '^dri-* tndsu-^ka?''' — Is  there  money  at 
hand?  (literally,  'Money,  "what  belongs  to,  'to  be  present,  *to  be  at  hand, 
''interrogative  word),  the  answer  will  be,  ''^  A'am-'^j^a  dri- mdsu''' — Money 
is  at  hand  (literally,  'money  *of,  genitive  sig^i);  therefore  "the  being-here 
of  money"  (Hoffmann).     The  r.v?  of  the  first  e.xamiile  is  an  isolating  par- 


244  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

tide;  it  marks  out  the  word  immediately  preceding  it  as  important,  and 
is  attached  mostly  to  the  subject,  sometimes  to  the  object,  sometimes  to 
the  predicate.  The  object  has  also  its  own  suffix,  which  serves  as  the 
accusative  sign  in  the  grammars.  The  subject  stands  (if  it  does  not 
attract  one  of  these  particles)  without  other  definition  than  its  position, 
for  neither  the  Japanese  uor  any  other  Mongolian  tongue  has  nominative 
suffixes. 

The  position  of  words  is  of  the  highest  importance:  the  predicate  follows 
the  subject,  and  all  the  more  definitive  expressions  stand  before  the  word 
to  be  defined;  thus,  the  attribute  (genitive,  adjective)  is  placed  before  the 
word  to  which  it  belongs,  the  adverb  and  all  objects  before  the  verb  being 
understood  as  its  limiting  terms.  Thus  we  have  two  apparently  opposite 
principles  of  phraseology:  independent  limiting  ideas  precede,  and  depend- 
ent ones  (suffixes,  particles)  follow. 

This  is  of  the  more  importance  because  by  this  means  the  language 
distinguishes  very  sharply  between  ideas  which  are  expressed  in  the  words 
and  the  relations  of  these  ideas  to  each  other.  The  subject  serves  as  a 
particular  definition  to  the  predicate  only  where  it  has  the  genitive  suffix, 
not  wiiere  it  is  isolated  by  zca  or  stands  without  something  to  denote  it. 
All  these  denoting  signs  are  ver>'  properly  wanting  to  the  subject,  for  it 
refers  to  nothing,  while  all  else  in  the  sentence  refers  back  to  it.  The  pred- 
icate group,  no  matter  how  extended,  refers  back  to  the  subject. 

In  the  language  of  courtesy  there  is  even  a  sort  of  agreement  (con- 
gruence), so  that  where  there  is  a  subject  to  be  honored  a  prefix  with  an 
lionorable  meaning  comes  before  the  verb.  Still  more  exactly  is  this  rela- 
tion expressed  by  the  predicate-suffix  j/,  which  means  "to  be,"  esse.  It  is 
not  rare  in  Japanese  to  find  prefixes:  they  were  originally  independent 
attributive  words,  but  have  gradually  been  so  closely  attracted  by  the  chief 
idea  to  which  they  belong  that  they  have  lost  their  independent  quality. 

Thus,  the  Japanese  is  seen  to  be  a  speech  which,  though  differing 
widely  from  our  own,  is  a  vehicle  for  keen  and  consecutive  thinking. 
Granting  that  this  is  of  ethnologic  importance,  we  shall  have  to  look  at  it 
more  closely  for  another  reason:  we  find  in  it  the  proof  that  the  celebrated 
Ainos,  who  are  now  generally  treated  as  a  separate  race,  are  closely  related 
to  the  Japanese.  Their  language  is  built  r.pon  the  same  model  as  the 
Japanese  (according  to  Pfizmayer's  works),  and  many  of  the  suffixes, 
as  well  of  substantives  as  of  verbs,  are  either  quite  alike  or  have  difiered 
only  by  change  in  sound. 

To  these  similar  suffixes  belong  also  such  as  give  its  peculiar  quality 
to  the  Japanese,  as  the  isolating  aw,  which  has  the  same  usage  in  the 
tongue  of  the  Ainos;  e.  g.^gft-^a7ii  ^tschosc/itscIia-*zca  ^rai- ke — "With 
'bow  ^to  shoot  ^what  concerns  ^to  kill  (Pfizmayer) — /.  e.  A  shot  from  the 
bow  kills.  Not  only  suffixes,  but  frequently  the  words  themselves,  are 
similar  or  closely  related;  of  course  not  merely  borrowed  ones,  but  nu- 
merous words  which  plainly  could  not  be  borrowed,  and  which  in  both 
tongues  are  treated  as  entirely  independent     Besides,  the  Japanese  has 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  245 

both  with  refjard  to  epochs  and  locality  a  number  of  different  dialects. 
Thus  the  dialect  of  Ycddo  cannot  be  understood  by  the  people  of  Nag- 
asaki, and  educated  persons  at  large  can  only  understand  each  other  in 
the  written  language. 

Also  among  the  Ainos  there  are  different  dialects,  for  the  inhabitants 
of  Yesso,  the  Kurile  Islands,  Saghalin,  of  the  southern  end  of  Kamchatka, 
the  Gilyaks  (Santane.s),  and  the  Natkis  of  the  continent,  all  of  whom 
belong  to  the  Ainos,  have  each  their  peculiar  dialect.  The  island  Sag- 
halin is  inhabited  by  several  races  of  Ainos  with  different  dialects. 

The  languages  of  Central  Asia,  commonly  called  the  Altaic  or  Ural- 
Altaic  languages,  resemble  the  Japanese  so  much  that  much  in  them  is 
the  .same  in  root;  as,  c.g.^  in  Manchoo  the  isolating  wa  {lui)  is  likewise 
seen,  but  has  not  yet  become  a  true  form-element,  and  in  regard  to  syntax  is 
not  yet  so  highly  developed  as  in  the  Japanese.  Other  points,  again,  have 
been  here  more  richly  de\'eloped;  for  instance,  the  vocal  harmony,  which 
was  only  alluded  to  in  the  Japanese.  The  vowels  of  the  Altaic  tongues 
are  divided  into  three  classes — rough,  medium,  and  soft:  the  stem-vowel 
always  determines,  by  its  own  nature,  the  nature  of  the  vowels  which 
appear  in  the  suffixes;  therefore  the  sound  of  the  suffixes  is  much  varied. 
Tliis  rule  is  characteristic  of  all  these  tongues;  yet  it  does  not  universally 
prevail,  and  in  some  of  the  dialects  of  the  most  highly  developed  of  these 
idioms  it  is  almost  abandoned. 

Compared  with  the  Japanese,  we  note  another  great  advance — namely, 
that  in  all  these  tongues  verbal  and  nominal  stems  are  different.  Not  that 
the  noun  (substantive  or  adjective)  can  be  directly  declined;  but,  while 
in  Japanese  the  particles  supplying  the  place  of  inflection  frequently  accord 
with  the  particles  of  the  substantive  denoting  the  case,  it  is  not  so  here; 
both  are  separated  as  the  formative  syllables  for  developed  nominal  and 
verbal  stems  are  distinguished. 

Thus  we  see  the  development  of  a  perfect  declension  with  number 
and  ca.se  quite  equal  to  our  own  in  the  more  highly  developed  dialects, 
and  a  conjugation  that  metamorphoses  the  substantive  root  by  means  of 
subordinate  unchangeable  suffixes.  These  latter  are  derived  from  the 
ordinary  pronouns  like  the  po.ssessive  suffixes  which  are  met  with  every- 
where in  these  tongues,  and  many  of  the  case  suffixes  are  recognized  as 
demonstrative  pronouns;  thus  \\\  priiidpic  the  choice  of  suffixes  is  rigidly 
indicated.  With  this  is  connected  the  great  development  of  the  personal 
pronoun,  which  in  the  Japanese  was  unimportant,  but  here  presents  a 
number  of  forms,  and  in  some  cases  differs  in  its  inflections  from  the  noun. 
We  often  recognize  true  inflection  in  these  tongues,  and  iu  some  dialects 
(Finnish)  a  real  comparative  and  superlative  can  be  formed. 

Other  parallelisms  of  all  these  tongues  are  the  negative  verbs  and  dif- 

'  fcrcnt  methods  of  denoting  near  and  remote  objects,  as  well  as  the  whole 

formation  of  the  sentence.     The  subject  leads  as  principal  idea,  and  we 

have  again  tliat  double  principle  already  referred  to:  independent  limiting 

ideas  (attribute,  which  in  the  Eastern  tongues  often  appears  only  in  the 


246  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

genitive  form,  object,  adverb)  stand  before  the  verb  to  be  limited,  depend- 
ent definitions  follow. 

All  these  languages  have  only  suffixes  or  postpositions;  prefixes  are 
not  used,  or  at  least  are  ver>'  rare.  The  suffixes  are  numerous  and  devel- 
oped in  a  manifold  manner:  there  are  predicate  suffixes  (formed  out  of  the 
pronouns  and  personals,  e.g.  in  the  Samoied  language  sazva-m — good  I ; 
I  am  good),  possessive  and  objective  suffixes.  The  number  of  cases,  owing 
to  these  suffixes,  is  great.  These  suffixes — which  are  allowable  in  many 
of  the  tongues  now  tmder  consideration,  while  in  most  they  are  necessities 
— were  the  cause  of  the  name  of  "agglutinating"  or  "adding"  being 
given  to  this  group  of  languages  (see  p.   52). 

We  mxist  content  ourselves  with  this  rough  sketch  of  the  Altaic 
tongues,  in  spite  of  much  that  might  be  more  closely  considered.  The 
steps  in  their  development  going  from  east  to  west  are  particular!}-  worthy 
of  attention.  Several  of  the  Western — for  example,  the  Finnish — can 
hardly  be  regarded  in  an  unprejudiced  manner  as  other  than  infiecting 
tongues.  The  circumstance  is  noteworthy  that  similarity  of  root  does 
not  prevail  in  any  of  these  languages  which  are  distantly  separated  from 
each  other;  the  numerals,  for  instance,  are  often  quite  different. 

The  little  that  we  know  of  the  tongues  of  the  scattered  North  Asiatic 
tribes  justifies  us  in  regarding  them  as  related  to  the  Mongolian  (Yenisei 
Ostyak,  according  to  Castren ;  Yukagir,  according  to  Schiefner);  yet  they 
stand  farther  from  the  Altaic  idioms  than  the  Japanese.  We  find  the 
\owel-hannony  at  least  suggested;  there  are  the  same  syntax,  the  negative 
verb,  the  predicate  suffixes,  and  much  else  to  correspond;  but  here  we 
have  prefixing  also — e.g.  ab-iip,  "my  father;"  uk-iip,  "your  father;" 
also  didcleng,  ' '  I  work, ' '  kiigeleng,  ' '  }'ou  work, ' '  diijaloig,  ' '  he  works ' ' 
(Yenisei  Ostyak,  Castren);  and  in  the  Yenisei  Ostyak  the  verb  is  con- 
structed asymmetrically,  and  likewise  there  are  traces  of  a  kind  of  inflec- 
tional gender  and  an  agreement  between  subject  and  predicate  which  are 
highly  remarkable. 

Finally,  we  can  judge  of  the  Caucasian  languages.  First,  let  us  say 
that  the  chief  divisions  of  the  population  of  the  Caucasus,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Daghestan,  the  Circassians,  those  of  the  upper  mountain-valleys, 
those  of  Georgia  and  Lazistan,  speak  related  tongues.  An  exact  compar- 
ison of  the  accessible  material  (see  Uslar,  Schiefner,  Rosen,  etc.)  shows 
this,  for  we  find  ever^-where  the  same  structure  of  language  with  its  fre- 
quently surprising  features;  we  often  find  the  same  suffixes  and  particles 
used  in  corresponding  application;  finally,  we  find  in  all  these  tongues 
much  lexical  matter  in  common.  Such  extensive  identity  in  the  meaning 
and  development  of  words  cannot  be  owing  to  the  process  of  borrow- 
ing. Of  course  this  relationship  often  conceals  itself  in  anomalous  and 
jnore  or  less  complex  forms;  but  an  exact  comparative  study  will  disclose 
positive  relations  between  the  different  tongues,  as  well  as  a  system  of 
transitions  of  sounds  by  means  of  which  these  relations  are  to  be  rec- 
ognized. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  247 

In  the  second  place,  the  structure  of  the  Caucasian  idioms  shows  nothin<;; 
that  is  inconsistent  with  the  Mongolian  tongues.  The  system  of  sounds 
is  similar;  the  harmony  of  the  vowels  reappears  in  the  Caucasian;  the 
negative  verb,  the  affixed  particles,  the  predicate  suffixes,  and  also  the 
Mongolian  rules  for  the  position  of  the  word,  although  the  latter  are  not 
found  everywhere  in  the  Caucasus,  but  only  in  the  least  cultivated  dialects. 
In  the  others  this  feature  is  altered  in  many  ways;  but  here  also  similar 
foundations  may  be  easily  recognized.  It  is  also  noteworthy  how  in  the 
different  tongues  different  parts  are  developed;  no  one  is  just  like  another. 
This  arose  from  their  history,  as  they  have  mostly  developed  themselves 
in  isolated  localities. 

That  we  find  numerous  prefixes  in  them  will  not  surprise  us,  since  this 
is  not  unknown  among  the  Mongolian  idioms;  but  it  is  remarkable  that 
many  of  the  tongues  of  the  Caucasus,  northerly  and  southerly,  possess  a 
sort  of  gender  which  shows  itself  in  the  adjective,  in  the  (interrogative) 
pronoun,  and  still  more  in  the  verb,  whose  first  sound  can  be  altered  to 
masculine  or  feminine  in  the  two  first  persons.  This  is  a  lately-developed 
feature,  wanting  in  some  of  the  tongues.  Critically  examined,  the  verb 
is  devoid  of  inflections,  and  frequently  what  in  our  tongue  is  the  subject 
appears  in  an  oblique  case — ablative,  etc. 

The  letters  denoting  the  gender  were  originally  prefixes,  which  later 
united  with  the  root;  and  in  some  tongues  a  personal  pronoun  is  inserted 
between  them  and  the  root,  as  in  the  American  languages;  in  others  this 
affix  of  gender  partakes  of  the  meaning  of  the  personal  pronoun  (at  least 
of  the  first  and  second),  and  thus  corresponds  entirely  with  the  peculiar 
first  sound  of  the  Yenisei  Ostyak,  which  distinguishes  the  different  persons. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  also  that  many  suffixes  and  pronouns  seem  to 
agree  as  to  sound  in  the  Caucasian  and  Mongolian  tongues;  and  also  that  a 
number  of  Mongolian  suffixes  (e.  g.  Turkish)  are  adopted  by  the  Caucasian 
idioms  with  the  greatest  ease. 

These  facts  appear  to  establish  a  relationship  between  the  Caucasian 
and  Mongolian  stocks,  more  distant  indeed  than  that  between  the  Altaic 
and  the  Yukagir,  but  about  equal  to  that  between  the  Altaic  tongues 
and  those  of  Farther  India.  • 


A.   THE     MONOSYLLABIC     MONGOLIANS. 

The.se  include  the  inhabitants  of  China,  Farther  India,  and  Thibet 
We  begin  at  the  most  south-easterly  point 

I.  The  Puopues  ok  F.\rtiiick  I.ndi.v. 

Wc  are  justified  in  separating  these  from  the  Thibetans  and  Chinese 
as  an  independent  division,  on  account  of  the  nature  of  their  language. 

Division. — The  races  which  belong  to  this  division  are,  according  to 
Lassen  (see  Map) — 


248  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

1.  The  Burmese  (or  Mrau-ma,  as  they  style  themselves),  on  both  sides 
of  the  Irawadi,  to  whom  the  inhabitants  of  Tenasserim,  as  well  as  of 
Rakhaing  (Aracan),  belong,  and  some  tribes  which  dwell  on  the  south- 
east slopes  of  the  Himalayas  and  in  the  mountainous  lands  between  the 
Himala\as  and  the  Irawadi.  These  are,  first,  the  Khycns  in  the  Yuma 
Mountains  and  on  the  Khyen-Dwen,  as  well  as  on  the  delta  of  the  Irawadi. 
To  them  belong  the  Karens^  who  in  earlier  times  (^larco  Polo)  were  settled 
in  South  China,  and  at  present,  besides  in  the  mountains  mentioned,  live 
on  the  Irawadi  delta,  in  which  latter  district  they  are  neighbors  to  the 
nearly-related  Zabaings.  To  the  races  of  the  north-west  mountains  belong 
the  Kukis;  north-westerly  from  these  the  Katcharis  (IMetscha,  Dhimal, 
Bodo);  still  farther  west,  reaching  almost  to  the  westerly  bend  of  the 
Brahmapootra,  the  Khyis  and  Garos;  and  at  the  extreme  west,  in  Lower 
Assam  and  South  Bootan,  the  Koischas^  of  whom  a  part  have  adopted  the 
Bengalese  tongue.  North-easterly  from  the  Kukis  the  Nagas  are  settled, 
who  are  mountain-races,  tribes  with  different  names  as  far  as  Assam;  and 
northerly  from  them  the  Suigphos^  to  whom  are  joined  in  Assam  south- 
easterly the  Abors  and  the  Kolitas^  north-easterly  the  Misch»iis,  the  Aliris, 
and  the  Akas. 

2.  The  lifon^  an  independent  branch  of  the  inhabitants  of  Farther 
India,  who  inhabit  Pegu,  and  are  called  Talaiiigs  by  the  Burmese. 

3.  The  Khomas  or  Khames,  the  various  races  living  in  Cambodia. 
Perhaps  they  are  related  to  the  Mois^  wild  mountain-tribes  in  Dong-Nai 
(South-west  Cochin-China)  and  in  the  north-west  of  Tonquin,  as  also  to 
the  Tsiampas  or  Laus  in  South-east  Anam,  and  to  the  Quan-tos,  which 
latter,  dwelling  in  the  border  mountains  between  China  and  Anam,  believe 
themselves  the  original  people  of  Tonquin. 

4.  The  T/iai^  who  occupy  the  interior  of  the  peninsula  and  include  first 
the  Siamese,  the  Thai  in  a  restricted  sense,  or  the  Shan  of  the  Burmese; 
secondly,  the  Laos  people  on  the  upper  Me-Kong,  the  Khamtis  at  the  head- 
waters of  the  Irawadi,  and  the  Ahoiiis,  the  former  rulers  of  Assam.  The 
Thai  are  divided  into  different  races — the  Thai-noi^  Thai-jai,  Afoi-Thai, 
etc. ;  the  Pe-i  (Lok-Thai),  Pa-pe,  etc.  Here  belong  also  the  A'hasias  or 
Khycs  (Scott),  westerly  from  the  Katscharis. 

5.  The  Anajnites,  or  inhabitants  of  Anam  (Chinese  Ngan-nan),  Ton- 
quin, and  Cochin-China. 

We  have  already  seen  how  the  Karens  migrated  from  South  China. 
The  idea  is,  then,  a  very  probable  one  (Lassen)  that  the  Miao-isc,  the 
population  of  China  formed  by  those  Chinese  migrating  later,  and  which, 
breaking  up  into  different  tribes,  inhabit  the  mountains  of  various  parts 
of  China,  are  more  closely  related  to  the  people  of  Farther  India.  An- 
other such  transition  race  are  the  Lolos,  as  the  population  of  South  China 
does  not  differ  greatly  from  the  people  now  under  consideration. 

Our  illustrations,  which  are  taken  from  Garniers  fine  work,  Voyage 
{{^Exploration  dans  P Indo- Chine,  show  types  of  the  different  races,  and 
will  make  these  transitions  clear.     To  the  South  Laos  race  belongs  the 


ETHXOGRAPHY.  249 

mandarin  (//.  ^^•,  fig.  2)  from  Kemarat  on  the  Me-Kong  (16°  N.  lat.), 
likewise  the  young  Laos  {pi.  56,  y^f"-.  4)  from  Bassac  (15°  N.  lat.),  while 
Figure  3,  showing  a  Laos  of  the  uncivilized  mountain  Khinu  race  from 
the  district  of  Pak-beng  (20°  N.  lat.),  forms  the  transition  to  the  North 
Laos  on  Plate  56  {Jigs,  i,  6).  These  northern  Laos  are  called  black — 
properly  speaking,  "the  Laos  with  black  bodies" — because  they  tattoo 
themselves  with  very  elegant  devices,  mostly  from  the  navel  downward, 
but  often  also  over  the  whole  body  (//.  56,  fig.  6).  The  Bunncse  practise 
this  also:  all  the  men  are  tattooed  over  and  over  from  the  navel  to  the 
knee  with  dark  figures  representing  lions,  wild  boars,  tigers,  or  birds  and 
demons.  Many  of  the  mountain-races  have  the  same  ornaments.  Marco 
Polo  found  in  the  westerly  Yun-Nan  striped  devices  on  the  thighs  of  the 
men.  The  Khyen,  especially  the  women,  tattoo  their  faces.  The  wild  race 
of  the  Lemet  (//.  ^(>,  fg.  5)  belong  to  the  northern  Laos;  they  inhabit  the 
mountains  north-west  from  Me-Kong,  between  20°  and  21°  N.  lat.  To 
the  Thai-jai  belongs  the  Thai  (//.  55,  fg.  3);  the  Kong  woman  (//.  81, 
fg.  12)  to  a  race  of  the  Pa-pe,  living  from  21°  northward;  while  the  fire 
women  (//.  60,  fg.  3,  left)  are  Pa-is,  and  likewise  the  group  on  Plate  58 
{fg.  3,  in  the  background  on  the  hill).  The  two  women  on  the  same 
plate  at  the  right  are  Lolos,  also  the  mountaineer  (22°  east  from  Me-Kong) 
from  Yun-Nan  {p/.  61,  fg.  7);  and  a  representative  of  a  related  race,  north 
from  the  lake  of  Ta-Lee  in  the  same  south-west  province  of  China,  is  shown 
in  the  Man-tse,  Plate  55  {fg.  4).  Man-tses  are  also  seen  on  Plate  58  {fg. 
I,  the  three  standing  at  the  left  on  the  hill). 

The  people  represented  on  Plate  56  {fg.  6)  belong  also  to  these  non- 
Chinese  races.  The  men  w'illi  skin  caps  and  the  women  with  immense 
turbans  are  Lissus ;  the  three  standing  women  who  follow  are  Man-tse 
women;  then  we  have  a  man  and  his  wife  of  the  Y-kia  race — all 
mountain-folk  from  the  West  Yun-Nan.  Here  belong  also  the  Minkia 
women,  fishwives  from  the  lake  of  Ta-Lee  {p/.  58,  fg.  3,  at  the  left, 
close  and  front),  and  behind  them  the  "Chinese  women"  with  high 
caps,  as  well  as  Mohannnedan  soldiers  at  the  right,  in  front,  on  the 
same  plate. 

Pliysical  Oiaractcris/ics:  S/a/urc  and  Form. — If  we  examine  the  cor- 
poral build  of  all  these  figures  we  find  that  it  is  not  large.  The  Anamites 
are  remarkable  for  smallness,  and  are  mostly  thickset  and  square-built 
(/>/.  58,  fg.  i),  but  .sometimes  .slender  and  finely  proportioned  (/>/.  S^.,fg. 
6),  in  spite  of  the  disproportion  between  buttocks  and  limbs  (not  rare  here) 
which  we  alluded  to  above  (p.  237)  as  common  among  Mongolians.  The 
muscular  system,  although  well  developed,  is  lax.  All  show  a  tendency 
to  grow  fat. 

Color  and  Features. — The  .skin  is  soft  and  shining,  of  leather-yellow 
color  {pi.  54,  fg.  7;  //•  5^,fgs.  3,  4),  and  darker,  even  dark  brown  (//. 
55i  f'^^-  3'  4i  /''•  5^'  V^A'-  ^)'  o'^^'^"  tending  to  red.  The  brow  is  well 
developed,  broad,  often  somewhat  arched  forward;  the  face  round  and 
broad,  with   very  prominent  cheeks  ;    the  eyes,  without  being  actually 


250  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

small,  are  narrow,  as  if  pressed  down  from  above  (//.  56,  fig.  4),  often 
squinting;  the  nose  small  {pi.  S^^fis^-  3!  P^-  ^'^ifis.-  ^2),  straight  or  arched, 
fuller  below;  the  lips  thick.  The  ears  stand  out,  and  are  characterized 
by  large  flaps,  which  are  often  pierced  in  order  to  carry  ornaments  {pi.  54, 

fig-  i;/''-  56, /.fJ.  I,  3)- 

Hair. — The  hair  is  alwaj-s  black,  mostly  uncurled,  but  sometimes 
wavy,  and  in  some  cases  growing  in  locks  (//.  56,  fig.  3) ;  the  latest  French 
investigators  affirm  that  it  is  never  straight,  while  earlier  accounts  state 
the  contrary.  It  is  worn  either  in  a  turban  or  bound  on  top  of  the  head 
{pi.  54,  figs.  I,  5;  /''•  56}  fig-  6),  or  short,  and  at  times  shorn  off,  so  as  to 
make  a  kind  of  crown  on  the  head  {pi.  54,  figs,  i,  5;  pi.  55,  fig.  5;  //. 
56,  figs.  I,  4,  5).  It  is  either  allowed  to  fly  free  or  is  bound  up  in  a 
bunch  (//.  58,  yff.  i,  to  the  right).  Many  forms  of  ornamental  hats  and 
caps  are  to  be  seen  (//.  54,/.?-.  5;  //.  56, /.f-  6;  //.  sS,fig.  i;  pi.  60,  fig. 
3),  as,  e.  g.,  the  women  in  the  last-named  plate  on  the  right,  who  wear  the 
hair  in  large  skin  cases.  The  hair  of  the  body  is  not  plentiful,  but  more 
so  than  with  the  Malaysians;  the  beard  also  on  the  lips  and  chin  is  not 
alwajs  wanting  (//.  54,  fiig.  5;  pi.  56,  fig.  i;  pi.  58,  fig.  i,  at  the  right; 
fil.  61,  fig.  7),  but  it  is  seldom  luxuriant  (//.  54,  fig.  5;  pi.  56,  fig.  2). 
There  is  a  Siamese  family  whose  members  for  three  generations  have  had 
long  silky  hair  all  over  their  bodies  (//.  54,y?f.  4).  The  resemblance  of 
these  people  to  the  Malaysian  races  has  often  been  alluded  to,  but  it  is  by 
no  means  striking,  as  a  glance  at  our  illustration  shows. 

Costttmc. — We  cannot  speak  of  all  the  costumes  which  we  have  depict- 
ed. The  men  of  the  more  uncivilized  tribes  wear  only  an  apron  both  at 
work  and  in  the  house  (//.  56,  fig.  6),  and  even  in  the  temples  {pi.  55, 
fig.  5),  in  which  the  pilgrims  are  wont  to  spend  many  days  as  if  in  their 
own  homes.  The  ordinary  costume  of  the  poorer  Burmese  consists  of  a 
long  piece  of  stuff  (cotton  or  silk)  about  the  hips,  and  a  coat  (or  long 
caftan)  with  sleeves,  held  in  by  means  of  a  sash  (//.  ^\,figs.  3,  5;  //.  55, 
fiS-  5;  P^-  h^-ifis^-  I)  3)-  With  many  of  the  mountain-people  the  caftan 
is  of  skin.  Trousers  for  both  sexes  or  gaiter-like  leg-coverings  are  com- 
mon (//.  58, /^j.  I,  3;  pi.  60,  fig.  3). 

The  striking  female  costumes  of  the  Pa-is  and  Pa-pe  (//.  60,  fig.  3) 
resemble  the  German  peasant  dress  in  their  gay  colors,  but  for  the  most 
part  dark-colored  stufls  are  preferred  by  these  nations.  This  is  particu- 
larly the  case  among  the  Anamites,  who  wear  almost  exclusively  silk 
dresses,  which  are  coarser  or  finer  according  to  rank.  Plate  55  {fig.  2) 
shows  portraits  of  Siamese  actresses  in  royal  dress.  The  long  finger- 
nails, which  are  protected  by  silver  cases,  are  a  symbol  of  nobility, 
and  indicate  that  the  person  is  exempt  from  the  necessity  of  manual 
labor.  Various  sorts  of  turbans  {pi.  54,  fig.  7),  black  for  the  m.en 
and  blue  for  the  women,  distinguish  rank.  Both  sexes  wear  wide 
trousers,  several  over-garments  with  long  sleeves  {pi.  54,  fig.  6),  and 
longer  or  shorter  jackets,  like  those  of  the  L,aos  women  in  Plate  56  {fig. 
6),  and  frequently  over  all  this  long  black  silk  mantles.     White  is  the 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  251 

color  of  mourning ;  yellow  is  the  sacred  color,  and  is  therefore  worn 
only  by  princes  and  priests. 

Architecture :  Temples  and  Palaces. — The  temples  and  palaces  are  most 
magnificent  and  imposing,  but  an  independent  style  has  not  yet  been 
developed,  the  Indian  style  predominating  with  its  rich  ornamentation 
{pi.  SA'i /'..?■  2)-  Other  buildings  show  Chinese  influence,  as  the  palace  of 
Amarapoora  (//.  54,  Jig.  3)  and  the  great  pagoda  of  Semao  on  the  upper 
Me-Kong  {pi.  60,  /ig.  i.  Gamier),  whose  monolithic  door-jambs  are 
guarded  by  ivory  dogs,  the  symbols  of  friendship.  The  smaller  temples, 
like  the  private  houses,  are  built  of  bamboo,  are  circular  in  shape,  and 
rest  on  wooden  piles:  the  interior  of  one  of  these  is  seen  on  Plate  55  {Jig. 
5,  Garnier). 

Dwellings. — The  houses  in  the  cities  show  nothing  remarkable.  They 
often  rest  upon  large  stakes,  the  stables  being  below.  This  is  seen  on 
Plate  56  {/ig.  7,  Garnier) — the  farm  of  a  wealthy  Laos,  where  the  build- 
ings are  erected  of  rattan  and  bamboo,  and  are  inaccessible  at  night  after 
the  ladder  is  drawn  up.  At  the  right  in  the  picture  stands  a  little  rice- 
house;  at  the  left,  in  the  background,  the  dwelling  of  a  poor  man.  The 
wagon  in  the  foreground  and  the  animals  in  the  yard  give  an  idea  of  the 
husbandry;  in  the  garden  are  planted  bananas,  fan  and  areca  palms,  betel, 
pepper,  cocoa,  etc.  Rice,  which  is  the  staple  food,  is  generally  culti- 
vated even  where  agriculture  is  neglected.  The  mountain-races  eat 
almost  all  kinds  of  animal  food,  but  the  civilized  nations  have  many 
religious  laws  concerning  their  diet.  In  these  dwellings  the  general 
fi.Ktures  of  the  house  arc  simple,  while  great  lu.xury  frequently  prevails 
in  the  cities.      The  use  of  mats  for  sleeping   and   resting   is  universal 

(//•  55,  A--  5)- 

Commerce  and  Trade.,  Art  and  Literature. — Commerce  is  mostly  in 

the  hands  of  foreigners;  the  trades  arc  not  well  advanced,  and  in  art  we 
ma)'  mention  the  music  of  the  Siamese.  The  Laos,  as  well  as  the  Siamese, 
A.ssamites,  and  Burmese,  have  a  kind  of  national  literature — poems  of  myth- 
ological and  historical  character,  romances,  dramas,  and  lyric  pieces.  The 
computation  of  time  is  derived  from  Hither  India;  in  Ava  the  Brahmaus 
revise  the  calendar.     Writing  is  quite  connnon  throughout  Aracan. 

Intellectual  Faculties. — The  intellectual  activity  of  these  people  is  not 
great,  though  the  Anamitcs  are  most  noteworthy.  They  are  honest,  gen- 
tle, and  harmless,  but  cruel  and  fierce  in  their  wars,  as  well  as  cowardly, 
and  without  any  feeling  of  true  honor.  The  inhaliitants  of  the  larger  cities 
are  described  in  still  more  unfavorable  terms.  The  wild  mountain-races 
are  on  a  higher  level,  being  peaceful  and  simple,  even  if  somewhat  rough. 

The  Anamitcs  possess  greater  mental  power,  which  shows  itself  in  the 
excessive  animation  of  the  countenance,  and  arc  more  jo\ous,  friendly, 
and  com]ilacent,  than  the  Siamese  with  their  dull  expression.  They  are 
quicker  in  comprehension.  They  are  also  more  particular  about  their 
exterior  than  the  latter;  they  take  pleasure  in  ornamenting  themselves, 
though  with  little   regard    for  cleanliness.      Thus   thcv  have   identified 


252 


ETIIXO  GRAPH  Y. 


themselves  with  the  nearest  centre  of  culture,  China.  Their  dress  is  the 
old  Chinese;  the  speech  of  the  learned,  the  characters  of  writing,  their 
social  usages,  and  even  their  religion,  are  Chinese. 

Family  Life. — The  family  life  of  all  these  peoples  is  pure,  although 
polygamy  prevails  and  the  unmarried  live  quite  without  restraint.  Yet 
they  are  not  dissolute  in  this  particular  unless  under  the  influence  of 
liquor.  Prostitution  of  unmarried  daughters  by  their  fathers  exists  in 
Auam,  and  of  wives  by  their  hu.sbands  in  Aracan  frequently,  and  is  not 
considered  dishonorable.  Yet  on  the  whole  the  position  of  the  women  is 
not  bad.  Entail  of  property  goes  by  the  mother's  side.  Children  have 
much  tenderness  shown  them,  although  infanticide  both  before  and  after 
birth  is  not  rare  in  Anam.     Old  age  is  respected. 

Goverttment. — The  government  is  entirely  despotic.  The  king  is 
believed  to  have  descended  from  the  gods,  to  whom  the  higher  classes  stand 
nearer  than  the  common  people;  therefore  the  king  alone  is  permitted  to 
wear  yellow,  the  sacred  color  of  the  sun.  This  gives  rise  to  the  ser\-ility 
which  is  displayed  toward  him,  to  the  excessive  ceremony  of  the  court, 
the  strict  divisions  of  society — which  are  particularly  marked  in  Burmah — 
and  to  the  polite  usage  which  requires  a  common  man  to  use  certain 
expressions  and  to  avoid  others  when  addressing  a  superior.  It  also 
accounts  for  the  submission  of  the  lower  classes  to  every  act  of  cruelty 
of  their  betters,  which  has  undoubtedly  had  a  most  unfavorable  influence 
upon  the  development  of  the  national  character.  Plate  54  {^g.  5)  shows 
the  mandarins  of  an  Anamite  village  clad  in  the  dark -blue  official  garb. 

Slavery. — Slaves  are  very  numerous,  and  are  of  two  classes — debtor 
slaves,  who  are  held  in  bondage  until  their  debts  are  paid ;  and  perpetual 
slaves,  who  are  principally  members  of  the  mountain-tribes  captured  in 
war.  Slavery'among  the  Burmese  is  mild,  but  among  the  Siamese  more 
severe.  There  is  also  a  caste  consisting  of  the  unclean  and  of  outcasts, 
who  include  temple  slaves  or  prisoners  of  war  presented  to  the  temple,  of 
lepers  and  incurables  who  are  under  control  of  a  special  functionary,  and 
of  undertakers,  executioners,  etc. 

Soldiery  and  Arms. — The  soldier}',  although  numerous,  is  not  very 
efficient:  the  weapons  are  poor  and  awkward,  and  cavalr^•  has  but 
recently  been  introduced  (//.  54,  Jig.  3).  Mohammedan  soldiers  from 
Yun-Nan  are  seen  on  Plate  58  {^g.  3,  the  figures  at  the  right);  the 
saw-like  weapon,  the  helmet-like  cap  of  the  officer  standing  on  the 
right,  as  well  as  the  triple-toothed  lance  and  the  collar-like  metal  coat- 
of-mail  of  the  warrior  near  him,  are  particularly  remarkable. 

In  Siam  only  the  king  and  highest  nobility  may  ride  upon  the  ele- 
phant, which  is  the  most  generally  employed  and  useful  domestic  animal 
{pi.  56,  fg.  7).  Even  in  war  the  use  of  the  elephant  is  confined  to  the 
class  named,  though  horses  are  growing  into  vogue.  The  elephants  are 
protected  in  battle  by  weapon-proof  saddles.  The  saddle  shown  in  Plate 
54  (y^^f-  S)  "°'^^'  hangs  in  a  pagoda;  it  is  of  wood,  superbly  car\'ed  and 
inlaid   with   metal    in   a   most  artistic   manner.     White    elephants    are 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  253 

esteemed  holy,  because  they  are  regarded  as  the  incarnation  of  fonncr 
rulers.  They  are  of  a  clear  grayisli-white  color,  tending  to  yellow  or  red, 
and  are  very  scarce,  being  found  only  in  high  moHntain-lauds.  After  being 
caught  the  elephant  is  housed  in  a  palatial  building,  massive  gold  rings 
are  placed  on  its  tusks,  and  it  has  a  large  retinue  to  serve  it.  Even  the 
king  never  rides  on  it;  but  when  there  is  need  the  keeper  chastises  it,  and 
when  it  is  led  out  to  exercise  the  driver  occupies  a  seat  on  its  neck  (//. 

^^.fis■  3)-       ^ 

Religion. — The  Buddhist  religion  prevails  almost  everywhere — in 
Cochin  China  and  Anam,  however,  only  among  the  lower  classes,  while 
the  higher  adhere  to  the  teachings  of  Confucius.  Plate  55  {fig.  5)  repre- 
sents the  Buddhist  feast  of  the  new  moon,  which  lasts  three  days.  The 
town  and  country  people,  as  well  as  itinerant  Burmese  merchants  with 
their  slaves,  are  assembled  in  the  pagoda  of  Nong-Kay.  As  they  live 
entirely  in  the  pagoda  during  the  feast,  they  are  provided  with  sleeping- 
mats  and  provisions,  and  have,  besides,  many  presents,  such  as  eatables 
for  the  bonzes  and  ornaments  for  the  temple.  A  joung  bonze  sits  on  the 
altar  and  reads  the  holy  writings;  opposite,  in  the  higher  lodge  which  is 
provided  with  curtains,  the  old  bonzes  also  sit  praying. 

Temples  are  numerous  everywhere,  but  in  Anam  and  Burmah  the 
priests  are  little  esteemed  and  insignificant  in  number,  while  in  Siam 
ever}'  one  at  some  period  of  his  life  is  a  priest  (talapoin).  Moreover,  relig- 
ion has  ver>'  little  influence  upon  the  people's  mind.s.  The  Islam  faith  is 
now  extending  in  South  China  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Farther  India. 
The  wild  races  have  preserved  their  old  religion,  which  consisted  in  the 
worship  of  the  sky  as  the  chief  god,  of  the  sun  and  moon  as  his  servants 
and  inferior  divinities,  and  of  protecting  spirits  and  evil  demons,  but 
which  often  degenerated  into  fctichism.  Their  priests  are  both  magicians 
and  doctors,  for  illness  is  believed  to  be  witchcraft.  An  extended  system 
of  philosophy  prevails  with  them,  as  it  does  everywhere  in  Farther 
India.  The  dead  are  either  buried  or  burned  with  much  solemnity 
.attended  with  sacrifices,  or  they  are  treated  according  to  the  Buddhist 
manner. 

The  introduction  of  Brahman  culture  into  Siam  and  Aracan  dates 
from  the  first  or  second  century  b.  c,  and  simultaneously  the  Indian 
jirinccs  subjected  the  wild  tribes  to  a  regular  fonn  of  government. 
Buddiiism,  and  with  it  the  Pali  and  the  Indian  scriptures,  was  intro- 
duced from  Ceylon  much  later,  at  first,  about  640  A.  n.,  to  Aracan  and 
the  Laos  district,  whence  it  .spread  throughout  all  Farther  India.  About 
200  A.  D.  the  Chinese  pushed  their  victorious  campaigns  as  far  as  Hon- 
Kin,  introducing  their  own  culture  with  them.  The  native  kingdoms 
of  Bunnah  and  Cambodia  were  at  the  height  of  their  power  toward  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century;  the  Mongolian  invasions  of  the  thirteenth 
century  had  no  lasting  influence,  but  in  the  fourteenth  century  the  whole 
East  as  far  as  Cambodia  and  Siam  was  tributary  to  China.  We  need  not 
follow  the  changes  of  the  various  rulers.     England  has  had  possessions 


254  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

there  since  1824,  and  France  since  1863,  close  to  the  feeble  kingdoms  of 
Burmali,  Siam,  and  Anam. 

2.  The  Chinese. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  gradnal  transformation  of  the  bodily 
type  of  the  people  of  Farther  India  into  the  Chinese  (p.  236).  When  the 
Chinese  emigrated  from  the  West  to  their  present  home  they  drove  ont 
of  that  locality  many  of  the  tribes  already  settled  there,  among  them  the 
Thibetan  people;  others  were  absorbed  by  the  immigrants,  and  many  rem- 
nants of  tribes  remained  i:nmolested.  Both  the  latter  facts  are  explained 
by  the  close  relationship  of  the  new  and  old  inhabitants.  The  different  dis- 
tricts of  the  kingdom  are  now  divided  by  physical  and  linguistic  dissim- 
ilarity, as  might  be  expected  from  its  great  increase  in  size  and  from  the 
independent  development  of  its  separate  parts. 

Physical  CJiaracteristics  :  Stature  and  Color. — The  people  of  the  north 
are  whiter  and  larger  than  those  of  the  south,  where  the  complexion  is 
often  dark  brown,  while  in  the  north,  and  particularly  in  the  case  of  those 
not  exposed  (such  as  women),  the  complexion  is  almost  European  in 
whiteness.  The  bodily  build  is  good,  of  middle  size  and  over,  and  larger 
than  with  the  Indo-Chinese.  The  peculiar  arrest  in  the  growth  of  the 
feet  (generally  small)  which  the  Chinese  accomplish  by  artificial  means  is 
well  known  (//.  ^.,  fig.  5). 

Fcattires. — Ver}'  prominent  cheek-bones,  and  consequently  almost 
lozenge-shaped  faces,  small  noses,  prominent,  small,  often  oblique  eyes, 
always  dark  and  mostly  black,  and  thick  lips,  are  characteristic  features 
of  the  Chinese;  yet  the  northerners  and  southerners  (the  latter  being  on 
the  whole  the  more  handsome)  differ  widely  from  each  other  (comp.  //. 
57)  fiS^-  2)  5)  with  figs.  8,  10,  Gamier). 

Hair. — The  hair  is  black,  straight,  often  long  (//.  ^I.fig.  2),  the  beard 
generally  scant  {pi.  57,  fig.  i;  pi.  60,  fig.  6;  //.  61,  fig.  i,  etc.),  yet  also 
sometimes  rather  heavy;  that  is,  in  the  south  (//.  57,  fig.  10,  and  partic- 
ularly y?^.  8),  also  in  the  far  east,  on  the  Liu-Kiu  Islands  (//.  60,  fig.  4), . 
whose  almost  independent  populace  is  a  mixed  one  of  Chinese  and  Japan- 
ese. The  hair  of  the  head  is  worn  (especially  by  girls)  either  freely  flow- 
ing, or  short  shorn  except  a  tuft  on  the  crown  remaining  free  {pi.  60,  fig. 
6),  or  bound  into  a  knot  {pi.  57,  figs.  6,  7). 

Costume. — The  costume  consists  of  a  shirt,  wide  trousers,  and  over  all 
a  long  caftan,  with  wide  sleeves,  bound  in  at  the  waist  (//.  60,  figs.  4,  6). 
The  fan  is  always  present;  it  hangs  from  the  belt  like  the  tobacco-box 
{pi.  60,  T^o-.  6).  Costume  of  course  differs  according  to  rank.  Our  illus- 
trations {pi.  57)  of  the  different  grades  from  the  emperor  {Jigs,  i,  7)  to 
the  night-watchman  {fig.  6)  give  a  clear  idea  of  this.  The  well-knov/n 
Chinese  hat  likewise  takes  several  fonns  (//.  57,  figs,  i,  5,  7,  8,  10;  //. 
60^  figs.  2,  4);  and  the  shoes  are  often  of  the  most  exquisite  workmausliip. 
Colors  have  their  meaning  also:  Vv-hite  is  the  color  for  mourning  (//.  60, 
fig.  2);  yellow,  the  holy  one;  blue  and  violet,  peculiar  to  man's  apparel. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  255 

Architecture. — The  house  and  city  architecture  of  the  Chinese  is  well 
known;  as  an  example  of  the  comfortable  and  even  luxurious  elegance  of 
the  richer  classes  compare  Plate  59  {figs,  i,  2).  Figure  3  shows  the  sleep- 
ing apartment  of  a  noble  Manchoo  family. 

Food  and  Slimulants. — In  matters  of  the  table  also  the  most  unbounded 
luxury  often  prevails,  but  the  great  majority  of  the  people  live  principally 
upon  rice,  with  the  addition  of  cabbage,  pork,  and  fish.  They  eat  from 
flat  plates  with  chopsticks,  articles  used  for  thousands  of  years.  The 
main  stimulants  are  tobacco  and  opium. 

Agriculture. — With  the  immense  over-population  of  the  kingdom 
agriculture  is  most  carefully  pursued,  but  the  Chinese  have  also  a  great 
love  for  floriculture.  Tea,  rice,  and  silk  are  the  principal  and  original 
products  of  the  country. 

Literature. — We  shall  not  speak  of  the  trades  and  arts,  which  mostly 
stand  on  a  high  level,  nor  of  the  abundant  literature  of  the  Cliincse:  let 
us  only  mention  that  besides  the  dialects  of  the  people  there  exists  a  com- 
mon speech  of  the  learned.  There  are  also  two  forms  of  the  written  lan- 
guage— the  ancient  highly-condensed  and  strict  fonn,  and  a  free  modem 
one.  In  the  fonner  the  ancient  sacred  books  are  written,  as  well  as  modem 
works  on  morals,  science,  history-,  etc. ;  and  in  the  latter  the  numerous 
romances  and  dramas  which  form  the  daily  literature.  Poetry  has  a  pecu- 
liar form  of  expression.  Dramas,  both  light  and  serious,  compose  the 
favorite  recreations  of  the  people,  but  the  actors  are  much  bound  to  cus- 
tom, which  seems  to  require  an  unnatural  overacting  in  tragic  roles.  The 
dress  of  the  actors  is  overdone  and  often  grotesque  (/>/.  57,  fig.  4).  In 
literature  the  earnest,  sober,  and  entirely  practical  spirit  of  the  Chinese 
is  seen.  They  have  clear  minds,  but  no  imagination,  the  lack  of  which 
directs  their  thoughts  only  to  the  practical  and  useful. 

Family  Life. — In  spite  of  the  dissoluteness  of  the  Chinese,  their  family 
life  is  pure.  Every  man  has  one  wife  in  indissoluble  marriage — that  is, 
one  principal  wife,  but  he  may  possess  a  number  of  other  wives,  whose 
children  are  legitimate.  The  parents  are  devoted  to  the  children,  who 
obey  them  most  implicitly  and  show  them  the  greatest  respect.  Home- 
rearing  and  schools  protect  the  children  in  moral  and  educational  respects. 
Great  stress  is  laid  upon  the  acquiring  of  a  fine  and  courteous  deportment, 
of  which  the  Chinese  most  properly  think  very  highly,  and  feel  themselves 
therein  .superior  to  Europeans.  Marriages,  births,  and  birthdays  are  cele- 
brated with  merrymakings. 

Government. — The  state,  according  to  an  oft-repeated  Chinese  saying, 
is  regarded  as  a  large  family,  the  emperor  being  the  father  or  head  of  it, 
upon  whom  tlic  duty  consequently  devolves  of  caring  for  everything,  great 
and  small.  The  emperor  appoints  his  successors.  He  stands  nearer  the 
gods  than  other  men;  therefore  he  receives  divine  honors,  wears  the  color 
of  the  sun,  and  is  styled  "son  of  heaven;"  and  he  alone  sacrifices  to 
heaven  and  to  the  highest  gods.  There  are  numerous  civic  bodies,  and 
the  officials  arc  countless,  to  which  latter  a  large  but  not  always  eCfcctive 


256  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

police  force  belongs,  whose  duties  extend  into  the  night  hours.  Special 
night-watchmen  (//.  57,  fig.  6)  are  found  in  all  quarters  of  the  cities,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  arrest  all  who  may  be  upon  the  street  at  a  late  hour,  as  well 
as  to  strike  the  watches  every  two  hours  upon  a  bell  or  drum.  The  popu- 
lace is  divided  into  classes — nobility,  officials  and  scholars,  fanners,  mer- 
chants, and  ships'  people,  and  finally  artisans  and  artists.  Executioners, 
actors,  servants,  etc.  are  not  included  in  the  bourgeoisie. 

Warfare  and  Weapons. — Their  powers  in  war  are  by  no  means  remark- 
able. In  olden  times  the  Chinese  used  various  siege  engines  which  remind 
us  of  those  employed  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  (//.  ^~.,fig.  9;  pi.  60,  fig. 
5);  and  the  equipment  of  the  warriors  was  different  from  that  of  the  pres- 
ent. Some  characteristic  figures  of  the  olden  time  are  shown  on  Plate  61 
{fig.  i).  The  shield  splendidly  painted  with  a  kind  of  Gorgon's  head 
deserves  particular  attention;  also  the  heavy  war-vestments  and  bow  and 
arrows  of  the  warrior  on  the  left,  and  the  sabre  of  the  middle  figure. 
Other  weapons,  defensive  and  offensive,  are  shown  on  Plate  58,  as  hel- 
mets {figs.  4,  5),  a  bow-case  {fig.  6),  battle-axes  {fiigs.  7,  9,  11),  a  mace 
{fig.  8),  swords  {fiigs.  13,  14),  etc. 

Religion. — In  their  religion  the  clear  sense  of  the  Chinese  .shows  itself 
They  honor  heaven,  Tian  (Tien),  as  the  supreme  being  and  foundation  of 
all  things,  father  of  all  people,  regarding  it  as  abstract  spiritual  perfection, 
but  also  taking  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  world.  By  its  side  are  the  earth, 
countless  demons,  protecting  spirits,  genii,  and  the  souls  of  the  dead, 
which  are  mighty  according  to  their  rank  when  on  earth.  The}'  offer 
sacrifices  and  prayers  to  the  gods,  the  head  of  each  house  for  his  own 
familv,  and  the  emperor  for  the  whole  land.  There  are  no  priests  or 
temples,  but  many  superstitions. 

It  was  Kong-fu-tsc  (Confucius)  who  in  the  sixth  centun-  b.  c.  built 
upon  these  old  and  fundamentally  pure  ideas  his  system  of  a  pantheistic 
and  purely  practical  philosophy  of  life;  and  his  teachings  flourish  still 
with  all  prominent  Chinamen.  We  find  also  the  teachings  of  Lao-tse,  a 
contemporary  of  Confucius,  who.se  supreme  being  is  the  Tao,  a  kind  of 
abstract  idea  of  reason;  and  Buddhism,  the  religion  of  the  Fo,  which  has 
points  in  common  with  the  Tao,  and  is  much  spread  among  the  lower 
classes;  the  imperial  family  belongs  to  the  sect  of  the  Fo. 

The  religion  of  the  Chinese  is  best  expressed  by  Neumann's  words: 
"Prophets  have  never  appeared  in  China.  All  its  ideas  come  from  men 
and  are  calculated  for  temporal  welfare.  The  Chinese  were  the  utilita- 
rians of  the  ancient  world.  What  they  do  not  understand  with  their 
natural  reason  has  no  existence  for  them  and  is  to  them  a  mocker}." 
But  Christianity  and  Islamism  have  taken  a  firm  hold. 

Funeral  Ceremonies. — Burials  are  very  solemn.  Great  luxury  is 
displayed  in  the  coffins,  and  even  the  poorest  man  strives  to  provide 
one  during  his  lifetime.  The  coffins  are  often  kept  for  years  in  the 
house.  The  dead  are  first  laid  out  in  the  best  room  of  the  house, 
where  relatives    and   friends    bring   incense   and   candles   as   last  gifts. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  257 

The  corpse  is  taken  to  the  burial-place  in  solemn  procession;  in  the  van 
large  pictures  are  carried  which  represent  the  valuable  possessions  of 
the  deceased  as  well  as  mythical  subjects,  and  which  are  burnt  at  the 
grave.  Tiien  follow  the  mourning  music  and  persons  carrxing  lamps, 
flags,  censers,  and  then,  before  or  behind  the  cotTiu,  the  mourners  clothed 
in  white,  with  white  caps  and  white  boots;  other  mourners  and  wagons 
with  female  relatives  follow  the  coffin.  All  present  appear  much  cast 
down,  and  loud  weeping  is  a  part  of  the  proceedings  (//.  (yo^  fig.  2). 

Professional  mourners  are  often  hired  for  the  purpose  of  adding  to  the 
lamentations.  The  coffin  itself,  provided  with  a  double  roof  of  violet  silk, 
has  in  our  illustration  the  form  of  a  ship.  The  name  of  the  departed 
adorns  it,  and  it  is  always  carried  on  a  bier.  Desert  parts  of  the  land  are 
utilized  for  the  burial-grounds,  which  are  public.  Every  family  has  a 
grave  in  common,  and  efTorts  are  ni.ade  to  bring  back  the  bodies  of  tho.se 
d\ing  abroad.  The  memorials  are  of  different  kinds.  Cypress  trees  over- 
shadow the  graves  (//.  58,  y?o-.  2;  //.  60,  y?f-.  2). 

In  every  dwelling  there  is  a  room  for  the  dead,  where  their  portraits 
hang,  and  where  once  in  the  year  the  whole  family  as.senibles  for  a  sort 
of  mortuary  feast.  The  principal  feasts  of  the  living  are  New  Year  and 
the  Feast  of  Lanterns,  the  former  taking  place  with  much  mcrrvmaking 
and  interchange  of  presents  in  the  first  month  of  the  new  year;  the  latter. 
as  the  feast  of  the  full  moon,  in  the  middle  of  the  first  month,  with 
illuminations,  fireworks,  etc. 

3.  TiiK  Thibetans. 

Under  this  name  we  group  the  people  living  southv.-ard  from  the 
Karakorum  Mountains  to  the  Himalayas  and  throughout  Thibet.  They 
e.vtend  partly  to  Hither  India,  for  the  inhabitants  of  Nepal,  Sikkim,  and 
I5ootan  belong  to  them,  and  they  have  relations  in  China  also;  for  the 
Sefans  (Thon-fan,  thence  the  name  Thibet)  are  of  their  race,  whicli, 
formerly  settled  as  far  as  the  upper  branches  of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  and 
Hoang-Ho,  now  dwell  between  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  and  Tschu-Kiang 
(Ya-Long),  and  southward  to  Yun-Nan.  The  two  Sefan  women  (//.  58, 
fis;.  I,  sitting  figures  at  the  right)  are  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Yang- 
tse-Kiang,  from  the  district  of  Ta-Lee,  and  we  see  from  the.se  illustrations 
how  the  Thibetan  races  in  outward  appearance  come  very  close  to  the 
races  of  Farther  India.     The  transition  is  a  very  gradual  one. 

/)i:!si.»i  and  Ijocalion. — The  chief  tribes  of  Thibet  proper  are  the  fol- 
lowing: The  lUiii/iiis,  Ii/it)ls,  the  common  name  of  the  peojilc  from  Rootan 
to  Ladakh;  east  from  Hootnn  live  the  wild  IJiokhcis;  in  Sikkim  the  /.rfic/ias 
(Lapka,  lycptscha,  pf.  6i,y?{^.  4),  who  were  originally  called  Rong,  and  have 
absorbed  the  northern  KJiaiiihrn:  during  the  last  two  hundred  years;  in  the 
same  locality  and  in  Hast  Nepal  are  the  [Jnibus  and  the  Kiratis;  in  North 
Nepal,  the  Miirniis — the  original  inhabitants  of  Nepal  are  the  compara- 
tively highly  civilized  Ac'cars:  in  West  Nepal,  the  C'nrnn!^<!,  the  Afaj^ars, 
the  A'o/t/is,  and  also  //if  inhabilants  of  A'/ioo/iazcar,  S/>i//,  and  iMdakli, 

Vol.  I.— 17 


258  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

although  these  latter,  like  man}'  of  the  others,  have  an  intermixture  of 
Indian  blood. 

Physical  Characteristics. — ^We  have  already  spoken  (p.  236)  of  the  physi- 
cal type  of  this  people.  We  may  add  that  with  small  bodies  the  muscles 
of  the  arms,  and  particularly  of  the  legs  and  the  breast,  in  breadth  and 
prominence  are  highly  developed  on  account  of  their  living  in  the  moun- 
tains. Indeed,  many  of  these  races  (e.g.  the  Murmis,  the  Gurungs)  are  so 
accustomed  to  mountain-air  that  they  are  unwilling  to  make  any  long 
stay  below  a  height  of  six  thousand  feet. 

Their  hands  and  feet  are  surprisingly  small  {pi.  61,  fig.  8);  heads  and 
faces  round,  the  latter  broad,  with  a  very  broad  and  flat  bridge  of  the 
nose,  which  lies  in  a  straight  line  with  the  eyes  or  even  deeper  {pi.  61, 
fig.  6).  The  lips  are  thick,  the  chin  small,  the  hair  mostly  worn  free, 
long,  black,  and  bushy  or  waving,  sometimes  in  locks  {pi.  61,  figs.  2,  6, 
8).  There  is  almost  no  beard,  and  such  a  one  as  the  lama  of  Ladakh 
wears  {pi.  61,  fig.  2)  is  a  great  rarity.  The  color  of  the  skin  varies  from 
light  yellow  to  tolerably  dark  brown. 

Costume. — The  costume  of  the  Sefans  {pi.  58,  fig.  i,  Garnier)  is  like 
that  of  the  surrounding  Indo-Chinese  races  or  of  the  high  mountain- 
people  (//.  61,  figs.  2,  3,  4,  6,  8).  The  knife  in  the  belt  (//.  61,  fiig.  6), 
the  boots  made  of  felt,  and  the  curious  felt  caps  of  the  lamas  (//.  61, 
figs.  2,  3),  as  well  as  the  hats  and  hoods  of  straw,  are  characteristic. 
In  Ladakh  the  women  as  well  as  the  men  often  wear  the  hair  in  queues, 
which  are  sometimes  twisted  into  hoops  or  circles  standing  off  from  the 
head  like  the  halo  which  painters  give  to  the  saints  (//.  61,  fig.  4).  For 
weapons,  besides  the  broad  knife,  they  have  bows  and  arrows,  the  latter 
sometimes  poisoned. 

Architecture. — In  the  high  mountains  the  houses  are  of  stone  and  very 
plain,  sometimes  also  of  twisted  cane;  in  Sikkim  they  stand  on  piles.  In 
the  architecture  of  the  Thibetan  cities  there  are  unmistakable  marks  of 
Chinese  influence,  but  in  their  temples  and  religious  edifices  an  Indian 
influence  is  apparent. 

The  wilder  tribes  interest  us  more,  because  they  manifest  the  original 
character  of  the  Thibetan  people.  The  greater  number  are  employed  in 
agriculture  (barley)  and  raising  stock  (sheep,  goats,  }-aks,  horses).  They 
make  fire  by  friction  or  by  means  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  bellows;  bamboo 
sticks  serve  for  vessels.     Tobacco  is  much  smoked. 

Social  Life. — The  women  live  very  unrestrainedly  before  marriage, 
and  their  laxity  is  not  considered  dishonorable;  the  marriage  tie  is  strict, 
in  some  places  polygamous,  in  others  polyandrous,  several  brothers  having 
a  wife  in  common,  who  is  the  property  of  the  eldest.  The  woman  is 
bought,  and  several  of  the  tribes  named  intermarry.  Inheritance  goes 
on  the  woman's  side. 

Bu7'ials. — They  burn  their  dead,  or  bur}-  them  on  the  summits  of  the 
mountains;  they  have  priests  and  magicians,  and  believe  in  demons,  of 
which  one  is  credited  with  great  power  and  receives  special  worship,  but 


ETHXOCRAPnV.  259 

they  have  no  temples  nor  idols.      Animals   and  frnits  are  brought  for 
sacrifice. 

Religion. — Tiie  more  cultivated  tribes  are  in  a  slight  degree  Brahmans, 
but  mostly  Buddhists,  and  it  is  known  that  Buddhism  has  its  principal 
seat  in  Thibet,  and  its  temj^oro-spiritual  head,  the  Dalai-Lama,  resides  at 
lyassa.  There  are  countless  priests,  unmarried  and  alwa\s  living  together 
in  monasteries.  The  culture  of  the  various  Thibetan  states  (which  are 
mostly  independent  or  only  nominalh-  dependent  on  China)  and  their 
rather  rich  literature  have  been  formed  by  the  teachers  of  Buddhism, 
though  the  lamas  themselves  are  ignorant  men.  In  character  this  people, 
on  the  whole,  are  good-natured,  friendly,  honest,  and  tnie;  the  wilder 
tribes  are  very  warlike  and  brave.     They  ha\e  good  natural  gifts 

B.    THE     POLYSYLLABIC     MONGOLI.'VNS. 

I.  The  Ural-Jap.\nese  Peoples. 

Classification. — The  Ural-Japanese  peoples  are  divided  into  se\eral 
groups: 

1.  '^\\^  Japan  CSC, \\\\.\\  tlie  nearh'-related  Liu-Kiii  Islanders,  the  Ainos, 
and  the  Corcans.  To  the  Ainos  hc\on^\.\\Q  San /an  cs  or  Gilyaks^  and  the 
Nalkis  on  the  lower  Anioor,  whither  they  probably  emigrated  from  the 
west  coast  of  the  island  of  Saghalin,  which  is  also  occupied  by  Gilyaks 
and  Natkis. 

2.  According  to  Castren,  the  Tiittgiiscs,  whose  proper  home  is  Man- 
chooria,  whence  many  of  their  tribes  emigrated  to  East  Siberia,  and 
whence  the  Manclioos  in  1644  A.  d.  invaded  China.  The  latter  are  men- 
tioned in  Chinese  annals  in  earlier  centuries  as  a  ver\-  nule  people,  but  under 
other  names  (Sutchin,  eleventh  century  B.  c. ;  the  closely-related  Yleu,  Yliu, 
third  century  A.  D. ;  the  Khitan,  sixth  century  A.  D.).  They  are  a  highly- 
gifted  and  warlike  race,  and  have  now  entirely  adopted  Chinese  manners. 
Plate  39  [fig.  3)  gives  an  idea  of  their  domestic  comfort:  the  elevated  plat- 
form covered  with  mats  serves  as  a  sleejung-place  for  the  whole  famih',  and 
t!ie  room  is  warmed  by  a  small  stove  (on  our  plate  in  the  middle  of  the 
rear  wall  before  the  platfonn),  in  whicli  are  burning  coals,  and  from  which 
the  heated  air  is  convened  in  pipes  under  the  floor  of  the  room. 

Among  the  other  tribes  of  Tunguses  may  be  mentioned  the  Sea- 
Tungnses  and  the  LannUes  {laniu,  the  sea),  on  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk; 
also  the  Tchapogirs  on  the  middle  Yenisei;  others  dwell  in  the  extreme 
north,  on  tlic  Khatanga  River.  From  the  lands  bordering  on  the  Amoor 
tliey  progressed  as  far  as  the  island  of  Saghalin,  whose  imrth  end  is  in 
their  possession;  for  the  Orotskos  belong,  as  their  name  and  far  more  their 
exterior  and  customs  prove,  to  the  Tunguses,  as  also  do  the  Smerenkurs, 
who  closely  resemble  them,  and  who  occupy  the  north-west  of  the  island 
(/>/.  (>T,fig-  6).  Plate  68  {figs.  2,  3)  shows  Tunguses  from  Eastern  Siberia; 
Plate  68  {fiigs.  4,  5),  from  Central  Siberia. 

Many  of  the  Tunguses  arc  nomadic  {fil.  6S,  figs.  4.  5),  and  the  ;\Ian- 


26o  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

clioos  call  them  Orotschon — "possessors  of  reindeer."  But  most  of  tliem 
are  hunters,  brave,  skilful,  of  jonous  temperament,  fond  of  ornament,  and 
often  tattooed  on  their  faces  and  hands.  Their  costume  may  be  seen  on 
the  plates  referred  to,  also  on  Plate  68  {Jigs.  6-9).  Figure  8  is  a  breast 
ornament.  Figure  7  a  collar.  People  of  this  race  who  have  settled  down 
are  rare,  but  now,  owing  to  Russian  influences,  their  settlements  are 
becoming  more  numerous. 

3.  The  Motigoliaiis  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  with  four  divisions:  (i) 
the  East  Mongolians,  in  Mongolia,  whose  northern  tribes  are  the  Khalha 
Mongolians^  and  southern  the  Schara  Mongolians ;  (2)  the  Burials  around 
the  Lake  of  Baikal ;  and  (3)  the  Calmiicks,  who  call  themselves  Oeloet  (the 
"separated  ones")  or  "the  four  united"  (Durban-Oirad),  for  they  consist 
of  four  races.  Coming  originally  from  Dzungaria  (Dzungar  is  the  name 
of  one  of  the  four  races),  they  settled  on  the  west  border  of  the  Gobi 
region  and  westward  from  the  Lake  of  Baikal;  some,  too,  wandered  into  the 
steppes  between  the  Volga  and  Ural,  where  they  have  been  Russian  sub- 
jects since  1630  A.  D.  (4)  This  division  includes  the  pastoral  races  of  the 
Hazdres,  Timlin's,  Teimanis,  etc.  in  North  Afghanistan,  which  are  also 
comprised  in  the  name  Aimak  ("hordes").  To  this  day  a  few  of  these 
Mongolian-looking  tribes,  who  are  bigoted  Mohammedans,  speak  Mon- 
golian dialects. 

4.  The  Turkish  race,  often  also  called  the  Tartars.  The  name  of 
Turks  is  older  (about  600  A.  d.  in  the  Chinese  annals)  than  that  of  Tar- 
tars, which  only  appears  about  880  A.  D.  In  the  earlier  centuries  these  races 
fonned  the  powerful  kingdom  of  Hiongnu,  north-westerly  from  China  to  the 
Selenga  River,  from  the  ruins  of  which  the  kingdom  of  the  Tu-kiu  (^Turks) 
was  afterward  developed.  It  was  destroyed  in  745  h..  D.  by  the  Ka-otschc, 
as  the  Chinese  call  them,  a  branch  of  the  Uigurs.  These  latter,  first  men- 
tioned in  the  Chinese  annals  in  478  .\.  D.,  are  a  Turkish,  but  a  highly  and 
anciently  civilized  people  ;  their  nearest  relatives  are  the  Usbecks,  Seljiiks, 
and  Osmans. 

To  the  Turkish  races  belong  also  the  Yakoots,  settled  from  the  lower 
Lena  to  the  upper  Kolyma;  the  Barabin::cs,  between  the  Obi  and  the 
Irtish;  the  Kirghees^who  call  themselves  Cossacks  ("riders"),  and  who 
are  divided  into  four  divisions — the  Buriitcs  (sr.uth-east  from  Thian-Shan), 
the  large  (between  Thian-Shan  and  the  Lake  of  Balkash),  the  niediuni 
(westerly  from  Balkash),  and  the  small  hordes  (north  from  the  Sea  of 
Aral);  the  Turcotnans  (east  from  the  Caspian  Sea  and  south  from  the  Sea 
of  Aral,  //.  72,  fig.  5);  the  Nogais  {pi.  12,  fig.  8;  pi.  72,^  figs,  3,  5,  Crimea, 
European  South  Russia);  the  Kazan  Tartars  {pi.  "J^,  fiig.  i),  the  Kumuks, 
Kara-kalpaksi^^\)\2LQ^^  caps"),  and  others.  Other  nationalities  celebrated 
in  history  belong  here,  of  which  we  will  only  mention  the  Huns,  the  Biil- 
gai'ians,  Avares,  and  Alans. 

5.  The  Samoicds  are  divided  into  six  races:  (i)  the  Jurak  Samoicds, 
from  the  White  Sea  to  the  Yenisei,  wdrose  language  has  five  dialects;  (2) 
the  Tazcgy  (-awamsk)  Sainoieds,  eastward  to  the  Khatanga ;  (3)  the  Yenisei 


ETUXOGKAPilY.  261 

Samoieds^  with  two  dialects,  living  between  the  two  named  races  on  the 
lower  Yenisei:  these  three  races  wander  abont  on  the  tundras  of  the  icy 
sea,  or  are  also  fishermen  on  the  Yenisei;  (4)  the  Ostyak  Samoieds,  who 
dwell  in  the  woody  mountains  around  Tomsk;  (5)  the  Kamassi'ngs,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  upper  Yenisei;  and  (6)  a  number  of  tribes — the  Soyotfs, 
Koibals,  A'araj^asscs,  and  Malofcs  in  the  Sajan  niountaiu-Iands — who  now 
speak  the  Turkish  language. 

6.  The  sixth  and  last  division  is  the  Finnish  race,  after  the  Samoieds 
the  least  numerous,  but  iu  every  other  respect  the  liigliest  and  best  devel- 
oped of  all.  To  them  belong  (i)  the  Ugrian  people,  the  Ostyaks  (on  the 
Obi  at  Tobolsk),  I'ogiils  (North  Ural),  and  Magyars;  (2)  the  Bulgarian  or 
I'olga  people,  the  Tchc  re  misses  and  Mordivins ;  (3)  the  Permian  people,  the 
Syrjans  on  the  Petchora,  and  the  V'otyaks  on  the  Kama  and  the  Viatka; 
and  (4)  the  Finns  proper — the  Siiomi,  as  they  call  themselves;  then  the 
Esthonians,  Lapps,  IJzonians,  etc.  The  Tchuvashcs  (Kazan),  Basiikirs, 
and  a  few  other  peoples  now  speak  Turkish,  although  of  Finnish  descent. 

In  passing  from  the  ethnographical  to  the  anthropological  considera- 
tion of  these  peoples,  we  must  first  speak  of  the  Japanese,  the  principal 
mass  of  the  Liu-Kiu  Islanders,  the  Ainos,  and  the  Corcans,  for  they  have 
developed  themselves  in  quite  a  peculiar  manner.  The  chief  reason  for 
tliis  is  their  insular  remoteness.  That  the  Ja]>anese  have  attained  such  a 
height  of  culture  is  owing  to  the  favorable  nature  of  their  home,  which 
stimulated  the  various  capabilities  of  the  immigrants,  presented  no  insu- 
perable difficulties,  and  by  its  insular  character  .secluded  them  for  a  long 
time  from  foreign  .sources  of  danger. 

Physical  Characterislics:  Japanese  and  Corcans. —  In  build  they  arc 
mostly  of  middle  size,  and  yet  iu  some  ]iarts  of  Japan  they  are  large  and 
strong;  the  skin  yellowish  (in  women  light),  tending  to  brown  in  the  case 
of  those  leading  out-of-door  lives;  the  cheeks  broad,  the  forehead  low,  nar- 
row, almost  tapering,  the  chin  small;  the  eyes  often  diagonal,  always  dark 
(black,  seldom  brown)  and  small,  but  larger  than  tho.se  of  the  Chinese;  the 
hair  always  black  and  luxuriant;  the  nose  small,  yet  wide.  All  these  fea- 
tures may  be  seen  on  our  plates  (//.  62,  figs.  1-5;  //.  (>T„Jigs.  i,  3,  4,  6). 
The  eyebrows  of  the  Japanese  are  full  and  strongly  arched  (//.  62,  Jgs.  i, 
2) — a  point  that  they  always  bring  prominently  to  notice  in  their  paintings 
{pi.  6^,  Jig.  9).  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  more  noble  families  are  less 
marked  in  this  particular.  This  appearance  is  seen  also  in  the  Corcans, 
who  are  on  the  average  somewhat  larger. 

Here  we  have  sometimes  the  pure  Mongolian  type  (//.  66,  Jgs.  5,  7;  pi. 
Oj,  Jig.  4);  also  faces  more  Kuropean  in  character,  with  nose  not  flattened; 
with  cheeks  not  so  broad;  fuller  beard,  which,  however,  among  the 
Coreans  shows  the  Mongolian  scantiuQ^s  (pi.  66,  Jg.  7),  and  larger  eyes 
(pi.  6C\  Jig.  6).  We  cannot  consider  that  there  has  been  an  intermixture 
of  foreign  elements  here,  when  we  rememl)cr  the  seclusion  of  Corea  and 
its  position  between  peoples  of  jmre  Mongolian  stock. 

The   Corcans,  who  arc   dependent    upon    China,  have  a  considerable 


262  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

civilization,  wliidi  exhibits  unmistakable  Chinese  influence.  They  also 
received  their  Biiddhisin  from  China  about  370  A.  D.,  and  it  passed  from 
them  at  a  later  date  to  Japan.  There  are  also  numerous  idols  represent- 
ing protecting  gods  (//.  67,  figs.  2,  3;  the  figure  at  the  left  is  a  representa- 
tion of  Buddha),  to  which  sacrifices  are  offered,  and  Buddhist  monasteries 
are  numerous.  The  character  of  the  people  is  excellent,  but  not  so  that 
of  the  officials,  whose  despotic  government  is  often  excessively  oppressi\e. 
Polygamy  prevails,  but  the  families  live  together  in  harmony.  In  spile 
of  the  isolated  position  of  the  country,  commerce  is  flourishing;  Plate  67 
\^fig.  5)  shows  a  Corean  trading-boat. 

Pliysical  Characteristics  of  the  Ainos. — They  are  of  medium  size,  with 
strong  bones;  darker  than  the  Japanese;  the  men  not  ugly;  the  eyes  slender, 
the  iris  not  very  dark  (light  brown);  the  nose  small  and  broad;  the  mouth 
somewhat  turned  up.  On  the  whole,  they  are  not  unlike  the  Japanese. 
The  women  are  tattooed  on  the  hands  and  upper  lip,  so  that  they  look  as 
though  they  wore  a  moustache  twisted  up.  This  is  the  mark  of  a  woman 
of  rank.  They  are  not  over-cleanly.  Plate  66  {fig.  4)  represents  in  full 
costume  a  Gilyak,  of  a  tribe  of  the  Ainos  settled  on  the  mainland. 

The  full  beard  is  found  among  the  Ainos,  of  whose  hairy  bodies  so 
much  has  been  said.  The  most  trustworthy  observers  assure  us  that 
except  in  a  few  isolated  cases  the  hairiness  is  not  greater  than  in  Euro- 
peans, but  that  it  is  always  to  be  seen  on  the  breast  and  legs — a  fact  that 
ranks  as  a  curiosity  among  ^Mongolians.  But  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Liu-Kiu  Islands  have  also  heavy  beards  {pi.  60,  fig. 
4).  The  hair  of  the  head,  which  is  shorn  away  from  over  the  brows,  is 
lu.xuriant,  wavy,  and  somewhat  woolly  in  character.  The  beard  hangs  in 
thick,  soft  tufts,  often  to  the  middle  of  the  breast  (//.  66,  figs,  i,  2). 

Public  a7td  Domestic  Life  of  the  Ainos. — Their  clothes  are  made  of  tree- 
bark,  often  ornamented  with  dark-blue  figures;  dog-  and  fish  skins  are  also 
used.  Their  dwellings  are  huts  or  roofs  built  over  a  hole  in  the  ground; 
they  have  vessels,  pots,  fish-hooks,  nets,  and  mats  (//.  66,  fig.  i);  their 
food  is  fish,  sea-weed,  game,  and  a  kind  of  millet.  Spirits  and  tobacco — 
the  pipe  being  an  unfailing  companion  {pi.  66,  fig.  i) — are  now  much 
used;  in  earlier  times  their  only  drink  in  winter  was  snow-water.  Their 
provisions  are  kept  in  little  houses  standing  on  piles  (//.  66,  fig.  i,  at  the 
left  in  the  background). 

They  are  skilled  fishermen  and  sailors,  having  really  good  boats  (//. 
65,  figs.  4,  5)  and  knowing  how  to  sail  on  the  sea.  Their  weapons  are 
bow  and  arrows,  Japanese  swords  and  clubs,  which  are  secured  at  the 
waist  (//.  66,  fig.  i).  The  last-named  illustration  also  shows  how  they 
carry-  loads  by  a  band  passing  over  the  brow  and  hanging  down  the  back. 
Plate  65  {fig.  7)  gives  an  idea  of  their  artistic  tastes;  they  are  also  not 
without  skill  in  music,  and  possess  a  simple  instrument  with  several 
strings  like  a  guitar  (//.  65,  fig.  6). 

They  are  monogamous,  but  polygamy  is  allowed;  they  generally  select 
their  wives  from  distant  families.     Family  life  is  strict,  and  upon  it  rests 


ETIIXOGRAPHY.  263 

what  little  of  government  they  possess.  The  dwelling  of  a  dead  man  is 
pulled  down;  the  corpse  itself  is  either  burned  or  dried,  and  then  laid  in 
the  grave,  which  has  a  roof  like  a  house  (//.  66,  fig.  3).  Posts  from 
the  demolished  house  are  set  up  in  a  sort  of  doorway-like  arrangement 
in  memory  of  the  dead. 

Religion  of  the  Ainos. — They  pray  to  the  sun,  moon,  sea,  etc.,  but  they 
also  believe  in  an  invisible  God  in  the  heavens,  as  also  in  an  evil  principle; 
they  have  rough  idols,  and  sacrifice  to  them.  Bears  are  holy  animals;  in 
most  of  the  houses  they  keep  one  half  tamed  which  has  been  nursed  at 
the  breast  by  the  woman  of  the  house.  The  story  that  the  people  ride  on 
them  is  untrue;  but  they  bring  bears'  heads  into  their  houses  and  to  holy 
places,  and  pay  them  honors.  At  the  time  of  their  feast  Omsia,  which 
is  celebrated  yearly,  bears'  heads  and  flesh  play  an  important  part  (//. 
66,  fg.  2.) 

Dress  of  //le  fafiauese. — The  apparel  varies  according  to  circumstances 
and  to  rank.  The  middle  classes  wear  a  cotton  shirt  and  undershirt,  wide 
trousers,  and  over  the  whole  a  caftan  with  wide  sleeves  (//.  63,_/?^.  6);  the 
women  wear  o\'cr  the  imderclothing  an  overskirt  with  wide  sleeves  and 
very  broad  below,  secured  with  a  sash  {fg.  4).  We  cannot  describe  all 
the  styles  of  ornament  in  the  clothing  [see//.  62, fg.  5;  pi.  ()2i,fg-  i; 
pi.  6.\,fg.  9,  and  notice  on  the  lady  on  pi.  62,  fg.  5,  the  large  fold  of 
the  sash  in  the  front,  a  mark  that  she  is  married — unmarried  girls  wear 
the  loops  behind  (//.  6T„fg.  4) — also  the  high  shoes,  quite  like  those  of 
the  priest  (pi  6;^,fg.  10),  and  the  shoes  of  the  farmer  (//.  62,,  fg-  7),  the 
latter  finding  them  useful  for  wading  through  deep  mud].  Ordinarily, 
straw  shoes  are  worn  (pi.  62,,  fg-  6),  which  are  open  behind,  and  are  laid 
aside  on  coming  into  a  room.  The  poor  content  themselves  with  sandals 
(/>/.  63,  fgs.  2,  8).  In  the  case  of  the  Japanese  coolie  (//.  63,  fg.  9)  the 
dress  is  merely  a  breech-cloth  and  foot-bands. 

The  court-dress  is  voluminons  (pi.  62,  fgs.  6,  8,  9).  The  noble  Japan- 
ese {fg.  6)  wears  extremely  wide  trousers,  and  over  them  a  still  fuller  caf- 
tan with  very  long  and  wide  sleeves,  all  in  silk  and  ornamented  with  beau- 
tiful devices.  In  common  life  black  or  blue  clothes  are  generally  woni, 
each  article  of  which  has  the  name  of  the  owner  upon  it  (pi.  63,  fg-  i,  the 
two  round  marks  in  front,  the  square  figures  on  the  f.\cc\es,  fg.  4;  comp. 
fgs.  3,  6).  To  complete  the  dress  of  the  Japanese,  we  must  mention  also 
the  large  waterproof  hat  woven  out  of  straw  or  bamboo  in  varied  forms,  as 
well  as  the  parasol  (pi.  d^.fgs.  2,  7).  For  the  u.se  of  travellers  parasols 
are  prepared  which  are  illustrated  with  maps  and  contain  the  names  of 
the  hotels  and  their  scale  of  prices  marked  upon  them. 

The  Japanese  men,  like  the  Aino.s,  cut  off  the  hair  on  the  front  of  the 
head  (//.  62,  fg.  4;  //.  63,  fgs.  i,  6,  8;  //.  65,  fg.  i).  They  begin  the 
practice  in  childhood,  and  gradually  extend  the  bare  surface  (//.  62,  fg. 
i).  The  women  let  the  hair  grow  and  gather  it  up  into  a  knot  on  the 
crown,  where  it  is  secured  with  combs,  bands,  or  long  needles  (fl.  62,  fgs. 
2,  3>  5 ;   pf-  63>  A^^-  3.  4  ;   /''■  65,  fS-  0-     Wiien  they  marry  they  paint 


264  ETIIXOGRAPHY. 

themselves  like  the  Aino  women  (p.  260),  and  color  the  teeth  and  lips 
black.     Among  the  Ainos  tattooing  begins  at  the  seventh  year. 

The  head-ornament  of  the  mikado  {pi.  62,  fig.  8)  and  of  the  courtiers 
{pi.  62,  fig.  6)  is  characteristic,  and  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  rank 
of  the  individual.  The  rider  {pi.  (^^^  fig.  9)  wears  a  light  cap,  and  his 
servants  cowl-like  caps  which  are  e.xtcusively  used  by  Mongolians.  He 
lias  the  wide  trousers  caught  up  at  the  knee,  into  which  the  broad  over- 
garment is  thrust  according  to  the  custom  of  riders  and  travellers,  but  he 
holds  the  reins  himself,  and  sits  with  his  legs  spread  apart;  though  in  old 
times  riders  sat  on  their  horses  as  ladies  do  with  us  and  the  horse  was  led 
by  servants.  The  servants  wear  comfortable  camisoles  and  broad,  high- 
bound  trousers  and  gaiters,  as  the  farmer  on  Plate  63  {fig.  8);  but  gener- 
ally, for  comfort's  sake,  the  working  classes  wear  no  covering  for  the  legs. 
The  curious  dress  of  the  farmer  {pi.  63,  fig.  7)  consists  of  thickly-woven 
straw,  of  which  the  stems  project  like  fur.  The  Japanese  bathe  fre- 
quently and  keep  their  clothes  and  bodies  very  clean.  The  same  sense  of 
neatness  is  apparent  in  their  houses. 

Dwellings  of  the  fapanese. — These  are  generally  of  one  story,  and  not 
high,  made  of  wood,  e\-en  to  the  shingles  of  the  roof,  and  sometimes  plas- 
tered with  clay  on  the  outside;  they  are  provided  also  with  galleries,  over- 
hanging roofs,  under  wliich  are  open  verandahs,  or  with  broad  projections 
of  fine  lattice-work,  which  give  the  house  a  comfortable  appearance.  The 
houses  of  the  citizens  {pi.  6df,fig.  i)  are  simpler  than  those  of  the  nobles 
{pi.  64,  fig.  7),  because  greater  luxury  in  clothing  and  in  manner  of  life  is 
by  law  very  strictly  forbidden  to  the  former.  Each  family  has  a  house  to 
itself.  The  partitions  inside  are  of  twisted  work  or  thick  paper  pulp;  the 
windows  are  either  quite  open  or  are  supplied  with  very  fine  weavings  (//. 
^iifiS-  5)  °^  oiled  paper. 

The  walls  of  the  rooms  are  hung  with  tapestry  beautifully  painted 
{pi.  65,  fig.  i);  the  floor  is  laid  with  fine  matting,  which  takes  the  place 
of  most  of  our  household  articles,  for  the  Japanese  use  no  chairs,  etc.,  but 
every  one,  noble  {pi.  62,  figs.  8,  9)  and  common  {fil.  65,  fig.  i),  sits  on 
these  mattings.  The  largest  palaces  are  built  of  wood,  as  well  as  the 
small  {pi.  63,  fig.  5)  and  large  temples  {pi.  65,  fig.  2),  whose  interiors  and 
exteriors  are  well  shown  in  our  plates.  Bridges,  gates,  and  in  short  all 
things,  are  of  wood.  There  is  in  ever}-  house,  under  the  roof,  a  water-tank 
for  use  in  case  of  fire.  Poor  people  live  here,  as  among  the  Ainos,  in  holes 
dug  in  the  earth  and  covered  with  a  roof.  Towns  and  cities,  even  the 
largest,  are  almost  alwa}'s  built  quite  regularly. 

Food  and  Stimulants. — Rice  is  the  staple  food  of  the  Japanese,  and 
tea  the  principal  drink;  it  is  always  served  at  family  meals  {pi.  6^,  fig.  i); 
the  illustration  also  shows  the  various  table  appointments.  They  eat  fish, 
lobsters,  mussels,  different  vegetables  and  fruits — meat  less  often,  and  then 
generally  fowl.  A  favorite  delicacy  is  the  sugar  sea-weed,  which  formerly 
was  a  staple  article  of  diet  for  the  whole  people  (as  it  still  is  among  the 
Ainos),  but  is  now  used  for  presents,  etc. 


ETIIXOGRAPHY.  265 

All  Japanese  smoke  tobacco,  even  tlie  women;  even'  man,  even  tlie 
poorest,  has  his  tobacco-poucli  hanging  at  the  belt  (//.  63,/^.  S).  They 
are  very  fond  also  of  spirituous  drinks  (saki,  a  kind  of  arrack).  A  garden 
\i  attached  to  every  house,  though  to  our  taste  their  gardens  are  too  full 
of  ornamental  plants;  and  agriculture,  like  horticulture,  is  admirably 
carried  on.     Their  skill  at  sea  is  remarkable. 

Art  and  Literature. — What  the  Japanese  accomplish  in  the  arts  is  too 
well  known  to  require  comment.  They  never  rise  above  the  level  of  a 
well-developed  industrial  art,  and  their  painting,  the  most  important  of 
this  kind,  is  in  the  bonds  of  a  conventional  mannerism,  which  is  indeed 
characteristic,  and  in  the  representation  of  natural  objects  often  excellent 
{pi.  (i^^Jig.  I,  in  the  background),  but  sometimes  mere  caricature  (pi.  64, 
fig.  9).   Their  literature  is  not  superior,  although  much  is  read  and  written. 

Romances  and  dramas  are  the  favorite  forms  of  composition.  Dramas 
from  the  history  of  gods  and  heroes  are  acted  at  their  religious  feasts  with 
great  splendor  of  toilet  and  decoration;  they  also  have  pantomimes  or 
ballets,  and  the  excellence  of  their  jugglers  is  celebrated.  On  the  other 
hand,  their  music  is  poor.  They  have  no  imagination:  their  minds  are 
practical  like  those  of  the  Chinese,  but  much  more  elastic. 

Character  of  the  Japanese. — Their  capabilities  are  excellent,  and  their 
character  is  not  bad.  They  are  active  and  industrious,  merry  and  open- 
hearted,  not  dishonorable,  brave  and  noble,  and  pleasant  to  deal  with. 
Their  speech  also  is  a  varied  one,  owing  to  the  different  modes  of  address 
used  to  equals  or  to  inferiors  and  among  the  different  classes. 

Family  Life  of  the  Japanese. — Their  family  life  is  lax  according  to  our 
ideas,  for  polygamy  is  allowed,  as  with  the  Ainos.  The  men  visit  disrep- 
utable houses  without  discredit,  and  girls  who  have  lived  in  such  places 
for  years  may  at  last  marry  honorably.  Very  primitive  ideas  prevail  upon 
all  these  topics.  The  children,  however,  are  well  cared  for:  the  respect 
shown  by  them  to  their  parents  is  often  very  great,  and  relatives  are 
warmly  attached  to  each  other. 

Govcrnnioit. — In  ancient  times  the  government  was  based  on  the 
family,  as  among  the  Ainos;  but  in  Japan  it  was  developed  further  and 
formed  into  a  theocratico-despotic  state.  The  emperor,  or  mikado,  is  said 
to  have  been  first  installed  about  660  B.  c,  probably  by  Chinese  influence 
(Kiimpfer).  He  is  considered  to  be  related  to  the  gods  and  as  being  him- 
self god-like.  Even  in  Kiimpfcr's  time  (1690)  he  was  considered  so  holy 
that,  like  the  princes  of  Tahiti,  he  dared  not  touch  the  earth  with  his  feet. 
The  power  of  the  daimios,  or  princes,  is  derived  from  him,  and  they  likewise 
claim  heavenly  descent.  This  view  of  the  ruler's  sanctity  is  now  mucli 
modified,  but  it  explains  the  present  fonn  of  political  life  to  the  minutest 
detail.  As  was  the  case  with  the  temporo-spiritual  rulers  of  .some  of  the 
South  Sea  islands,  the  mikado  was  gradually  withdrawn  from  jiolitical 
life  into  a  more  holy,  spiritual,  and  inactive  retirement.  Rut  within  late 
times  he  has  regained  his  former  power  without  sacrificing  his  holiness. 
He  has  twelve  wives  (at  least  this  was  the  custom),  of  whom  the  one  who 


266  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

bore  the  crown  prince  is  made  chief  wife  with  the  title  of  kisaki  (//.  62,  fig. 
9).  The  strict  formalities  and  gradations,  as  well  as  the  great  splendor,  of 
the  court  {pi.  62,  figs.  6,  8,  9)  are  a  consequence  of  the  mikado's  sanctity. 

Caste. — Tlie  class-division  of  the  entire  people  takes  place  in  accord- 
ance with  the  view  that  some  castes  stand  nearer  to  the  gods  than  others, 
that  they  are  therefore  holier,  and  that  those  of  less  sanctity  dare  not 
come  among  them.  Thus  the  populace  is  divided  into  eight  castes  or 
classes — princes,  nobles,  priests,  warriors,  officials,  merchants,  artisans, 
and  finally  workmen,  farmers,  and  day-laborers.  Standing  outside  of  the 
castes,  because  unclean,  are  the  executioners,  tanners,  bawds,  etc.  The 
strict  laws  of  the  Japanese,  the  rigid  classification  of  their  political  sys- 
tem, as  well  as  the  privileges  of  certain  classes  (as,  e.g.,  hunting  being 
allowed  only  to  the  nobility,  who  are  passionately  fond  of  it),  all  come  from 
the  same  source.     Hunting  with  falcons  is  practised  here  (//.  64,  fig.  9). 

Weapons  and  Warfare. — The  Japanese  are  skilful  in  the  use  of  weap- 
ons. They  have  now  adopted  the  European  manner  of  warfare,  but  in 
antiquity  they  used  stone  weapons,  lances  and  arrow-points  {pi.  6^,  figs. 
13-15),  knives  {fig.  19),  and  axes  {fig.  21)  ver>'  similar  in  material  and 
workmanship  to  the  European  relics  of  the  Stone  Age.  The  weapons  of 
the  ]\Iiddle  Ages  among  the  Japanese  resemble  the  European  weapons  of 
the  same  period,  as  is  evident  from  a  glance  at  the  heav\',  padded  armor 
oi  the  dai-sjo,  or  chief  field-captain,  with  its  neck-gauntlet,  artistic  helmet, 
and  mask-like  visor  {pi.  64,  fig.  23);  at  the  heavy  war-boots  {pi.  64,  fiig. 
18)  which  belong  to  this  and  to  similar  outfits;  and  finally  at  the  long 
lances  with  differently  formed  tips  (//.  64,  _/f^.  4-6),  which  wei'e  concealed 
in  corresponding  sheaths  {pi.  6^,  figs.  2,  3). 

The  Japanese  and  Coreans  had,  like  the  Chinese,  ponderous  instru- 
ments for  siege  {pi.  60,  fig.  5);  and  they  also,  like  the  Ainos,  used  bows 
and  arrows.  There  were  two  peculiar  kinds  of  arrows — the  burning 
arrow  (//.  64,7?^.  8)  which  was  shot  while  flaming,  and  which,  striking 
wooden  structures,  put  them  in  great  danger;  and  the  screaming  arrow, 
the  lower  end  of  which  is  shown  on  Plate  64  {fig.  12),  which  was  hollow, 
wath  tube-like  openings,  so  that  in  flying  through  the  air  it  made  a  loud 
howling  sound,  inspiring  terror  in  the  enemy's  ranks.  Particularly  im- 
portant is  the  sword  of  the  Japanese,  which  the  Ainos  copied  from  them : 
the  soldiers  and  nobles  carry  two  such  swords,  always  near  together  in  the 
belt  {pi.  62,  fig.  7;  comp.  the  hunters,  //.  64,  T?^.  9). 

Antiquities. — Among  the  antiquities  of  the  Japanese  are  to  be  men- 
tioned the  inagatamas  and  the  curiously-shaped  pots  {pi.  6i^,  figs.  16,  20, 
22)  in  which  they  are  usually  found.  The  magatamas  are  crooked,  egg- 
shaped,  or  disk-like  stones  {pi.  6^,  figs.  10,  11),  which  are  held  in  high 
repute  as  amulets;  and  among  the  Ainos  the  chiefs  still  wear  them  in 
chains  which  are  esteemed  of  great  value.  Plate  65  {fig.  3)  shows  one 
of  these  chains.  The  crooked  solitary  stones  are  the  magatamas,  the 
others  are  obsidian  pearls. 

Religioti. — The  Sinto  creed,  which  was  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Jap- 


ETIIXOGRAPIIY.  267 

anese,  inncli  resembles  the  present  belief  of  the  Ainos.  In  the  beginning 
there  were  seven  gods,  who  rose  from  chaos;  of  whom  the  last  one,  Isai:agi, 
fislied  the  islands  of  Japan  out  of  the  water  with  his  spear.  At  the  same 
time  the  second  race  of  gods,  or  the  five  deities  of  earth,  whose  name 
means  "the  beam-casting  god,"  were  born  of  him  and  of  his  wife  Isan- 
emi.  By  these  are  unquestionably  meant  the  heavenly  bodies,  particu- 
larly the  sun,  whose  son,  Tsin-mu,  was  the  first  father  of  the  mikado  and 
the  daimios,  wherefore  the  mikado  is  honored  as  his  representative  and 
as  a  god. 

There  are  multitudes  of  kauii — /.  c.  gods  and  genii — dependent  upon 
t]ie  sun  and  guardian  spirits  of  individuals  and  cities.  Human  souls  are 
dependent  upon  them,  and  either  continue  to  live  in  the  heavenly  fields 
of  happiness  after  a  righteous  life,  or  are  punislied  by  being  compelled  to 
wander  about  on  earthly  or  subterranean  paths.  The  dead  are  buried 
with  numerous  ceremonies  connected  with  the  worship  of  souls.  For- 
merly little  buildings  like  temples  (dwelling-places  for  souls)  were  built 
over  the  graves  as  monuments;  now  in  the  cities  we  find  garden-like 
cemeteries.  Foxes  are  held  to  be  evil  spirits,  and  the  souls  of  bad  men 
are  believed  to  transmigrate  into  the  bodies  of  these  animals;  neverthe- 
less, fox-hair  brushes  are  often  used. 

The  teachings  of  this  religion  are  worthy  of  notice.  It  inculcates 
purity  of  heart,  which  consists  in  strict  obedience  to  the  laws  of  religion 
and  in  a  temperate  and  reasonable  life  and  purity  of  outer  life,  which 
excludes  the  use  of  blood  or  meat  and  forbids  touching  a  dead  body. 
Whoever  does  the  latter  {c.  g.  executioners  and  tanners)  is  imclean,  and 
must  live  apart  from  other  men  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time.  Therefore, 
all  those  wlio  have  buried  a  relation  are  unclean  for  a  time  proportionate 
to  their  nearness  of  kin  to  the  dead — a  custom  also  in  vogue  among  the 
Ainos.  Washing  with  water  removes  this  uncleanncss.  These  usages 
correspond  with  the  Polynesian  taboo  (pp.  194,  200),  and  many  other 
things  in  the  Japanese  religion  remind  us  of  the  Polynesians. 

In  the  beginning  the  law  of  uucleanness  was  applied  materially,  and 
as  a  consequence  it  reduced  the  diet  of  the  Japanese  to  narrow  limits; 
later,  it  received  a  more  spiritual  interpretation.  The  fonn  of  unclean- 
ncss most  dreaded  at  present  is  that  from  wicked  speaking  as  well  as  from 
the  improper  use  of  ears  and  eyes. 

Temples. — The  Sinto  religion  has  temples,  which  rest  upon  small  piles 
and  have  open  windows  and  galleries  (/>/.  63,  fig.  5).  In  the  interior  the 
sun  is  represented  by  a  mirror,  before  which  prayers  are  ofTercd.  The 
temples  are  entered  through  a  kind  of  wooden  door  resembling  these 
which  the  Ainos  erect  on  graves;  the  Aino  graves  also  are  built  in  the 
form  of  these  temples  (//.  6G,Jig.  3).  Pilgrimages  are  made  annually  to 
specially  holy  places.  The  poorer  pilgrims  (/>/.  C)T„/ig.  2)  wear  over  the 
usual  dress  a  loose  light-colored  jacket  with  a  pocket  in  which  they  col- 
lect alms.  There  are  no  priests,  the  temples  being  kept  by  laymen,  but 
there  are  numerous  feast-days — e.g.  the  first  day  of  each  of  their  twelve 


268  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

or  thirteen  r-ionths — and  five  principal  feasts,  among  -which  that  of  the 
new  year  is  the  greatest.  They  have  also  monkish  orders,  whose  mem- 
bers resemble  the  fakirs. 

Buddhism. — Bnddhism  is  now  more  widespread  than  the  Sinto  relig- 
ion. It  made  its  way  from  Corea  about  543  A.  D. ,  and  is  now  much  min- 
gled with  the  Sinto  creed.  For  example,  the  temple  on  Plate  65  {Jig.  2) 
is  holy  both  to  Buddha  and  to  the  "five  hundred  genii"  of  the  Japanese 
religion.  These  are  children  of  the  goddess  of  riches,  and  are  worshipped 
on  special  feasts.  The  manifold  objects  displayed  in  the  temple  serve  both 
to  adorn  it  and  to  interest  the  faithful.  Buddhism  has  become  divided 
into  various  sects,  and  through  intermixture  with  the  Sinto  creed  is  less 
sensual  than  in  its  original  home,  but  otherwise  has  remained  unchanged. 
Plate  63  {ftg.  10)  shows  a  Buddhist  priest.  The  third  creed,  which  has 
but  few  followers,  and  those  only  among  the  learned,  is  Confucianism, 
much  modified  by  the  Sinto. 

We  group  the  other  people  of  the  Ural-Japanese  stock  in  the  following 
ethnological  description.  We  have  already  alluded  to  their  bodily  pecti- 
liarities,  and  have  also  si^oken  of  the  manifold  transitions  which  must 
necessarily  appear  in  so  extended  a  population. 

Dress  and  Ornaments. — The  clothing  diflfers  as  we  go  north  or  south. 
The  southerners  dress  essentially  as  the  Indo-Chinese  and  Japanese:  the 
men  wear  wide  trousers,  and  over  these  a  loose  caftan,  with  a  belt  from 
which  the  more  indispensable  articles  hang  (//.  70,  Jig.  i ;  pi.  72,  fig.  5). 
The  poorer  tribes  wear  a  kind  of  jacket  (/>/.  "J^,-,  fig-  3);  instead  of  the  caftan 
the  more  prosperous  ones  and  the  noble  classes  have  an  uiigirded,  flowing 
robe  over  the  caftan,  like  the  Kirgheez  (/>/.  71,  figs.  2,  3)  and  the  noble 
inhabitants  of  the  Crimea  and  of  Khiva  (//.  'ji^fiigs.  i,  2,  5).  The  women 
dress  in  the  same  manner  {pi.  jo^jig.  i)  or  similarly  (//.  'J2,fig.  S;  p/. 

74,  A?-  i)- 

Of  course  there  are  all  kinds  of  ornaments — splendid  belts  (//.  ■J2,fig. 

7;  //.  74,  figs.  3,  4),  rich  stomachers  {p/.  74,  figs,  i,  3),  etc.  Colored 
cloths  are  common,  red  being  the  favorite  color.  For  the  head  there  are 
high  felt  caps  or  a  flat  hat  {pi.  70,  fig.  i),  or,  as  among  the  Kirgheez,  a 
light  cap.  The  head-dress  of  the  women  is  often  richly  ornamented  and 
colored  (//.  72,  figs.  7,  8;  p/.  73,  fig.  4;  p/.  74,  J^^-  i.  3,  4)-  The  curious 
head-ornament  on  Plate  73  {fig.  4)  consists  of  a  high  framework  of  bark, 
over  which  a  cloth  is  drawn;  this  figiire  reminds  us  of  many  costumes  of 
Farther  India. 

Cloths  wound  about  the  head,  often  hanging  low  down  (//.  72,  fig. 
8),  designate  the  married  women  {p/.  71,  fig.  2):  the  middle  one  of  the 
Nogais  women  {p/.  72,  fig.  8),  who  has  a  long  queue,  and  the  Kirgheez 
sitting  in  the  middle  {pi.  71,  fig.  3),  are  maidens,  for  only  they  wear  the 
hair  free;  the  Kirgheez  women  at  the  right  with  high-pointed  caps  and 
long  veils  are  brides.  The  Turks  (//.  72,  figs,  i,  2)  wear  turbans,  like  all 
Mohammedans.     The  trousers  are  bound  up  at  the  knee  or  (among  the 


ETIIXOGRAPHY.  ■     269 

women)  at  the  ankle,  or  are  pushed  into  the  boots  (//.  "Jo,  fig.  i;  pi.  72, 
fig.  5),  or  gaiters.  They  al\va)s  have  shoes,  and  the  central  Nogais 
woman  (//.  72,  fig.  8)  shows  the  curious  foot-covering  that  we  have 
alreadj'  noticed  in  Japan.  The  Calmuck  women  wear  the  hair  in  long 
queues;  the  men  shave  it  off,  with  the  exception  of  a  long  tuft  on  the  top 
of  the  head,  which  is  often  also  twisted  into  a  queue  {pi.  "jo^fiig.  i). 

The  greater  part  of  these  peoples — at  least  the  southerners — sit  in  a 
.squatting  posture  {pL  6^,  figs.  7,  11;  //.  Ji^fiigs.  2,  3;  //.  J^^fig.  i).  The 
.same  dress  is  worn  in  the  north,  except  that  niuch  more  of  the  costume  is 
worn  close-fitting,  and  the  material  is  not  cotton,  but  mostly  skins  or  fur. 
The  Tungusian  races  of  Saghalin  afford  a  good  example  of  this  {pi.  6'j.,fig. 
6).  The  felt  caps  which  in  the  south — e.g.  among  the  Calmucks  (//.  70, 
fig.  i) — were  sometimes  covered  with  fur,  are  here  of  leather  or  fur,  and 
made  .so  as  to  cover  the  ears  (//.  6S,  fig.  6;  p/.  70,  fig.  9),  with  fur  cowls 
{pf.  6(),fig.  6;  //.  J J^,  figs.  6,  7,  8,  the  child)  and  high  or  low  fur  caps  over 
all  (//.  68,  fig.  2;  pi.  6g,  figs.  3,  4;  //.  70,  fig.  3). 

The  coats,  of  fur  with  the  hair  worn  inside,  or  of  soft  tanned  leather,  are 
full  but  short,  and  bound  in  at  the  hips  with  a  belt  often  richly  ornamented 
(//.  6g,figs.  5,  6;  pi.  75,  fig.  8);  and  they  are  well  pro\-ided  with  cowls 
and  fur  collars,  embroideries,  etc.,  etc.  {pi.  7%  fig.  7).  Only  among  the 
Tunguses  are  the)'  worn  close-fitting  to  the  body  {pi.  68,  fitg.  9).  The  bodice 
forms  a  peculiar  ornament  which  either  hangs  directly  from  the  hood  {pi. 
69,  fig.  6)  or  is  not  closed  in  front  {pi.  68,  figs.  4,  5). 

The  trousers  are  generally  tight  at  the  knee  and  pushed  into  boots 
or  gaiters,  which,  like  the  gloves  {J>1.  77,  fig.  2),  are  made  of  fur,  and 
sometimes  firmly  bound  in  by  straps  attached  to  the  sandal-like  shoes 
{pi.  6d),fig.  5),  The  leather  breeches  of  the  Yakoots  are  peculiar;  they 
are  put  on  in  separate  pieces;  the  two  legs  are  first  bound  in  at  top  and 
bottom,  and  then  an  over-piece,  like  a  pair  of  batting  trousers,  is  pulled  on 
over  them  and  covers  the  body  (//.  70.,  figs.  7,  14).  The  wealthier  women 
wear  as  outermost  garment  a  richly-ornamented  short  coat,  open  in  front 
so  as  to  display  the  costly  breast-  and  bolt-ornaments  (//.  69, y?^.  4;  //.  70, 

fig-  3)- 

The  fincly-drcsscd    Samoied  woman  {pi.  7\,fig.  6)  wears   a    fur   coat 

with  the  smooth  .side  outward,  ornamented  wilh  stripes  of  fur  and  col- 
ored stuff,  and  a  similar  richly-ornamented  fur  jacket,  and  her  colored  cap 
is  covered  in  front  and  down  the  neck  with  the  fine  feathers  of  .sea-fowl. 
The  Lapps  (//.  7^,  figs,  i,  3)  wear  the  common  dress  of  the  North  Mongo- 
lians; on  the  other  hand,  the  Finns  {pi.  75,  figs.  2,  4)  are  clothed  like  the 
Swedish  peasants.  Ear-rings,  often  very  large  (//.  6()yfig.  4;  //.  7'^>  f'.i^-  3X 
neck-chains  (//.  69,  fig.  4;  pi.  75,  fig.  6),  and  embroidered  gloves  (/>/.  74, 
fitg.  6)  are  the  usual  ornaments.  Their  winter  and  summer  dre&ses  are 
different. 

Dicflliiigs  and  Sintclurfs. — The  dwelling-hou.scs  of  these  peoples  are 
much  alike,  except  that  the  northern  races  make  different  provision  for 
winter  and  summer.     Plate   71  {Jig.  i)  shows  this  double  style  of  con- 


2~o  ETIIXOGRAPIIY. 

struction  in  a  Yakoot  village.  At  tlie  right  stands  the  sumnicr  house,  a 
conical  tent  made  of  wooden  laths  covered  with  pieces  of  soaked  birch- 
bark  sewed  together,  open  at  the  top  to  afford  exit  to  the  smoke.  These 
tents  are  portable,  and  well  adapted  to  the  summer  wanderings  of  the 
Yakoots.  On  the  left,  in  the  background,  are  seen  their  winter  houses 
{yiirts\  built  of  beams  and  covered  with  earth  and  grass.  The  stables 
are  built  against  the  back  wall;  the  interior  is  a  room  with  the  fire  in  the 
middle  and  an  elevated  seat  against  the  walls,  which  serves  also  as  sleep- 
ing-quarters— an  arrangement  which  we  found,  but  more  elaborate,  among 
the  Manchoos  {pi.  59,  fig.  3). 

The  household  furniture  consists  of  hunting  weapons,  vessels,  etc.  The 
dwellings  of  the  poorer  Lapps  resemble  the  summer  tents  of  the  Yakoots, 
being  tents  of  lath  with  coverings  {pi.  "J^^/ig.  i,  at  the  right),  while  those 
of  the  wealthy  are  seen  on  Plate  76  {fig.  3),  onh'  the}-  are  not  excavated, 
but  stand  on  the  earth's  surface  and  have  doors.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
huts  of  the  Calmucks  and  Kirgheez  have  the  tent  form;  the  rafters  are 
bound  together  with  ropes  and  straps,  and  are  elevated  over  a  circular 
foundation  about  the  height  of  a  man,  which  is  made  of  twisted  work  or 
boards.  The  iipper  part  is  covered  with  felt,  and  the  lower  part  is  draped 
with  finer  stuffs,  often  (among  noble  families,  pi.  71,  fig.  2)  with  silk  {pi. 
69,  figs.  7,  8).     But  all  these  dwellings  are  apt  to  be  very  dirty. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Crimea,  like  many  of  the  mountain-people  of 
China  and  Japan,  have  their  dwellings  half  under  ground,  excavating 
them  in  the  rising  slope  of  a  mountain  {pi.  73,  fig.  3,  at  the  right). 
The  light  felt  huts  of  many  of  these  people  may  easily  be  transported  on 
wagons;  indeed,  with  their  nomadic  habits  they  may  be  said  to  live  almost 
entirely  in  the  yurts  or  kibitkes  on  their  two- wheeled  carts,  of  which  some 
are  seen  on  Plate  72  {fig-  8,  in  the  background).  The  majority  of  these 
peoples  are  nomads,  living  partly  as  hunters  and  partly  as  drovers,  shep- 
herds, etc.  Only  the  fishing-folk  and  the  more  cultivated  tribes,  the 
Finns,  Magyars,  and  Turks,  are  sedentary. 

The  sleigh  is  an  important  vehicle  to  the  northern  people;  they  have 
various  kinds  for  reindeer  or  dogs.  Plate  70  {fig.  6)  is  a  large  sleigh  from 
Eastern  Siberia.  The  reindeer  is  to  the  nations  of  the  north  what  the 
camel  is  to  those  of  the  south  and  the  horse  to  those  of  the  south-west.  It 
is  used  for  burden,  for  draft,  for  herding,  and  hunting. 

Food  and  Stimjilants. — The  produce  of  the  herds,  of  the  cha.se,  and  of 
fishing  fonns  their  food.  Fish  are  eaten  both  fresh  and  dried.  Wild  and 
tame  meats  are  eaten  dried,  or  boiled  fresh,  or  even  raw.  Religious  scru- 
ples prevent  the  common  people  from  the  enjoyment  of  many  kinds  of 
flesh.  Horse-meat  is  prized,  and  great  value  is  attached  to  the  milk  of 
cows,  sheep,  and  mares;  it  is  used  both  sweet  and  sour,  and  -made  into 
butter  and  cheese.  The  well-known  koumiss  is  the  fermented  milk  of 
mares  or  cows.  The  Oriental  method  of  j^reparing  it  is  as  follows:  Take 
two  teacupfuls  of  wheat-flour  dough,  two  spoonfuls  of  millet  flour,  one 
spoonful  of  honey,  one  of  yeast;  mix  with  milk  to  a  thin  paste  and  put 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  271 

ill  a  warm  place  to  ferment.  When  fermented,  put  it  in  a  linen  bag  and 
hang  it  in  a  jar  with  sixteen  pounds  of  fresh  milk;  cover,  and  let  it 
stand  till  the  milk  is  acidulous;  skim,  decant,  and  agitate  for  an  hour; 
then  bottle  (//.  74,  Jig.  2).  It  is  found  particularly  among  the  Kirgheez. 
As  to  vegetable  food,  tea  is  a  staple  among  the  more  easterly  races 
(Kirgheez,  Mongolians),  and  among  those  more  favorably  situated  corn 
is  used.  Tobacco  is  smoked  everywhere,  even  by  the  women.  The 
tobacco-pouch  (often  embroidered,  pi.  76,  fig.  8)  always  hangs  on  the 
belt.  The  pipes  are  either  of  the  common  clay  (//.  'j-^.,  fig.  5)  or  are 
the  so-called  Turkish  pipe  {pi.  73,  fig.  3). 

Water-  and  Wind-mills. — They  have  water-  and  wind-mills:  with  the 
latter  the  sails  do  not  move  perpendicularly,  as  with  us,  but  horizontally 
around  the  axle,  looking  like  an  immeuse  horizontal  mill-wheel,  upon 
which  the  wind  acts  at  the  sides  (//.  70,  fig.  i,  background).  Their 
water-mills  are  also  peculiar:  the  water  falls  from  above  upon  a  hori- 
zontal wheel,  which  turns  one  of  the  horizontal  millstones,  the  other 
being  stationary,  and  so  grinds  the  corn,  which  is  directed  between  the 
stones  by  a  funnel  (//.  74,  fig.  5). 

Agricullurc. — Among  the  lower  classes  of  the  people  agriculture  is 
very  primitive,  as  is  .shown  by  the  plough  of  the  South-Turkish  races. 
The  wandering  hordes  cultivate  the  ground  whoever  they  may  happen 
to  go. 

Art  and  Literature. — Little  can  be  said  concerning  the  artistic  per- 
formances of  these  nations.  Their  music,  in  which  they  indeed  take  much 
pleasure,  is  undeveloped,  monotonous,  and  often  melancholy;  they  have 
various  musical  instruments  (//.  71,  fig.  3).  They  often  dance  to  the 
music,  and  the  dances,  which  are  frequently  verj-  absurd,  seem  originally 
to  have  had  a  religious  significance.  Plate  75  {fig.  8)  shows  the  bear-dance 
of  the  Ostyaks,  which  is  much  in  vogue  among  the  northern  tribes.  They 
twist  their  bodies  into  the  ugliest  and  most  unnatural  contortions  during 
the  dance.  They  have  done  better  in  poetry,  particularly  the  Turkish 
and  Finnish  tribes,  whose  epics  are  of  some  importance.  All  of  them 
take  pleasure  in  fairy-tales,  of  which  tlicy  have  many,  and  of  which 
the  greater  part,  at  least  among  the  Mongolians,  have  an  Indian  origin. 
In  their  lyric  productions  there  is  real  poetic  feeling. 

Intellectual  Faculties. — The  majority  of  individuals  among  all  branches 
liave  good  natural  powers.  Their  understanding,  indeed,  prevails  over 
the  imagination,  but  of  what  development  the  latter  is  capable  is  .shown 
by  the  Finns  and  other  of  the  northern  tribes.  Where  it  seems  wanting, 
as  in  Japan  and  in  China,  it  is  only  in  consequence  of  their  historic  des- 
tiny. For  the  life  of  thought  only  develops  it.sclf  where  the  inhabitants 
have  learned  to  struggle  with  unfavorable  natiiral  snrrotnidings  and  yet 
preserve  their  own  mental  freedom.  As  a  cla.ss  they  are  highly  gifted, 
as  their  historic  deeds,  their  successful  wars  in  Asia  and  Huroi)e,  and 
still  more  their  capability  of  founding  great  kingdoms,  prove.  It  is 
tnie  that  Attila's  kingdom  in  Europe  and  the  great  Mongolian  kingdoms 


2-]2  ETHXOCRAPHY. 

in  Asia  have  not  lasted,  but  the  kinq;dom  of  the  Turks  and  the  power 
of  the  Maiichoos  have  stood  firm.  What  is  of  more  interest  to  us  is 
the  liigh  development  of  certain  branches  of  this  race — the  Japanese  in 
the  far  East,  the  Turks  in  the  South,  and  the  Finns  in  the  North. 
Many  of  them  are  but  half  civilized  (Kirgheez,  Mongolians,  etc.);  others 
remain  barbarous,  as  the  Yakoots  and  the  Samoieds,  but  in  their  case 
unfavorable  natural  surroundings  have  prevented  the  development  of 
civilization. 

Character. — As  regards  character,  travellers  give  us  very  different 
descriptions.  As  principal  traits  of  the  races  at  large  we  may  mention 
great  indolence,  which  they  display  both  in  their  wandering  life  and  in 
their  religion;  utter  disregard  for  others,  which  often  assumes  the  form  of 
terrible  cruelty;  servile  and  revengeful  minds  and  a  barbarous  fondness  for 
destruction.  The  feeling  of  gratitude  is  unknown.  The  greater  part  of 
them  are  described  as  dirty  and  greedy,  but  this  is  to  be  understood  of 
those  living  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  by  no  means  of  all.  The  Tunguses 
admire  manly  activity  and  independence;  the  mountain-Calmucks  of  the 
Altai  are  good-natured,   chatty,   and  easily  placated. 

Family  Life. — Poh'gamy  is  allowed  and  practised,  but  the  first  wife  is 
the  chief  and  her  children  have  precedence.  Inasmuch  as  the  women,  on 
account  of  the  inheritance  coming  through  them,  must  be  purchased  from 
the  fathers-in  law,  the  poorer  classes  generally  have  but  one  wife.  The 
different  wives  live  harmoniously  together,  and  after  the  father's  death 
the  son  inherits  them,  with  the  exception  of  his  own  mother;  the  widow 
of  a  brother  goes  to  th.e  sur\"iving  brother.  The  women  respect  the  mar- 
riage-tie. This  description  of  the  Mongolians  given  by  Marco  Polo  serves 
essentially  for  the  whole  of  this  race,  only  that  among  the  more  debased  the 
position  of  woman  is  more  miserable.  For  instance,  the  offering  of  wives 
or  daughters  to  lionored  strangers  is  considered  an  act  of  politeness,  and 
not  at  all  a  debasement.  The  idea  also  originally  prevailed  widely  among 
them,  and  is  still  believed  in  Siberia,  that  man  stands  nearer  to  the  gods, 
and  that  woman  is  not  so  holy.  Only  among  the  ver\'  lowest  are  the 
marriage  ceremonies  dispensed  with;  among  the  better  classes  they  are 
numerous  and  elaborate.  Vv'e  have  already  alluded  (p.  268)  to  the  curious 
costume  of  the  Kirgheez  brides  (//.  71,  fig.  3). 

Government. — The  family  is  the  foundation  of  the  state  government, 
which  is  patriarchal  among  the  more  uncivilized  and  despotic  among  the 
more  elevated  tribes.  The  paternal  power  of  the  ruler  is  unlimited, 
because  the  king  stood  nearer  to  the  gods,  and  therefore  became  des- 
potic. Considering  this,  the  servility  prevalent  appears  in  a  milder  light: 
this  also  explains  the  slight  worth  of  the  common  man  in  comparison 
with  the  higher  classes,  as  well  as  the  strict  division  of  castes,  which  we 
find  here  as  in  the  East. 

Weapons. — The  weapons  that  Marco  Polo  found  among  the  IMongolians 
were  bows  and  arrows,  iron  clubs,  lances,  and  armor  of  ox-hides,  which 
when  dried  at  the  fire  become  ver}-  hard.     They  use  bows  and  arrows 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  273 

even  at  the  present  time,  as  Figure  5  (//.  72)  shows;  notice  also  the 
cover  half  drawn  over  the  bow.  There  are  swords  too,  richly  orna- 
mented {pi.  11,  fig.  2\  pi.  y2,  fig.  5).  At  present  firearms  are  becom- 
ing more  and  more  used  (//.  70,  fig.  i).  The  Turcoman  {pi.  72,  fig. 
5),  like  the  Bashkir  (//.  70,  fig.  i,  at  the  left),  holds  his  riding  whip 
in  his  right  hand.  They  have  military  discipline  and  an  art  of  war,  to 
which  they  owe  their  historic  significance.  Their  peculiarities,  however, 
are  disappearing  before  the  increasing  influence  of  Russia. 

Religion. — Many  of  these  peoples — Turks,  Kirgheez,  West  Siberian 
races,  etc. — have  adopted  the  Mohammedan  religion;  others — as  the  Mon- 
golians, Buriats,  and  Calmucks — are  Buddhists;  and  still  others — as  the 
Yakoots  and  other  Siberian  races — profess  the  Greek  Catholic  faith,  just 
as  all  people  of  Mongolian  descent  living  in  Europe,  except  the  Moham- 
medans, are  Christians.  But  many  in  Asia  have  retained,  even  under 
cover  of  modern  religions,  their  original  heathenism,  which  we  will  now 
briefly  consider. 

It  is  interesting  to  see  how  it  corresponds  with  the  Sinto  of  the  Japanese 
and  with  the  old  Chinese  religion.  All  worship  one  special,  powerful 
god  of  heaven  (Jumala  among  the  Finns;  Num  among  the  Samoicds; 
Tengri  among  the  Mongolians;  Buga  among  the  Tunguses;  Turum  among 
the  Ostyaks),  as  well  as  other  chief  gods,  the  sun,  the  moon,  the  earth 
(whose  masculine  deity  was,  according  to  Castren,  the  Wainamoinen  of 
the  Finns),  and  the  sea — the  sun,  as  the  most  important,  generally  being 
identified  with  the  god  of  heaven.  Fire  is  worshipped  as  an  earthly  out- 
flow of  the  sun's  fire. 

There  are  various  other  gods  and  evil  powers,  who  live  in  dark  forests 
or  as  death-gods  in  the  interior  of  the  earth.  Some  races,  as  the  Ostyaks 
and  heathen  Yakoots,  honor  female  as  well  as  male  gods.  The  souls  of 
the  departed  become  good  or  evil  spirits,  and  are  believed  to  haunt  ])laces 
like  ghosts.  Rewards  and  punishments  are  looked  for  after  death.  There 
are  also  multitudes  of  ghosts  and  genii;  many  are  concealed  in  the  form 
of  aninuils,  particularly  of  bears;  others  in  trees,  rocks,  etc.;  and  there 
are  numerous  guardian  spirits.  Many  of  the  gods  of  earlier  times  have 
become  personified  in  the  myths,  as  is  the  case  with  Wainamoinen.  Idols 
are  often  seen,  yet  honor  is  not  paid  to  them,  but  to  the  gotls  who  have 
come  down  to  and  dwell  in  them.  Trees  are  honored,  being  holy  for  the 
same  reason.  The  images,  often  very  rude  figures,  and  sometimes  merely 
a  stake  or  pile,  are  placed  under  trees  in  holy  groves  or  are  kept  at  home 
in  special  baskets,  or  they  have  their  own  yurts,  in  which  they  follow  the 
caravan  when  marching. 

The  highest  gods,  like  Jumala,  and  also  the  protecting  spirits  and  the 
souls  of  ancestors,  have  representations  made  of  them.  Many  sacrifices 
are  offered  both  in  the  family  and  publicly,  as  seen  on  Plate  73  {fiig.  8), 
which  represents  the  memorial  of  a  great  sacrifice  by  the  Calmucks  of  the 
Volga  after  a  pestilence  among  horses.  The  skulls  of  the  horses  are 
artistically  piled  and  surrounded  by  a  ditch.     These  tribes  also  pray  to 

Vol.  I.— is 


274  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

the  gods,  and  only  the  most  ignorant  believe  that  a  spiritual  commnni- 
cation  between  gods  and  men  requires  external  ceremonies  (Castren). 
Therefore,  with  these  lowest  classes  the  priests  and  the  shamans,  who 
mediate  between  gods  and  men,  occup)'  a  high  rank.  Women  sometimes 
serve  as  shamans.  The  priests  address  the  highest  gods  only  in  particular 
cases;  generally  the  lower  ones  are  solicited,  as  being  sufficiently  power- 
ful. When  commiming  with  the  gods  the  shamans  are  thrown  into  a 
condition  of  ecstasy  accompanied  with  wild  motions  and  gestures. 

The  clothes  of  the  priests  are  much  ornamented  {pi.  69,  fig.  11),  often 
with  pictures  or  with  the  feathers  and  skin  of  animals  sacred  to  the  gods. 
They  prophesy,  perform  miracles,  and  heal  diseases,  which  latter  are 
believed  to  be  the  work  of  the  evil  spirits.  They  are  by  no  means  always 
deceivers.  However  repulsive  Shamanism  may  seem  to  be  or  really  is — 
the  shamans  of  the  old  IMongoliaus  ate  human  flesh  in  order  to  bring  on 
the  ecstatic  condition,  and  similar  traces  of  anthropophagism  are  found 
among  the  Ural-Japanese — in  the  beginning  it  rested  on  worthy  and  relig- 
ious conceptions  (see  p.  63). 

Burials. — The  dead  are  sometimes  buried  on  high  mountains,  like  the 
Mongolian  princes,  or  hung  up  in  a  box  between  two  trees  in  the  forest, 
as  among  the  Yakoots,  but  generally  they  are  buried  in  the  usual  way. 
Such  articles  as  are  deemed  necessar}-  for  the  future  life  are  either  laid 
upon  or  put  into  the  grave,  and  the  image  of  the  deceased  is  carefully 
made  (as,  c.  g.,  among  the  Ostyaks)  and  honored  for  years.  Such  images 
in  wood  or  stone  are  often  set  up  on  the  graves  (//.  69,  fig.  9).  The 
Mohammedan  Tartars  build  mortuary  chapels,  often  in  a  tasteful  style; 
such  a  building  is  seen,  in  a  somewhat  ruinous  condition,  on  Plate  73 
(Jig.  3,  on  the  right  in  the  background). 

2.  ISOL.A.TED  NORTH  ASI.\TIC  PEOPLES. 
Classification. — Although  these  tribes,  as  we  have  alread}-  seen,  share 
the  physical  peculiarities  of  the  Ural-Japanese  stock,  and  are  closely 
related  to  it,  it  will  be  better  to  consider  them  as  an  independent  group 
having  no  closer  relationship  among  themselves  than  with  that  stock. 
The  peoples  that  we  shall  thus  connect  are — 

1.  The  Yenisei  Ostyaks  (some  thousand  souls),  west  from  the  middle 
Yenisei,  with  the  Kottes  on  the  Agul  (55°  N.  lat.),  who  are  scattered 
among  the  Kamassings  and  number  scarcely  a  hundred;  also  the  Arinzes 
and  Assancs^  who  are  now  practically  Turks.  They  are  closely  related 
in  manner  of  life  and  in  mytholog}'  to  the  races  already  considered. 

2.  The  Yiikairs,  as  the  Russians  call  them — the  Odul,  Ododomni,  as 
thev  call  themselves — from  the  Lena  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kolyma  on  the 
borders  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  to  whom,  besides  fonnerly  a  few  tribes  on  the 
Angui  which  are  now  extinct,  the  Tckuwanzes  belong.  They  were  once  a 
mighty  people,  and  are  tall,  handsome  men,  but,  like  the  Yakoots,  with 
IMongolian  features.  The  Tchuktchis  and  the  Koryaks  drove  them  out, 
and  they  have  mixed  a  great  deal  with  them  and  with  the  Yakoots. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  275 

3.  The  Tclniktchis  attd  the  Koryaks. — The  Tchnklchis — or,  as  tlie 
name  (which  is  derived  from  the  Koryaks)  is  properly  pronounced, 
the  Tchaittchis — form  one  race  with  the  Koryaks  (from  kora,  reindeer), 
north  of  whom  and  eastward  from  the  Tchnwanzes,  between  the 
Anadeer  and  the  Arctic,  they  dwell.  The  Koryaks  themselves  live 
southward  from  the  Anadeer  to  the  Lamutes,  and  into  Kamchatka 
across  the  island  Karaga,  which  likewise  belongs  to  them.  Plate  78 
(y?;'".  5)  shows  a  North  vSiberian  Koryak.  The  Tclniktchis  and  Koryaks 
differ  only  in  dialect,  being  quite  alike  in  external  appearance  and  customs. 
The  American  immigrants,  the  Namollos,  of  whom  we  have  already 
spoken  (p.  211),  are  entirely  different  from  them,  yet  it  has  been  usual 
to  include  them  under  the  name  Tclniktchis.  The  Tchuktchis  wander 
about  with  their  reindeer  on  the  tundras  of  their  inhospitable  territory. 

Physical  Characteristics. — The  Koryaks  are  divided  into  two  classes — 
those  who  are  sedentar}',  and  those  who  lead  a  nomadic  life.  The  latter, 
owing  to  their  manner  of  life,  are  small  and  lean  (//.  78,7?^.  4),  even  if 
they  are  not  absolutely  poor;  the  former,  on  the  other  hand,  are  like  the 
Tchuktchis,  larger,  with  broad  .shoulders  (//.  TS,fig.  5;  //•  77, /iff-  6),  but 
of  thorough  Mongolian  build  and  features.  The  head  is  somewhat  large, 
thick,  and  round;  the  face  broad  and  flat;  the  e^es  small,  oblique,  and 
dark,  but  rather  dim;  the  nose  quite  flat  and  broad;  mouth  large,  pressed 
down  by  the  broad  cheeks,  and  therefore  broad  (//.  76,  fig.  i ;  pi.  78, 
fig.  5).  Yet  there  are  some  of  this  type  not  so  marked;  as,  c.  g.^  the 
man  on  Plate  76  {Jig.  2),  with  a  more  prominent  nose  and  better-fonned 
mouth. 

Dress  and  Ornaments. — The  Tchuktchis  are  often  tattooed  on  the  breast 
and  arms.  Their  clothing,  as  our  illustrations  show,  is  quite  IMongolian: 
the  long,  handsomely  ornamented  fur  boots  (//.  7 Si  Jig-  5\  P^-  17,  fig-  6), 
the  full  fur  over-wraps  (//.  77,  fig-  6)  which  are  worn  over  the  ordinary, 
likewise  full,  fur  clothing  (//.  78,  fig.  4),  the  heavy  fur  collars  (//.  76, 
figs.  I,  2),  the  pearl  chains  and  forehead  band  of  the  women  (//.  77,  fig. 
6),  the  ornaments  worn  at  the  waist  {pi.  77,  figs.  3,  4),  as  well  as,  finally, 
the  light  summer  dress  (//.  7^,  fig.  5),  are  worthy  of  notice. 

Diccllings. — The  Tchuktchis  dwell  in  large  leather  tents,  di\idcd  into 
smaller  tents  for  separate  families,  and  lighted  by  oil  lamps.  The  build- 
ings of  the  Koryaks — whose  wandering  tribes  likewise  n.se  tents  in  sum- 
mer—are shown  on  Plate  76  {fig.  3),  Plate  77  {/ig.  i),  Plate  78  {/ig.  1). 
The  walls  and  roof  are  of  wood,  .so  covered  with  earth  on  the  outside  that 
the  structure  looks  like  a  round  mound.  The  interior  is  divided  into 
.several  parts  (//.  76,  fig.  3),  with  a  fire  in  the  middle,  the  smoke  escap- 
ing through  a  hole  in  the  roof  This  outlet  serves  as  the  entrance,  being 
reached  from  the  outside  by  a  kind  of  ladder  {pi.  77,  fig.  i),  and  guarded 
above  by  a  funnel-like  arrangement  of  boards;  the  descent  inside  is  made 
on  a  beam  of  wood  pierced  with  holes  (//.  7(3,  fig.  3).  Clo.se  by  stand  the 
storehouses  built  on  piles  (//.  77,  fig.  i).  The  household  articles  are  few 
—clothes,  hunting  apparatus,  table  utensils,  etc.     The  squatting  posture 


276  •        ETHNOGRAPHY. 

is  not  exclusively  adopted  in  the  north;  the  people  also  sit  as  we  do  {pi. 
68,  figs.  4,  5;  pi.  75,  fig.  5 ;  //.  76,  fiig.  3 ;  //.  -]■],  fig.  6 ;  pi.  79,  y?;;..  5; 
comp.  also  />/.  79,  fig.  2). 

Domestic  Animals^  Food,  etc. — The  chief  domestic  animals  are  dogs 
and  reindeer  (//.  "JJifiig.  i\  pi-  7^,  fig-  i),  which  draw  the  sledges.  The 
food  is  fish,  game,  the  produce  of  the  herds,  and  all  kinds  of  berries. 
Tobacco  is  the  indispensable  stimulant,  the  vessels  for  its  use  being  well- 
made  and  handsome  (//.  "jo^fig.  10;  //.  76,  fig.  8;  pi.  TJ-^figs.  7,  8).  We 
cannot  consider  the  Koryaks  as  destitute  of  skill  and  taste,  as  their  hand- 
somely woven  baskets  {pi.  76,  figs.  6,  7),  and  particularly  their  artistic 
carving  in  such  hard  material  as  the  tooth  of  the  walrus,  prove,  the  latter 
being  often  ver}'  beautiful  (//.  70,  figs.  4,   5,  11-13). 

Polygamy  is  practised.  The  women,  whose  status  on  the  whole  is  not 
bad,  are  offered  to  honorable  strangers,  and  this  is  expected  by  giiests; 
but  the  nomadic  Koryaks  are  said  not  to  practise  this  habit,  and  to  be 
ver>'  jealous.  Their  religion  is  entirely  Mongolian  and  their  shamans 
have  great  influence. 

Weapons. — Their  weapons,  bow  and  arrow,  knives  {pi.  JJifig.  5;  //.  78, 
figs.  2,  3),  lances  (//.  "]()■,  figs.  4,  5;  note  the  handsome  sheaths),  etc.,  are 
well  made.     But  Russian  influence  has  probably  had  an  effect  here. 

4.  The  Kamchatkans. — There  still  remain  for  our  consideration  the 
Kanichatkatjs,  who  are  settled  between  the  Koryaks  and  the  Ainos  of  this 
remarkable  peninsula.  They  call  themselves  Itclimcn  (pronounced  Itclne- 
vien).  They  are  not  many  in  number,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  the  small- 
pox and  to  dissipation,  and  are  fast  disappearing,  on  account  of  the  enmity 
of  the  Russians.  They  live  in  polygamy.  They  are  small  {pi.  yg,  figs,  i, 
4,  5),  dark  in  color,  very  dirty,  and  physically  like  the  IMongolians.  They 
most  resemble  the  Koryaks.  This  is  seen  in  their  houses  (//.  79,  fig.  2): 
their  summer  houses — tent-like  huts  on  high  piles  {pi.  79,  fig.  3) — remind 
us  of  the  storehouses  of  the  Koryaks. 

Domestic  Life. — They  have  many  kinds  of  domestic  utensils — troughs, 
pots,  plates,  etc. — made  of  birch-wood.  Dogs  serve  as  house  animals  and 
for  drawing  sledges.  They  steer  their  handsomely-ornamented  sleds  by 
means  of  curious  long  poles  {pi.  78,  figs.  6,  7);  they  make  fire  by  rapidly 
twirling  a  stick  in  the  hole  of  a  board,  into  which  they  throw  flour 
while  the  stick  is  turning,  so  that  the  fire  is  more  easily  obtained  {pi. 
70,  fig.  8). 

Religion. — Their  religion  and  their  views  of  the  state  of  the  soul  after 
death  correspond  entirely  with  the  IMongolian.  Old  women  perform  the 
priestly  duties,  and  the  religious  inspiration  is  often  produced  by  the 
intoxicating  drink  prepared  from  red  agaric.  There  are  now  many 
Christians  among  them — at  least  in  name.  While  the  Yukagirs  and 
Tchuktchis  are  of  an  earnest,  melancholy  temperament,  they  possess 
a  sort  of  child-like  merriment.  And  yet  suicide  is  not  unfrequent 
amoug  them. 


ETIIXOGRAPHY.  277 

3.  The  Peoples  of  the  Caucasus. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  the  unity  of  the  Caucasian  races  among 
themselves,  and  the  fact  of  their  belonging  to  the  Mongolian  stock,  and 
have  noted  their  bodily  peculiarities.  We  proceed  to  give  an  ethnographic 
sketch  of  the  nations  belonging  to  this  division.  The  task  is  by  no  means 
an  easy  one,  for,  in  the  first  place,  they  are  very  numerous;  and,  secondly, 
there  are  marked  differences  of  speech  among  them,  both  of  which  reasons 
render  their  consideration  as  a  whole  most  difficult.  Both  result  from  the 
nature  of  their  region,  the  Caucasus  with  its  narrow  and  secluded  vallej's. 
The  proper  division  of  their  members  will  accordingly  depend  upon  their 
places  of  abode. 

1.  We  have  the  inhabilaiits  of  the  Northern  Cajicasus^v;\\o  are  subdi- 
vided into  an  eastern  section,  the  inhabitants  of  Daghestau;  a  middle  sec- 
tion, those  living  on  the  high  mountains;  and  a  western  section,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  western  declivities  of  the  mountains  and  of  the  country 
as  far  as  the  Kuban. 

The  inhabitants  of  Daghestan  are  (beginning  at  the  north),  first,  the 
Avares ;  then  on  the  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Kaitak  the  Dargiuian 
races  with  their  different  tongues,  among  them  the  Akuschaus,  the  Oiai- 
daks,  and  others;  south  and  south-west  from  these  the  Kasi-Kiimuchcs 
{Laks,  as  they  call  themselves);  and,  finally,  the  Kiirius  along  the  Saniur, 
as  far  as  Kuba,  who  generally  call  themselves  Lcsghians — a  name  derived 
from  the  Turks,  who  call  all  the  mountain-folk  of  Daghestan,  Lesghians, 
so  that  this  name  has  become  universally  adopted. 

A  number  of  tribes  with  different  tongues  belong  also  to  the  Kurins, 
so  that  it  seems  as  though  other  small  independent  clans  li\-ed  in  this 
vicinity.  Such  are  the  Udcs^  in  the  south-east  part  of  the  Kurin  terri- 
tory. We  must  notice  that  the  appearance  presented  by  the  people  of  the 
Caucasus  as  a  whole  is  also  shown  in  each  individual  division,  for  into 
each  of  the  races  named  members  of  other  races  have  penetrated.  Thus 
among  the  Kurins  there  are  Dargins,  Kasi-Kumuches,  etc. 

The  second  or  middle  division  contains  only  a  few  small  tribes  which 
are  included  under  the  name  of  the  Mizdshcgcs.  They  live  norlh-wcst 
from  the  Avares,  and  to  them  belong  the  Tc/icfc/ictiacs,  the  A'arabiilaks, 
the  TJiuschcs  (south-west  from  the  Avares),  Ps/iaiis,  Cfic/siirs,  etc. 

The  western  division — the  Tcficrkcsscs,  as  the  Russians  call  them — are 
far  more  important,  being  subdivided  into  the  Adigrs,  the  Tchcrkesscs  in 
a  more  contracted  sense,  or  the  Circassians  and  their  various  clans,  and  the 
Abekas,  who  likewise  are  divided  into  a  number  of  isolated  clans.  Among 
the  Adiges  the  A'abardaiis  may  be  named  on  account  of  their  influence 
upon  the  other  nations  of  the  Caucasus.  There  has  been  a  large  emigra- 
tion from  the  territory  of  the  Circassians  into  Turkey  in  consequence  of 
their  war  with  Russia  in  1S64. 

2.  The  inhabitants  of  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Caucasus:  first, 
the  Swancs,  in  the  high  mountain-lands  between  the  Ossctcs  (an  Indo- 


278  ETIIXOGRAPHY. 

Germanic  people)  and  the  Abclias;  then  south  from  them,  on  the  coast  of 
the  Black  Sea,  the  Mingrelians ;  eastward  the  Georgians  (Gnisians,  Kar- 
tulians,  as  they  call  themselves),  together  with  the  Imcriiians ;  and,  fin- 
ally, in  the  extreme  south-west,  on  the  sea-shore  south  from  the  Mingre- 
lians, the  Laz^  who  also,  like  all  the  peoples  we  have  mentioned,  are 
divided  into  numerous  little  subdivisions  with  different  dialects.  Vari- 
ous Turkish  tribes  have  also  settled  in  the  Caucasus. 

Space  will  not  permit  us  to  go  into  a  full  description  of  all  of  them; 
we  must  therefore  content  ourselves  with  a  few  remarks  to  explain  our 
illustrations. 

T]ie  Dress. — The  dress  generally  corresponds  with  the  Mongolian. 
The  men  wear  tight  trousers  inserted  into  gaiters,  over  which  are  slipper- 
like shoes.  They  have  two  coats,  both  with  sleeves,  the  outer  one  being 
longer  and  fuller,  so  that  its  sleeves  have  to  be  turned  back;  they  are 
mostly  made  of  white  woollen  stuff  (//.  80,  Jig.  3).  The  coat  opens  only 
on  the  breast,  and  shows  the  colored  under-garment.  In  front  on  both 
sides  are  several  prettily-ornamented  pockets  (//.  80,  figs.  3,  8,  9,  10,  12). 
It  is  always  girded  with  a  leather  strap,  and  often  covered  with  a  water- 
proof mantle  of  long  sheep's  wool  (//.  80,  fig.  11,  right). 

Snow-shoes  {pi.  %o,fig.  4)  occur  among  the  mountain-races.  The 
dress  of  the  women  is  quite  similar,  except  that  they  close  the  overall  to 
the  top,  generally  by  means  of  gold  clasps  and  pins,  and  that  they  wear 
full  trousers,  and  often,  as  do  the  men  sometimes,  have  gashed  sleeves 
hanging  clown  from  the  overall  (/>/.  80,  figs,  i,  2,  10).  The  unmarried 
girls  wear  close-fitting  leather  chemises  until  their  marriage,  the  husband 
being  the  first  to  open  them.  They  also  wear  the  hair  free,  plaited  into 
a  queue;  the  married  women,  on  the  other  hand,  wear  veils  {/>/.  So,  figs. 
I,  2),  and  all  women  when  they  appear  in  public  are  wrapped  in  long 
veils. 

The  head-wear  is  either  a  fur  hat,  often  very  broad,  with  a  woollen 
cover  (//.  So,  fig.  3),  or  a  melon-shaped  felt  cap  (//.  80,  figs.  10,  11). 
The  peculiar  high  felt  caps  (/>/.  80,  fig.  9)  are  much  woni  in  the  high 
mountains.  Among  the  Imeritians  and  the  Georgians  we  find  a  small, 
black,  embroidered  cap  (//.  So,  fig.  7),  which  is  secured  under  the  chin 
by  a  band.  Cloths  over  the  head  are  also  much  worn  (bashliks),  like 
those  of  the  Tcherkesse,  Plate  80  {fig.  11,  at  the  left),  except  that  here  it 
is  of  wire  as  a  sort  of  helmet. 

Orijamcnts. — They  have  a  variety  of  ornaments,  many  being  very 
handsome,  particularly  ear-rings  (//.  80,  fig.  5)  and  brooches  of  solid  gold 
or  filigree-work.  Sometimes  the)-  have  shoes  (//.  So,  fig.  10)  like  those 
in  Japan.  It  is  evident  that  their  costume  is  merely  slightly  modified  from 
the  Mongolian;  that  of  the  Turcoman  on  Plate  72  {fig-  5)  is  entirely 
Mongolian,  and  the  peculiar  feature  of  the  Caucasian  costume,  the  double 
coat,  is  also  Mongolian. 

Social  Lifie. — The  Mohammedan  is  the  prevalent  religion  in  Daghestan; 
polygamy  is  therefore  allowed,  but  among  the  people  it  is  rare  on  account 


ETHXOGRAPIIY.  279 

of  the  expense,  and  among  the  Christianized  nations  of  course  it  does  not 
exist.  It  is  a  curious  custom  that  a  married  man  does  not  like  to  be  found 
in  his  wife's  company,  and  does  not  speak  of  her  or  of  his  chiklren;  this 
indicates  that  here  also  the  women  were  originally  held  to  be  less  holy 
than  the  men. 

DivcUiiigs. — The  dwellings  stand  in  circles  or  in  parallelograms,  and 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  inner  space  forms  a  common  farmyard  with 
only  one  exit,  while  each  house  has  a  door  and  a  window  facing  exter- 
nally. They  are  of  one  stor\',  made  of  twisted  work,  covered  on  both 
sides  with  clay,  and  the  beam  roofs  are  covered  with  grass.  The  men  live 
by  themselves,  and  the  house  of  the  prince  is  apart  from  the  ring  (/>/.  80, 
figs.  10,  II,  background).  In  their  frequent  wanderings  they  build 
conical-shaped  tents,  which  they  cover  with  grass,  or  they  use  portable 
felt  yiirts. 

Near  the  villages  on  the  mountain-tops  are  burial  monuments — square- 
shaped  stone  buildings,  with  a  wooden  pillar  fashioned  into  a  head  on 
each  corner,  the  rude  mementos  of  the  dead.  The  graves  of  the  princes 
are  larger,  and  consist  of  hexagonal  or  octagonal  buildings  like  chapels, 
standing  in  a  row  together  (//.  80,  fig.  6).  Sorrow  for  the  dead  is  shown 
by  loud  lamentations  and  by  painful  wounds  which  the  survivors  inflict 
upon  themselves. 

Weapons. — The  weapons  were  in  early  times  the  bow  and  arrow,  the 
former  with  the  same  case-like  covering  as  among  the  Turcomans;  the 
latter  worn  in  a  quiver  on  the  right  side,  over  which  a  many-colored  piece 
of  stuff  hangs  as  a  covering  (//.  80,  fig.  11,  left);  heavy,  club-like  staves 
with  iron  heads  (/>/.  80,  fig.  11,  right);  a  dagger-like,  strong  knife  woni 
in  the  belt  at  the  front  of  the  body  {pi.  80,  fig.  11,  left;^^.  3,  left);  and 
at  the  left  side  a  large  curved  sword,  this,  like  the  dagger,  being  without 
hilt-guard,  but  often  ornamented  in  a  costly  manner  (//.  80,  figs.  3,  11). 

In  ancient  times,  and  to-day  in  the  highlands,  as  among  the  Chefsurs, 
the  men  wore  coats  of  mail  made  of  chain  reaching  as  far  as  the  hips, 
and  iron  helmets  like  the  Tchcrkesses  (//.  80,  fig.  11,  left).  These  also 
sometimes  wear  a  white  woollen  jacket  over  the  coat  of  mail.  The  rid- 
ing whip  in  the  left  hand  is  evidently  derived  from  the  Turks.  European 
weapons  are  now  coming  into  use  throughout  the  country. 

Government. — The  original  fonn  of  government  was  like  that  of  most 
of  the  Mongolian  states:  the  prince  stood  high  above  the  pco]ilc;  then  fol- 
lowed the  nobility,  then  the  peasants,  who  were  cither  vassals  or  adscripts. 
Between  the  nobility  and  the  peasants  a  class  of  freemen  has  arisen  who 
have  received  freedom  from  the  nobility.  The  prince  was  all-powerful, 
having  command  over  life,  limb,  and  projicrty  of  his  subjects;  the  peas- 
ants were  similarly  subject  to  the  nobles.  This  arose  from  the  Mongolian 
view  that  the  higher  classes  stand  nearer  to  the  gods,  and  therefore  alone 
have  full  privileges.  Revenge  by  blood-shedding  prevails  everywhere, 
but  may  be  bought  off  with  money. 

Religion. — Of  the  original  religion  of  the  Circassian  people  little  is  left, 


28o  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

and  this  little  is  best  seen  among  the  mountain-tribes  who  call  themselves 
Christians,  like  the  Chefsurs.  The}-  have  one  supreme  god  of  war,  from 
whom  proceed  numerous  others.  Christian  and  heathen:  the  earth  is  holy, 
and  their  two  "gods  of  the  west  and  east"  seem  to  indicate  some  old 
worship  of  the  heavens;  their  "god  of  spirits"  refers  to  a  former  ruler 
of  the  lower  world;  moreover,  they  believe  in  protecting  spirits  and  in  gods 
of  nature  of  all  kinds;  they  have  holy  groves  and  countless  superstitions; 
in  short,  they  stand  in  their  heathen  religious  views,  so  far  as  we  can 
follow  them,  very  near  to  the  Mongolians. 

In  character  they  are  indolent,  particularly  those  in  the  plains,  yet 
fond  of  war,  violent,  and  revengeful,  but  with  certain  chivalrous  traits; 
and  their  hospitality  aud  love  of  drinking-bouts  are  well  known.  They 
have  nothing  to  show  in  art,  but  their  literature,  which  is  mostly  oral, 
possesses  many  pretty  epic  legends  and  short  l)ric  poems. 

This  description  gives  the  principal  features  of  the  national  life  of  the 
Caucasian  people,  and  is  true,  in  general,  of  all  the  races  of  the  nioun- 
tain-countr>'  with  their  many  dialects.  Where  Russian  dominion  has 
repressed  the  constant  wars  of  the  mountain-races  and  has  opened  up  the 
previously  pathless  highlands,  European  culture  has  entered  and  brought 
numerous  changes. 

From  our  description  of  the  various  peoples  whom  we  call  Mongolians 
it  is  clear  that  they  make  one  great  family.  Costumes,  houses,  weapons, 
manner  of  living,  government,  religion,  treatment  of  the  dead,  and  belief 
in  the  future,  are  so  surprisingly  alike  that  we  are  justified  in  pronouncing 
them  one  and  the  same  stock. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  54. 


IsiMi  (  iiiNnsK. — 1,9.  lUinncsc.  2.  I'alacc  .if  Aniarn|«i<«ra  (lUinnali),  ami  llic  while  cicplinnl.  .?.  Warriors;  Dragon 
lcm|>lc  (Ava,  liuriiiali).  4.  llcail  of  tlic  lluriiicsc  woman,  Maplioon.  5.  Aiuuni(c  iiiaml;uiii.s  ami  tlitir  wives.  6,  7.  Aniun- 
ilcs.     8.  SailiUc  of  a  warclcphaiit. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Platk  55. 


Indo-Ciiinf^k. — I.  Cochin-Chinese.     2.  Siamese  actrcssts.     3.  Thai  jai.     4.  Man  l-sc.     5.  I'clsI  uf  the  "  New  Moon." 
in  a  pagoda  of  Nong  Kay  (Siam). 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  56. 


iNlio-CiiiM  iK. — I.   l^iDs  uf  ilic  Ncirlli.     2.   l_-ins  mnnilnnn.      \.  Mnuiitnin  iiili.ii'iiani,  «il<l  race  liclnnpni;  In  (he  Kios 
nation.     4.  Vuiing  l^os.     5.   Lcnicl  (Karthcr  India).     6.  l-ios  |Kti|>lt-,  (rynn  the  Itiimiali  (li>thct.     7.  Lam  liahilalion. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  57. 


INPO-CH.NF-SE.-..  E,n,Kror  Keen-I.ung  in  audience  c^unne  (.770).  2.  $■  S.rxh  Unncse.  3-  ^  l>'"cse  cmpr«s 
(,846).  fr.,„,  an  ..ripn.l  ,.ain,i„,.  4.  Chinese  act..r  in  a  .mKical  ,«rt.  6.  Chinese  nigh.- watchmen.  7.  M»n.lann  .n  court- 
costume.     8,  10.  South  Chinese.     9.  Chinese  bridge  of  .xssaull. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  58. 


Indo-Chink.sk. — I.  People  of  Soulh-we.>.lern  (hiim.  2.  Chinese  Imrialpl.ice.  J.  Ciislumcs  ami  iieiiplc  of  Suulhcm 
China.  4,  5.  Chinese  helmets.  6.  liowcasc;  7,  9,  II.  Uatlleaxo- ;  .S.  M.i.c;  10  .Vmiini  «c.n]iiin;  12.  Va.sc; 
ij,  14.  Swords — all  of  the  dynasty  of  Chow  (1123-255  11.  c). 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  59. 


-..L-li-iV 


t.=i=i*# 


"l: 


1'  r-i^t '  I 


Indo-Chinese.— I.  House  of  a  Chinese  merchant  in  the  cily  of  Caiilon  (Chin.i).     2.  RecciKioii  room  of  a  wcaUhy 
Chinese  family.     3.  Sleeping  aixirtment  of  a  noble  Manclioo  family  (Mancliooria,  China). 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  6o. 


^i>*i*i;*iifc^ 


lNl><)('irisiisK. — I.  Kiilrance  f^Mc  of  llio  |in};iH!;»  of  Scmao  (Malay  ArcliiiH.'I.Tjni)-  ^-  I  liincM'  funeral.  3.  Costumes 
ami  iK'opIc  of  Siullicni  t'hiiia.  4.  (hicflain  from  l.iuKiu  (Um)-CIioo)  Ulaiids.  5.  Catapult  of  the  Chinese,  Coreans, 
anil  Jajiancsc.     6.   lYicsl  and  nobleman  of  the  Liu-Kiu  Ulaiids, 


MONGOLIANS. 


Platk  6i. 


'^■:^'''!.. 


iMioCiilNKSK. — I.  C'hinose  warrior  of  ancient  limes.  2.  l_-tinas  of  l^ailakli  (TliiUl).  j.  Uimft>  ami  monks  (with 
llieir  religious  articles)  of  Sikkim,  India.  4.  I„i|Kha  g,\t\  (to  the  left)  of  Sikkim,  Imlia,  ami  women  of  Tliilict,  China. 
5.  Hholi  skull.  6.  Men  of  Tin  (Spiti,  India).  7.  Mountain-inhabitant  of  Farther  India.  8.  Women  of  Kanawar  (Him- 
al.iyas). 


MONGOLIANS. 


Pl.ATK   62. 


//A 


^ 


rd__:  .  «-  ^JJ^JLj^-S-    ^ 


Ural-Altaics.— 1.  Japanese  Iwy ;  2.  Cirl;  3.  WDinaii;  4.  Man.     5.  JaiKiiicse  woman  in  full  ilrcv-.     6.  lajMncsc  in 
court  altire.     7.  Japanese  in  festive  dress.     8.  The  Mikado;  y.  The  Kisaki. 


MOXCOMANS. 


Plate  63. 


j^^^*- 


ID 


Ural-Altaics. — i.  Japanese  man ;  2.  Pilgrim;  3.  Young  woman.  4.  Jajioncsc  woman  of  the  mirfdle  cIb.ss.  S- Jap- 
anese temple.  6.  J.i|)anese  (man)  of  ilie  niidtllo  cl.iss.  7.  Japncse  |>cxsant  in  winter  divs.'..  S.  Jajiancsc  |)ca5iaiil. 
9.  Japanese  coolie.     10.  Jajianese  priest. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  64. 


|.„..,y''*'"^i''^'"'~i'T  "^  "  •'"■'""'"^  '"'""■  -'•  *  '  "^^  '"^  ^1""  1""""  •••  5.  ■•  >1<"  1-""-  7-  n«u.c  of  a 
.|..|«.asc  nol.lcm.ii,.  8.  Ja,K.nesc  lircam.w.  9.  Ja|«ncsc  ,«inlinK :  |-«lc„n  hmil.  10.  II.  17.  ••  Maualama-s "  (cunc.1 
precious  slones) ;  12.  Whistling  arrow ;  i  j.  14,  ,5.  Slonc  arr..w  Irm.Is  ;  10.  ICarthcn  vessel ;  iS.  H,«.l  (l^ar  skin)  of  a  ja,xi«e« 
knight:  19.21.  Stone  wcai«ns:  20.  22.  ICnrlhcn-vcsscIs  (ol.l  Ja,«ncsc  ,x,tler%).  in  which  the  " ni.-ig.,t.i,uas "  are  found; 
-.5.  (Il.l  Jajiancsc  armor  (of  I);ii.sj,^)_all  of  the  c.irlicsl  jK-riwI  of  Ja|«in 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  65. 


Ukai -AiiAii-s. — I.  Ja|wncsc  family  at  their  miiMay  iiic.il.  2.  Inli-riur  of  the  Iciiiple  of  the  ••  Kive  llumlrol  llenii." 
3.  Maipt.-mia  chain  of  aii  Aiiios  chicft.iin.  4.  River  Ixjat  of  the  .Vinos;  5.  Boot  of  the  .>vintancs  (.S.ighalin  Islands). 
6.  Guitar;  7.  Ornanicntcd  box,  of  the  vUnos. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  66. 


Ural-Ai.taus._i.  Ainos  ami  their  hal.il.iti.m.     2.  Ainos  cclcLmlinK  llic  (lm>i.'.  fciM.     3.  Grave  of  nii  Anu-  chief. 
4.  Gilyak  (Ainos)  in  full  costume.     5.  Corcan  sage.     6.  Nohlcman  of  Corca.     7.  Mcalianl  of  Corca. 


MONGOLIAXS. 


Plate  67. 


Urai.-Ai.taics. — I.  C'oicans.     2,  3.  Corcnn  (juanli.iii  ilcilics,  idols.     4.   \uiiiii;  (.mcin  wmu.in.     5.  Corcnii    c^>ll^tcr. 
6.  Inhabitants  of  the  Snghalin  Island :  Urotskus  (eastern  branch)  ami  SmcrcnLurs  ^western  branch). 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  68. 


I'RM.  Ai.i.Mis.— I.  Tuni^us  (LVpcr  liAik.iII.     2,  J.  Hirar  TmiK"-is(Hiiriat Mnuiil.iiii-K  lUsltin  Sikiiu.     4,  j.  .Noiiu.lic 
liinguscs,  from  Central  Siberia.     6.   lloml;  7.  Collar;  S.   llrLailornamciil ;  9.  1- ur  coal,  of  Uic  Tuiigu^cs. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  69. 


Ural-Altaics.— I,  2.  Burials  of  (llkliun  Mand  (U-xkc  liaikal).  3.  I-ima,  from  the  Sclciina  Kivtr  .li^trat  (»  cniril  A>iaV 
4.  Burial  woman  in  full  dress.  5.  SiU-rian  bell.  6.  SiUrian  fur  coal.  7.  Inlcrior;  S.  IMerior,  of  a  Calmuck  IcnI. 
9.  Crave-monumcnts  on  the  steppe  between  the  Don  and  Unieixir.     lo.  Calmuck  skull.     II.  IVicst  of  the  Calniucks. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  70. 


Ural-Altaics.— I.  Male  and  female  Calmucks  (Central  Asia);  wiiulmill,  with  liori/ontally  set  wings,  in  the  distance. 
2.  Yakools  (Silieri.i).  3.  Yakoot  woman  in  full  dress.  4,  $.  Can'ings  of  whale  teeth.  6.  Gjveiml  sleilgc,  fivim  East 
Siberia.  7.  I'antaloons  (top  piece)  of  the  N'akoots.  8.  Tinder-sticks  of  the  Kanichalkans.  9.  Hood  of  the  Yakools. 
10.  Tobacco-box.     II-13.  Carx'ings  of  whale  leclh;   14.   I'antaloons  (lower  piece)  of  the  ^■akools. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  71. 


Ural-Altaics.— I.  Village  of  the  ^■i^koots  (Siberia);  to  the  right  a  sunimertcnt,  to  the  left  a  wnterhouse  (yuits). 
2.  Kirghccz  sultan  and  family.     3.  Kirghccz  (Cossacks) ;  two  brides  to  the  right 


MONOOLIAXS. 


Plate  72. 


URAI.-Al.rvics. — I,  2.  Turks  (Tartars).  3.  (rmlilc);  4.  Full  face  of  a  younp  Turkish  woman.  5.  Turcomnn  (Turk- 
estan). 6.  .Servian  slor)-telltr  (placed  Mere  for  coni|iarison,  sec  page  394).  7.  Tchuva.sh  women  (Tar1.ir\V  .S  Nopus 
women;  in  the  background  a  tcnt-scltlemcnt  of  (he  Nogais  (Crimea). 


M 


ONGOLIANS. 


Plate  73. 


UralAi.tahs.— 1.  Soil  of  tile  khan  of  Khiva  (Tiirkcslaii).  2.  Xubic  court  official  of  Khiva.  3.  Mounlain  Tanars 
(Crimea);  in  the  hackRround  (to  the  ri|;ht)  their  dwelhnpi,  and  (to  the  left)  their  pTavc-moiiuinci.t.  4.  Volyak  wonmn, 
with  curious  head  coverini;  (Eurojican  Russia).  5.  Noble  T.irt.irs  (Crimea).  6.  Kurd  ( Kurdistan,  Central  A.sia).  7.  I'loujjh 
of  the  Crimean  Tartars.     8.  Calmuck  sacrificial  monument,  made  of  the  skulls  of  hordes,     g.  Kunl  woman. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  74. 


L-KAl,-Al.TAKs.— I.  Women  of  the  Kazan  (European  Russia)  Tartars  (noma.lic).  2.  KoumU  vc^cb.  3.4.  M«r»l- 
wins  (l^Lsl  Kuropcan  Russia).  5.  Mill  of  the  ISashkii^.  6.  Sanioied  woman  and  child.  7.  SainoicU  (North  Euroixran  and 
Asiatic  Russia).     8.  Sainoied  child.     9.  Head  of  a  Samoied,  showing  the  fur  hood. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  75. 


I  RAl.-Al.TAIcs. — 1.  Lapps  (I.aplamI),  with  their  dwelling — to  the  right.  2.  Kiiiiis  (Mnlainl),  3.  Ileail  i>f  a  Ijpp, 
with  fur  houil.  4.  Finn  woman  in  full  dress.  IsoL.\TEb  NoRTH  Asiatics. — 5.  Tchuklchi  (Ncrth-caslcrn  Siberia)  in  full 
<lrcss.     6,  7.  Ostyaks  (Western  Siberia).     8.  Ostyak  dance. 


MONGOIvIANS. 


Platk  76. 


ISDI.ATKI) 
4.  Spiar;  5.  C 


NiiKlil   Asi 
asc  for  spear 


UKs.— 1,  2.  Nomadic  Koryaks  (Nortlica-slean  Sihcria).     2.   Hwilliiit;  of  >c.linl.ir\   Ki.r>.iks 
ix>im,  of  the  Koryaks.     6,  7.  Baskets  of  ihc  Korjaks.     8.  Tobacco  bay  of  llic  Korjak,-. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  77. 


Isolated  North  Asiatics. — i.  Village  of  the  sedentary  Kor)-aks  (Northeastern  Siberia).     2.  Fur  glove;  3,  4.  Belt 
ilccorations,  of  the  Ivorjaks.     5.  Knife  of  the  Kor)ak  women.     6.  SeilciUar)'  Korjaks.     7,  8.  Hixjs  of  the  Korjaks. 


MONGOLIA  XS. 


Plate  78. 


Isolated  North  Asiatics.— i.  Village  of  nomailic  Konaks.     2.  Knife;  3.  Scaliliartl,  uf  the  Korjaks.     4.  Nomadic 
Kor>-aks.     5.  Inliabilam  of  a  village  of  Northern  Kamclialka  (Koryak).     6.  Slteringiwlc ;  7.  Sledge,  of  the  Kanichalkans. 


MONGOIvIANS. 


Plate  79. 


■'"'v^i::- 


^^■rC>- 


Isoi.ATKl)  XiiRTll  Asiatics. — I.  Kainchatknn.     2.  Winter  liiit;  j.  MnniniT  hut,  of  llic  Kamcliatk.ins.     4,5.   Kam- 
chatkans  in  full  dress. 


MONGOLIANS. 


Plate  8o. 


Caitasians.— 1.  Swane  \v..nian  ( Soiilhcin  Caucasus).  2.  CircasM.m  woman  iWi-tirn  Caucasus).  3.  Circassians. 
4.  Snow.sh..e:  5.  Kar  riiij,',  of  ihc  Swanes.  6.  R..yal  tomlK  of  the  Tchcrkcsscs  (Wcslcrii  Caucasus |.  7-9-  NoMc  Swancs. 
10.  Nohlc  Tcliukcsscs  ( IVtai-s) ;  II.  Ichcikcssian  warriors,  Tcherkessian  hal.ilalioiis  in  the  background.  12.  Mingrelian 
woman  (Southern  Caucasus). 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  2S1 


IV.   THE    DFLWIDIAN    PEOPLES. 

Under  the  general  name  of  the  Dravidian  Peoples  we  designate  the 
original  inhabitants  of  Hither  India  who  now  have  their  dwelling-place 
in  the  south  among  the  Aryan  population,  but  differ  from  the  Aryan 
Indians  in  speech,  customs,  and  partly  also  in  physical  appearance. 
Skilled  investigators  like  Latham  and  Max  Miiller  have  endeavored  to 
prove  that  they  belong  to  the  JMongolian  race  ;  but  the  physical  and 
mental  character  of  this  people  is  not  JMongolian,  and  makes  it  impossible 
to  accept  this  opinion.  Still  less  can  we  agree  with  many  of  the  older 
investigators  who  believe  them  to  be  connected  with  the  black  population 
of  ]\Ialaysia,  the  Papuas.  As,  up  to  the  present  time  and  with  our  present 
inadequate  means  of  research,  we  cannot  place  them  in  any  of  the  great 
ethnological  divisions,  we  are  compelled,  in  spite  of  their  relatively  small 
number,  to  class  them  apart  as  a  separate  race.  It  is  possible  that  future 
investigations  will  lead  to  a  different  result. 

Classification. — These  original  inhabitants  of  India  are  divisible  into 
two  distinctly  separated  groups  :  (i)  the  Vindh)-a  People;  (2)  the  Deccau 
Tribes. 

From  the  latter  another  folk  has  branched  off  in  such  an  independent 
manner  that  we  should  be  wellnigh  justified  in  naming  them  as  a  third 
division — viz.  the  inhabitants  of  Ceylon  (Singhala),  the  Singhalese,  to 
whom  the  natives  of  the  Maldives  are  joined  as  most  nearly  related,  while 
the  Laccadives  are  inhabited  by  the  Moplays  or  Mapilas — Arabian  mer- 
chants who  have  come  over  from  Malabar. 

We  prefer  the  names  just  given  to  these  chief  divisions  of  the  Dra- 
vidian Peoples:  first,  because  they  are  older  than  otliers — we  find  them  in 
Lassen,  one  of  the  greatest  German  students  of  India;  secondly  and  prin- 
cipally, because  they  give  a  sort  of  key  (when  we  consider  their  geo- 
graphical meaning)  to  the  history  of  tlie  stock  and  its  different  tribes; 
and  lastly,  because  they  are  most  comprehensive  and  least  liable  to  be 
misunderstood.  Other  ethnologists  call  the  Vindhya  people  Munda  people 
{?)iintda  means,  among  some  of  them,  a  chief  or  headman  of  the  village), 
and  the  Deccan  tribes  the  Dravidians  in  a  more  restricted  sense. 

The  Vindhya  people  are  themselves  divided  into  several  tribes:  first, 
the  B/icc/s,  whose  present  location  is  the  western  part  of  the  \'indhya 
Mountains  and  their  outlying  spurs  as  far  as  the  Taptee.  They  likewise 
inhabit  the  Western  Ghauts  on  the  land  side  to  Puna,  on  the  coast  to 
Daman,  as  well  as  the  mountains  of  Gujerat.  Formerly  ihcy  extended 
farther  toward  the  north,  whence  they  gradually  became  confined  within 
their  present  limits,  while  many  of  them  mixed  with  the  Ar}-an  Indians. 
They  are  split  up  into  many  tribes,  of  which  those  of  pure  blood  call 


282  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

themselves  the  White  Bheels,  while  those  who  have  intermarried  with 
foreigfiiers  are  called  the  Black  Bheels.  To  them  seem  also  to  belons:  the 
Ramusis^  south  from  Puna,  who  now  speak  jNIahrattee,  and  tl;e  Kclas 
(Kulis)  of  Gujerat,  who  have  likewise  adopted  an  Indian  speech.  Also, 
the  Minas  and  the  Meras^  northward  in  Mevar  to  the  Aravulli  Mountains, 
seem  to  stand  nearer  to  the  Bheels. 

The  Kolas  are  an  extensive  tribe  in  the  easterly  continuation  of  the 
Vindhya  Mountains,  in  the  mountain-land  of  Chota-Nagpoor  west  from 
Calcutta,  north  almost  to  the  Ganges  and  south  nearly  to  the  INIahanadi. 
The  Indians  call  all  the  races  that  live  here  Kolhs^  and  so  this  general 
title  includes  first  the  Muttda  Kolhs,  who,  perhaps  a  million  in  number, 
are  the  most  important  tribe;  the  Liirka  KoUis  or  Ho  {i.  e.  "man"),  west 
from  the  Mundas  in  the  district  of  Chaibassa;  north  to  the  Ganges  we 
have  the  Santals  and  smaller  clans  of  doubtful  descent,  like  the  K/iarrias, 
etc. 

The  people  of  the  Deccan  are  mingled  in  the  east  with  the  Vindhya 
people,  while  scattered  among  the  Kolh  races  are  the  (i)  Urauhs  (Uraon), 
westwardly  from  the  Santals,  and  (2)  the  Paharias  (Rsjmahal  Kolhs — 
i.  e.  the  non-Indians  of  the  district  of  Rajmahal),  or,  as  they  call  them- 
selves, the  I\Ialer — ?'.  c.  mountaineers.  But  they  principally  live  in  Dec- 
can  proper.  We  also  name  (3)  the  Gondas  or  Goiids,  tl;e  inhabitants  of 
Gondwana,  south  from  the  Nerbudda  as  far  as  Godaver^';  also  (4)  the 
Khouds  or  Kandas^  Khunds,  Kus,  in  Orissa,  east  from  the  Gonds,  sotith 
from  the  Kolhs;  (5)  south  from  both  tribes  the  Tctiiigas  (Telugus,  Gen- 
toos),  whose  domain  in  fonner  times  extended  along  the  whole  eastern 
coast  of  Hither  India.  Neighbors  to  these  southward,  and  on  the  other 
side  of  a  line  from  the  north  end  of  Lake  Pulikat  to  Bangalore,  are  (6)  the 
Tamils^  who  are  scattered  about  over  Cape  Comorin  and  the  north  of  Cey- 
lon. West  from  tlie  Telingas  live  (7)  the  Canarcse  (the  Camatic)  in 
Canara  and  IMysore,  to  whom  in  speech  the  KcdiigKS  (Kurg)  belong, 
several  other  mountain-tribes;  and  wedged  in  the  Neilgherr}-  Hills  (S) 
the  Tildas  or  Todas,  who  speak  an  independent  tongue,  as  well  as  (9)  the 
likewise  independent  Tiduvas  or  Titliis,  settled  on  the  west  coast  around 
]\Iangalore.  In  earlier  times  they  were  much  more  widely  spread  in 
Canara.  The  south  point  of  the  peninsula,  south  from  Tuluvas,  west 
from  the  Tamils,  is  inhabited  by  (10)  the  Malabars  or  Malayalam. 
Living  quite  separate  are  (11)  the  Brahiiis  in  North-east  Eeloochistan 
around  Kelat ;  and  (12)  the  Singhalese,  or  inhabitants  of  Ceylon,  cer- 
tainly belong  here,  as  their  tongue,  the  Elu,  and  their  many  Indian 
traits,  prove.  The  Vcddalis,  from  the  woody  interior  of  the  island, 
seem  to  be  pure  Singhalese. 

Physical  Characteristics. — We  may  consider  together  the  ph\-sical  quali- 
ties of  the  Vindhya  and  the  Deccan  people.  We  have  first  to  remark  that 
the  wilder  a  people  is,  so  much  the  more  wild  is  the  general  outward 
appearance,  and  that  in  this  respect  the  Paharias  and  the  Gonds  (both  of 
Deccan  descent)  are  quite  similar  to  the  Bheels  of  the  Vindhya  Mountains. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  283 

In  general,  they  are  only  of  middle  size,  as  we  find  among  the  Bheels,  the 
Kolhs,  the  Paharias,  the  Khonds,  the  Singhalese  (//.  81,  Jig.  4),  the 
Canarese,  and  the  IMalabars;  bnt  they  are  by  no  means  weak,  except  in 
the  worn-down  tribes,  who  are  small,  but,  on  the  contrary,  muscular  and 
extremely  agile,  having  good  proportions  and  trim  bodies.  Others  are 
large,  athletic,  even  herculean — as  many  of  the  Gonds,  of  whom,  again, 
otliers  are  only  of  middle  size;  and  further  the  Tudas,  in  the  Neilgherry 
Hills,  who  are  described  as  an  athletic  race,  very  well  built,  and  nearly  all 
six  feet  in  height. 

Color,  Hair,  and  Features. — The  color  of  all  these  races  is  a  dark, 
Negro  black,  lighter  among  the  women,  and  in  some  cases  (as  in  many 
of  the  Singhalese)  dark  or  light  brown.  The  Paharias  are  of  lighter  color 
than  the  Beugalese.  In  spite  of  the  color,  these  people  are  b)-  no  means 
like  Negroes,  as  is  proved  by  their  bodily  build  and  the  abundant  hair  on 
the  person,  which  often — c.  g.  among  the  Brahuis,  the  Tudas,  and  the 
Bheels — grows  into  luxuriant  beards,  as  well  as  by  the  character  of  the-  hair 
of  the  head,  which  is  fine,  bushy,  sometimes  growing  in  locks,  and  among 
the  women  (//.  81,  fig.  10,  Kolh  woman)  quite  long.  It  is  never  woolly: 
the  only  statement  given  of  woolly  hair  among  the  Gonds  is  of  doubtful 
authenticity.  It  is  almost  always  dark  in  color.  The  beard  is  often  want- 
ing among  the  Singhalese,  the  Khonds,  etc.  The  formation  of  the  skull 
and  their  features  are  by  no  means  like  those  of  the  Negro,  still  less  like 
those  of  the  Mongolians.  Jellinghaus  properly  calls  them,  even  the  Vind- 
hya  people,  rather  Aryan.  The  features  of  the  northern  Deccan  tribes,  of 
thePaharias(Hamilton)  and  of  theUrauhs(Jellinghans),  are  in  every  respect 
like  those  of  the  Vindhyas;  the  nose  is  generally  straight  and  thick  at  the 
point,  the  eyes  dark  and  not  oblique,  lips  full,  the  mouth  not  ugly,  the 
cheekbone  not  prominent,  and  the  face  o\'al  {pi.  81,  fig.  10). 

Another  type  is  seen  in  the  Tudas.  According  to  Harkness,  they  have 
entirely  European  features,  large,  quick  eyes,  fine  teeth,  and  Roman  noses. 
They  also  have  rather  full  lips  (//.  81, 7?^^.  8,  9).  The  Telingas  are  an 
example  of  this  type  {pi.  'S>\,fig.  3),  also  the  Tamils  {fig.  i).  The  more 
cultivated  Singhalese  show  it,  while  the  Veddahs  stand  nearer  to  the  first 
type.  There  is  no  very  essential  diiference  between  the  two  types — arched 
noses  and  a  fine  exterior  may  now  and  then  be  found  among  the  \'indhyas, 
while  the  Deccauees  show  the  less  handsome  features  that  have  already 
been  described.  The  Malabars  (//.  8r,y?f.  2)  may  serve  as  an  example. 
The  majority  of  the  Brahuis  belong  to  tlic  latter  type.  A  disproportion 
in  the  limbs  is  often  seen  in  these  races.  The  arms  and  the  hips  are  long, 
while  the  hands  and  feet  are  remarkably  small. 

lutcrmixliircs. — We  might  imagine  that  this  second  type  had  arisen  in 
consequence  of  the  intermixture  of  Ar\an  blood.  Of  course  frequent  mix- 
tures between  the  Aryan  immigrants  and  the  Dravidians  have  taken  place, 
as  the  greater  space  covered  by  the  latter  in  early  times,  as  well  as  the  many 
peculiarities  of  speech  even  in  the  Aryan  tongues,  goes  to  prove.  Yet  the 
forms  as  we  find  them  to-day  among  the  Dravidians  certainly  do  not  rest 


284  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

upon  such  a  mixture.  Lassen  properly  remarks  that  with  the  introduction 
of  castes  into  India  the  mixtures  with  foreign  races  were  compelled  to  stop; 
and  from  the  caste  system  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  immigrants  from 
the  very  beginning  had  a  strong  aversion  to  the  black  and  at  that  time 
savage  people  with  whom  they  came  in  contact.  IMoreover,  the  Tudas, 
the  isolated  inhabitants  of  the  highest  Neilgherr\'  Hills,  living  in  a  healthy 
climate  and  in  general  comfort,  show  the  same  Arj-an  type,  although  with 
them  no  intermixture  has  been  possible:  the  same  is  true  of  the  more 
refined  and  better-situated  inhabitants  of  the  cities  in  the  plains;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  wild  tribes  of  the  Deccan  as  well  as  of  the  Viudhya 
depart  more  and  more  from  these  handsom.e  forms.  Accordingly,  the 
opinion  is  a  justifiable  one  that  the  physical  nature  of  these  as  of  all 
nations  improved  when  their  exterior  life  and  their  mental  culture  were 
bettered.  The  Tamils,  TeHngas,  Canarese,  and  iVIalabars — in  short,  all  the 
more  refined  Deccan  people — have  adopted  the  Indian  culture,  religion, 
and -customs,  and  their  speech  has  been  greatly  influenced  by  the  Ar}-an 
idioms. 

Language. — As  the  two  main  divisions  of  the  Dravidians  are  thus 
shown  to  have  been  originally  connected,  and  the  differences  in  body  were 
brought  about  later  by  a  varied  manner  of  life,  we  may  say  the  same  of 
their  languages.  The  Deccan  and  Vindhya  tongues  are  alike  in  structure, 
but  quite  different  as  regards  verbal  roots,  though  even  these  have  certain 
important  points  in  common.  At  one  time  they  did  not  distinguish 
between  substantive,  adjective,  and  verb — a  distinction  which  now  is 
recognized  in  all  the  Deccan  idioms.  Our  declension  is  supplied  by  a 
number  of  formative  syllables,  and  the  conjugation  in  both  divisions  of 
the  Dravidians  is  accomplished  by  sufiixes.  Yet  the  verbal  form  nowhere 
rises  above  the  attributive  relation. 

The  true  life  of  the  language  is  seen  in  the  pronouns.  It  is  an 
important  difference  that  the  Vindhya  tongues  have  a  dual  of  these  latter, 
while  those  of  the  Deccan  either  do  not  possess  it  or  have  it  only  by  means 
of  a  paraphrase.  They  correspond  in  the  difference  betAveen  the  exclusive 
and  inclusive  plural — /.  c.  both  have  forms  for  "  we  "  inclusive  and  "  we  " 
exclusive  of  the  person  spoken  to.  The  most  important  difference  in  the 
structure  of  the  language  shows  itself  in  the  gender.  While  the  Vindhya 
tongues  distinguish  only  between  that  which  has  life  and  that  which  has 
not,  and  make  the  distinction  a  general  one,  the  Deccanees  have  in  the 
"high"  and  "low"  gender  of  the  Tamil  grammarians — of  which  the 
former  includes  all  beings  with  reason,  and  the  latter  only  beasts  and 
inanimate  things — apparently  the  same  trait,  only  expressed  with  a  dif- 
ferent scope.  The  Deccanees  also  express  in  the  "high"  gender  the 
distinction  between  masculine  and  feminine,  confined,  howe\-er,  to  pro- 
nouns (demonstrative)  and  to  those  pronouns  which  form  the  conjuga- 
tion of  the  verb.  This  distinction  is  seldom  applied  to  the  substantive, 
but  it  is  mostly  confined  to  the  pronoun,  which  is  affixed  to  the  descrip- 
tive w'ord   in   masculine  or  feminine  form.      It  cannot  be  regarded  as 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  285 

fundamental,  for  the  grammatical  gender  has  been  developed  out  of  the 
distinction  between  animate  and  inanimate  objects.  Thus  the  gender  in 
tlie  Deccan  tongues  may  have  arisen  independent!)^  from  tlie  old  founda- 
tion that  the  Vindhya  people  have  preserved,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  in 
consequence  of  the  influence  of  the  Aryan  tongues,  which  have  through- 
out such  marked  difference  in  gender. 

A  critical  examination  of  the  Dravidian  languages  shows  the  likeli- 
hood of  their  having  developed  out  of  one  ancient  common  stock. 
The  Vindhya  idioms  have  kept  to  the  older  and  more  undeveloped 
standard,  which  is  not  surprising  when  we  consider  their  histor}-  and 
degree  of  cultivation.  The  Elu  (Singhalese)  is  not  so  nearly  related 
to  the  Deccan  as  regards  roots,  but  is  similar  in  the  spoken  form.  It 
is  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  a  peculiarly  developed  branch  of  the 
Deccan  idioms. 

Costume. — The  clothing  of  all  these  tribes  is  entirely  Indian  (//.  81, 
fig.  i).  Among  the  less  cultivated  it  is  very  simple,  consisting  of  a  cloth 
worn  around  the  hips  like  a  gown;  both  sexes  among  the  Singhalese  have 
it  so  (/>/.  81,  fig.  4),  while  among  the  Bheels  and  tlie-Kolhs  the  men  wear 
only  a  small  loin-cloth.  The  wealthier  have  a  cloak  around  the  shoulders, 
which  is  sometimes  a  mere  cloth  (among  the  Kolhs,  the  Tudas,  the 
Khonds,  the  Paharias,  etc.),  and  sometimes,  as  among  the  Singhalese,  a 
kind  of  jacket  {pi.  81,  fig.  4,  8,  9). 

Hair. — The  hair  is  worn  mostly  in  a  knot  on  the  crown  or  back  of  the 
head  with  manifold  ornaments,  and  generally  held  in  place  with  a  long 
zinc  comb;  some  tribes,  as  the  Tudas  {pi.  81,  figs.  8,  9),  the  Kolhs,  and 
the  Bheels,  wear  it  free,  the  wild  tribes  often  paying  no  attention  to  it. 
We  see  divers  coverings  for  the  head  on  Plate  81  {figs,  i,  5,  6). 

Jc'duelry. — Ear-rings  and  necklaces  (//.  81,  fig.  10)  are  popular  orna- 
ments; the  former  are  worn  in  the  edge  of  the  ear,  which  is  pierced  {pi. 
81,  fig.  10),  or,  together  with  plugs,  small  pieces  of  wood,  etc.,  in  the 
ear-lobes,  which  are  often  greatly  enlarged  {pi.  81,  fiig.  10);  and  even  the 
civilized  Dcccances  have  adhered  to  this  custom  (//.  8r,  fig.  i).  Metal 
bracelets  and  anklets,  oftentimes  very  heavy,  are  also  prized.  The 
weapons  of  those  branches  which  have  not  become  Indianized  consist 
of  bow  and  arrow,  axes,  shields,  and  slings. 

Divelliugs. — Their  dwellings  consist  of  neat  frame  huts  united  into 
villages.  Only  totally  barbarous  tribes,  such  as  the  Vcddahs,  plait  their 
temporary  huts  of  the  twigs  of  trees,  or,  when  occupying  a  somewhat 
higher  rank  in  civilization,  make  them  of  pieces  of  tree-bark. 

Agnailturc  and  Stock-Rnisiiig  are  the  principal  occupations  of  the 
nations  not  completely  uncivilized,  such  as  the  Kolhs,  tlie  Tudas,  etc. 
Cattle,  buffaloes,  hogs,  goats,  and  sheep  constitute  the  wcaltii  of  the  shep- 
herd peoples.  Tlie  Tuda.s,  for  instance,  in  tlie  Neilgherry  Hills,  keep 
principally  buffaloes  and  sheep:  the  simple  vehicles  of  the  Singhalese 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  use  the  elephant,  their  ordinar}-  domestic 
animal,  are  shown  on   Plate  81   {fig.  4).     Tiie  entirely  barbarous  tribes 


2S6  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

lead  a  wild  and  miserable  life  of  hunting  and  robbing  in  their  woods  and 
mountains. 

Food  and  Drink. — The  Dravidians  are  fond  of  spirituous  drinks,  and 
have  some  of  their  own  invention  and  manufacture.  Originally,  they  ate 
everything,  even  carcasses,  and  this  is  still  done  by  some  nations.  Otlier.s, 
througli  Indian  influence,  abstain  from  the  flesh  of  certain  animals,  espe- 
cially cattle.  The  Kolhs  have  received  their  name — which  in  Indian  is  a 
collective  name  for  many  tribes — from  the  Indians  because  they  kill  and 
eat  swine;  for  Kolh  signifies  swine-killer  (Jellinghaus). 

Naval  Architecture. — The  boats  of  the  Singhalese  merit  special  atten- 
tion {pi.  8i,  Jigs.  5,  6).  In  the  south  of  the  islaud  all  of  them,  large  and 
small,  are  supplied  with  a  boom,  and  only  wooden  nails  are  used  in  their 
construction;  they  are  frequently  turned  up  alike  on  both  ends,  in  which 
respect  they  are  similar  to  the  Malaysian  vessels.  The  Singhalese  carr}' 
on  coast  navigation  only,  and  are  averse  to  undertaking  long  voyages  on 
foreign  vessels;  while,  on  the  coutrar.-,  the  Telingas,  Tamils,  and  Mala- 
bars  willingly  serve  as  sailors  and  make  long  sea-voyages. 

Domestic  Life. — Woman  occupies  no  poor  position  among  the  Dravid- 
ian  peoples:  according  to  Jellinghaus,  she  is  called  mistress  of  the  house 
among  the  Kolhs,  the  husband  being  termed  the  master  of  tlie  land;  and, 
although  she  always  addresses  her  husband  by  the  name  of  master,  great 
love  and  mutual  consideration  prevail  among  them. 

Marriage. — ]\Iarriage  is  contracted  with  numerous  ceremonies,  at 
which  the  groom,  who  must  always  be  from  another  community,  gives 
rich  presents  to  the  father-in-law.  Before  marriage  both  sexes  live  in 
perfect  liberty,  but  adulter}'  is  severely  punished.  However,  matrimony 
is  easily  dissolved.  Bigamy  is  practised  in  some  cases.  The  second  wife 
is  considered  lawful,  and  is  married  with  the  usual  ceremonies,  and  her 
children  enjoy  the  same  rights  as  the  children  of  the  first  marriage.  But 
the  children  of  concubines,  generally  widows  whose  connection  with  an- 
otlier  man  is  not  considered  scandalous,  have  inferior  rights  to  those  of 
the  legitimate  wives. 

Their  marriages  are  usually  fruitful.  The  mother  and  her  new-bom 
child  are  deemed  unclean  until  they  are  freed,  after  the  lapse  of  eight  days, 
from  the  interdiction,  when  the  child  is  solemnly  received  into  the  tribe 
and  is  named,  usually  by  the  grandfather  and  with  his  own  name.  Abor- 
tion is  practised,  but  is  considered  a  crime.  This  description — most  of 
which  we  have  taken  from  a  report  of  Jellinghaus  about  the  Kolhs — 
applies  closely  to  all  Dravidian  peoples,  only  that  the  more  barbarous 
tribes  are  of  course  more  barbarous  also  in  this  regard;  as,  for  instance, 
the  Tudas  kill  most  of  the  female  children  after  birth,  and,  furthennore, 
polvandr}-  prevails  among  some  peoples  of  South  Deccan  (Jklalabars,  Kurgs, 
Tudas)  and  the  Singhalese.  As  in  the  north,  children  at  an  early  age  are 
betrothed  to  each  other,  and  here  also  unrestrained  licentiousness  prevails 
before  marriage.  In  cases  of  polyandry  the  husbands  of  the  wife  are  gen- 
erally brothers,  to  whom  the  children  belong  in  common.     It  is  easily 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  2S7 

understood  that  in  such  institutions  rank  and  property  are  inherited  by 
female  lineage.  Nevertheless,  here  also  the  women  are  considered  less 
holy  than  the  men,  and  they  are  not  allowed  to  enter  the  sacred  places  of 
sacrifice. 

Government. — The  constitution  is  alike  among  all  the  Dravidian  peo- 
ples. It  is  patriarchal,  each  village  community  having  an  elder,  and 
where  there  is  a  union  of  several  tribes  one  tribal  chief  is  at  the  head 
of  it,  which  dignity  is  hereditar>'  in  one  certain  family.  This  village 
elder  is  called  nuinda  among  the  Kolhs — a  name  occurring  also  among 
the  tribes  of  the  Deccan,  though  changed  somewhat  in  form  and  meaning. 
In  former  times  these  chiefs  seem  to  have  had  a  religious  character  also, 
at  least  some  scattered  customs  appear  to  indicate  this,  and  ever\'where 
they  exercise  a  despotic  power. 

The  more  barbarous  of  these  peoples  are  divided  into  ver}'  many 
single  tribes,  the  number  of  which  is  constantly  increased  by  quarrels 
arising  in  the  tribes,  for  the  quarrelling  parties  separate  and  fonn  independ- 
ent clans.  Among  the  settled  agricultural  Dravidians  several  of  these 
clans  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  one  superior  chief  Blood-revenge  and 
joint  responsibility  of  the  family  for  one  of  its  members  prevail  among 
these  different  communities.  It  is  strange  that  in  many  districts,  and 
even  among  the  Hindoos,  the  Dravidian  tribes  are  considered  to  be  the 
true  owners  of  the  country;  consequently,  the  Indian  rajahs  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  the  Vindhya  Mountains  must,  on  ascending  the  throne,  make 
on  their  forehead  the  tikor — that  is,  a  mark  with  blood  taken  from  the  toe 
or  the  thumb  of  a  Bheel  or  a  Mina. 

The  Tudas  have  a  similar  character  in  their  districts;  both  of  which 
are  evidences  that  these  tribes  were  once  the  dominant  nations.'  How- 
ever, the  caste  spirit  has  gained  entrance  among  the  Dravidians,  pre- 
vailing, for  example,  in  Malabar,  in  Ceylon,  and  among  the  Hindooized 
peoples  of  the  Deccan.  .  The  Tudas  are  peculiar  in  this  respect  also,  for 
their  arrangement  of  castes  seems  odd  and  reminds  us  of  the  different 
ranks  of  Polynesia. 

J\cIiq;ion  and  Siipcrstiiion. — The  present  religion  of  the  civilized  Dec- 
can  peoples  is  Brahmanism,  which  in  its  rudest  form  has  also  been  accepted 
by  the  Rheels.  Mohammedanism  has  also  followers  among  them,  at  least 
nominally.  The  Tamils  and  the  Singhalese  are  Buddhists.  The  latter 
preserve  in  the  temple  of  Kandy  as  a  sacred  relic  a  bit  of  ivory,  tho  fa- 
mous sacred  tooth  of  Buddha.  Plate  81  {/ig.  7)  .shows  the  "tooth,"  with 
the  cord  on  which  it  is  horizontally  suspended  in  a  precious  reliquary. 
However,  many  nations,  and  even  those  which  are  Brahmanized,  have 
retained  in  many  ctistoms  their  original  religion,  which  venerates  th.e 
principal  powers  of  nature,  as  the  sun  (Kolhs)  and  the  earth  (Khonds), 
of  which  their  conceptions  are  not  wholly  material. 

Thus,  according  to  Jellinghaus,  the  Kolhs,  among  whom  there  is  no 
trace  of  a  sun-cult,  worship  the  Sing-Bonga — that  is,  "sun-god" — as  the 
creator  of  the  earth,  the  sun,  and  all  things,  as  a  constant  guide,  sustainer, 


288  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

and  snpen'isor  of  the  -world.  They  also  fear  and  venerate  a  number  of 
more  or  less  powerful  demons,  spirits  of  the  elements,  who  have  their 
seats  in  the  water,  and  especially  in  trees  and  sacred  groves.  To  these 
spirits  they  brinj^  offerings  consisting  of  animals,  fruit,  etc. ;  the  Khonds 
ofifer  human  sacrifices  to  the  earth  in  thanksgiving  or  propitiation,  accom- 
panied by  wild  festivities,  but  the  victim  must  never  be  of  their  own  tribe. 
They  celebrate  religious  feasts  at  the  times  of  sowing  and  harvesting  and 
on  other  occasions. 

Sacrifices^  Priests,  and  Idols. — The  sacred  groves  are  the  places  of 
sacrifice  ;  the  sacrificers  are  established  priests — the  pahans  among  the 
Kolhs,  the  pekkans  among  the  Tudas — whose  dignity  is  hereditary',  and 
who  originally  constituted  a  distinct  caste,  and  do  so  still  among  the 
Tudas.  Among  the  Kolhs  this  is  now  modified.  The  family  of  the 
village  priest  is  deemed  next  in  rank  to  that  of  the  chief,  j'et  the  pahau 
can  transfer  his  dignity  to  some  other  person,  and  consequently  to  another 
family.  Idols  occur  rarely,  and  are  generally  of  Indian  origin.  Besides 
the  priests,  there  are  magicians,  who  are  possessed  of  different  powers 
and  who  perform  their  magic  in  the  manner  of  the  shamans.  They  make 
weather,  discover  hostile  magic,  and  above  all  cure  diseases,  which  are 
always  attributed  to  evil  spirits. 

Death  and  Burial. — One  tribe  of  the  Gonds  is  said  to  murder  and  eat 
old  or  sick  relatives  in  order  to  become  agreeable  to  the  gods.  Care  is 
scarcely  anywhere  given  the  sick,  on  account  of  fear  of  the  evil  spirits 
of  the  malady.  The  treatment  of  the  dead  varies:  ever}- where  long  and 
loud  lamentations  are  indulged  in,  and  the  bodies  are  generally  cremated, 
the  bones  and  ashes  being  preserved.  Costly  banquets  and  dead-offerings, 
which  often  exhaust  the  wealth  of  the  survivors,  are  associated  with  the 
funerals.  The  Kolhs  ( Jellinghaus)  and  some  other  nations  inter  the  ashes 
in  a  common  cemetery-  in  family  tombs  formed  of  four  erect  flagstones 
covered  with  a  fifth.  These  cromlech-like  stone  lipuses  are  believed  to  be 
the  abodes  of  the  souls,  and  frequently,  though  not  always,  have  a  hole 
in  the  wall  for  their  entrance  and  exit  {pi.  Bi^fig.  ii).  In  memory-  of 
some  of  the  dead,  lofty,  towering  stones  are  erected  at  desirable  places. 
Other  tribes,  as  the  Bheels,  bury  their  dead,  but  this  custom  is  far  less 
frequent.  They  believe  in  the  future  life  of  the  soul,  as  is  shown  by  their 
dead-offerings. 

Intellectual  Faculties  and  Achievements. — If  we  now  cast  a  glance  at 
the  achievements  and  intellectual  peculiarities  of  the  very  interesting 
Dravidian  nations,  we  shall  at  once  have  to  acknowledge  their  intel- 
lectual abilities.  First  of  all,  their  languages  frequently  exhibit  a  finely- 
developed  intellectuality,  and  wherever  they  have  come  in  peaceful  con- 
tact with  civilization,  whether  Indian  or  European,  the  Dravidians  have 
proved  themselves  able  to  adopt  it  and  in  due  time  to  assimilate  it.  At 
present  they  contribute  greatly  to  the  civilization  of  India,  and  by  the 
spread  of  Buddhism  from  their  centre,  Ceylon,  they  have  also  assisted  in 
the  civilization  of  Farther  India.     The  Tamils  especially  stand  in  the 


ETHXOGRAPIIY.  289 

first  rank:  they  have  a  domestic  literature  which  is  worthy  of  notice, 
and  have  developed  a  language  of  poetry  by  the  side  of  that  of  prose. 
Some  of  the  other  Deccan  nations  exhibit  at  least  the  beginning  of  a 
literature. 

Their  artistic  achievements  amount  to  very  little.  It  may  be  men- 
tioned that  they  qre  fond  of  the  dance,  which,  however,  is  mostly  ugly 
and  wild  and  often  indecent  and  lascivious.  Their  character  is  variously 
distinguished.  They  are  warlike  and  brave,  and  are  valued  as  good  sol- 
diers; they  are,  on  the  whole,  chaste  and  abstemious,  active,  mern,-,  and 
cheerful;  the)-  love  truth  and  are  honest.  Neither  is  hospitality  absent, 
nor  a  certain  mildness  of  character.  We  need  not  be  astonished  that 
laziness  and  uncleanliness,  great  barbarit)-  and  a  thievish  character  pre- 
vail among  some  degenerate  tribes;  neither  must  we  be  surprised  to  find 
dissoluteness,  especially  among  the  younger  people  even  of  the  more 
civilized  tribes.  But  on  the  whole  they  must  be  numbered  among  the 
most  gifted  and  most  elevated  of  the  peoples  in  the  natural  state.  This 
is  shown  by  the  zeal  with  which  many  of  them  accept  Christianity. 

Vol.  r.—  19 


DRAVIDIANS. 


Plate  8i. 


VlNDllVAS  AND  Df.ccasees.— I.  Tamil  (tape  Comorin).  2.  Native  of  Cninganore  (Hither  ImliaV  J.  Native  of 
Nelpli  (on  the  Clo.lavari  River,  Iiulial  4-  Singhalese  of  Ceylon.  5.  Ship  of  Ceylon.  6.  Skill"  of  Ceylon.  7-  Sacred 
tooth  of  the  Kamlians  (Kamly,  Ceylon).  8.  Toila  man;  9.  Toda  woman  (Neilgherry  Hills,  India).  10.  Kolh  woman. 
II.  rrmnlech  of  India.     12.  Kong  woman  (Vindhya  Mountains,  India). 


ETHNOGRAPHY. 


291 


V.  THE   ARABIC-AFRICAN   RACE. 

The  Arabic-Africax  race  comprises  a  number  of  branches,  which  we 
shall  divide  into  the  following  groups,  starting  from  the  south — that  is, 
from  the  extreme  point  of  their  district:  (i)  The  Koi-Koin  (Hottentots 
and  Bushmen);  (2)  The  Bantu  Peoples;  (3)  The  Peoples  of  the  Soudan 
(Negroes  and  Fulahs);  (4)  The  Semites. 

Gcograpliical  Distribution. — These  four  groups  are  geographically  ver>' 
distinct.  The  Hottentots  occupy,  or  at  least  originally  did,  the  south  of 
Africa  as  far  as  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  or  the  20th  degree  of  south  lati- 
tude; the  Bantu  peoples  dwell  north  of  them  as  for  as  the  Equator,  though 
in  the  west  they  extend  beyond  it  as  far  as  the  Bight  of  Biafra;  next  fol- 
low the  Negro  nations  occupying  the  broad  zone  from  the  Senegal  along 
the  southern  edge  of  the  Sahara  far  eastward  into  Nubia,  and  south  along 
the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  from  the  mouth  of  the  Niger  to  the 
Eahr-el-Abiad  and  the  Great  Lakes.  What  is  then  left  of  the  north  and 
east  of  Africa  is  occupied  by  the  Semites,  whose  other  division  inhabits 
the  Arabian  Peninsula,  Palestine,  and  Syria. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  ethnographical  description  of  these 
branches,  reser\-ing  to  the  end  of  the  separate  treatises  what  has  to  be 
said  about  them  in  common. 

I.  The  Koi-Koin. 
Peculiarity  of  Language  Sounds. — The  Koi-Koin  are  divided  into 
two  great  families,  the  Hottentots  and  the  Busluucn.  Before  describing 
this  remarkable  groiip  it  is  necessary  to  speak  of  some  strange  sounds  in 
their  language,  because  they  are  indispensable  in  the  proper  names  and 
other  words  which  we  shall  have  to  use:  we  mean  the  so-called  clucks, 
of  wliich  the  Hottentots  have  four  and  the  Bushmen  about  eight.  They 
are  uttered  by  pressing  the  tongue  tightly  against  difTerent  parts  of  the 
mouth,  and  suddenly  letting  it  loose  as  if  taking  breath.  The  tongue 
is  pressed  far  back  on  the  roof  of  the  mouth  for  the  cerebral  cluck,  more 
to  the  front  for  the  palatal,  on  the  incisor  teeth  for  the  dental,  and  between 
the  teeth  and  the  check  for  the  lateral.  European  tongues  have  clucking 
somids,  but  only  as  interjections,  while  with  the  Koi-Koin  they  are  true 
phonetic  elements.  As  they  occur  only  as  initial  soiuids,  among  the  Hot- 
tentots only  before  ;/  and  the  palatal  sounds,  and  among  the  Bushmen  also 
before  the  lip  sounds,  they  seem  to  be  sccoiulary  elements  of  speech.  The 
other  African  tongues  have  nothing  of  this  kind  except  where  they  have 
been  directly  borrowed  from  the  Koi-Koin;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Caffir 
language.  We  shall  use  the  dental  and  lateral  clucks;  tlie  former,  which 
sounds  like  our  interjections  of  displeasure,  or  like  /_  pronounced  when 


292  ETIIXOCRAPHY. 

drawing  the  breath,  we  shall  designate  by  the  sj-mbol  (!),  and  the  latter 
we  shall  indicate  thus  ( |i ).  But  no  one,  after  what  has  been  said,  will  over- 
estimate the  ethnologic  signification  of  these  sounds. 

Habitat. — The  Koi-Koin,  as  all  or  most  of  the  tribes  belonging  here 
name  themselves  in  various  idiomatic  fonns — the  word  is  an  iterati\e 
plural  form  and  means  mankind — dwell  at  present  in  South-western  Africa 
to  the  east  about  as  far  as  the  Great  Fish  River,  through  the  Karu  and 
Kalahari  Deserts  north  as  far  as  the  20th  degree  of  south  latitude;  but  of 
course  they  are  entirely  dri\-en  from  the  district  of  Cape  Colony. 

North  of  them,  on  the  20th  degree,  dwell  the  Hau-Koiu — that  is, 
"genuine  men" — who,  as  they  speak  and  live  like  Hottentots,  are  not 
to  be  considered  as  fugitives  of  various  descent,  still  less  as  dispersed 
Negroes,  but  must  be  numbered  among  the  Koi-Koin,  although  separated 
from  them  by  an  interjacent  Bantu  tribe.  They  call  themselves  Damaras, 
and  the  Namaqua  call  them  Mountain  Damaras,  or,  scornfully,  "Dung 
Damaras;"  their  language  seems  to  have  been  independently  developed, 
and,  as  they  do  not  remember  ever  to  have  had  any  other,  they  probably 
are  an  independently  developed  tribe  of  the  Koi-Koin,  related  to  the 
Bushmen.  PInsically,  they  deviate  from  the  Koi-Koin,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  black  with  a  reddish  tinge,  but  their  stature  and  features  are 
Hottentot. 

Thus  it  can  be  said  that  at  present  the  Koi-Koin  inhabit  the  district 
of  the  IGariep,  of  the  Orange  River,  and  the  adjoining  deserts.  But  it 
was  different  in  former  times.  The  names  of  mountains  and  rivers  in 
East  Africa,  and  also  remnants  of  population,  indicate,  as  some  old  maps 
correctly  show,  that  they  occupied  East  Africa  even  beyond  Port  Natal, 
into  which  district,  at  a  much  later  period  than  the  Koi-Koin,  and  from 
the  north  or  north-east,  the  Caffirs,  its  present  masters,  migrated,  as  their 
legends  narrate.  Toward  the  north  also  the  Koi-Koin  had  spread  farther 
than  we  see  them  at  present;  and  that  they  were  powerful  wherever  they 
established  themselves  is  shown  by  the  great  influence  they  have  had  on 
the  language  and  customs  of  the  Caflfir  people,  and  from  the  fact  that  tlie 
Caffirs  look  upon  them  as  the  first  possessors  of  the  countr}'. 

Racial  Division. — The  Koi-Koin  are  separated  into  two  divisions — the 
Hottentots  and  the  Bushmen.  The  latter  name  signifies  "forest  men" — 
that  is,  "apes,"  ape-like  human  beings,  as  is  shown  by  Fritsch.  The 
name  "Hottentot"  is  said  to  signify  "stammerer,"  and  to  have  been 
given  to  the  people  on  account  of  their  clucking  sounds.  Both  divisions, 
unquestionably  related,  though  not  very  closely,  are  dissimilar  in  lan- 
guage, character,  manner  of  li\-ing,  and  i:)hysical  nature.  According  to 
a  Plottentot  myth,  the  first  fathers  of  both  lived  together — the  one  a 
hunter,  the  other,  though  blind,  yet  able  to  distinguish  animals  of  the 
chase  from  domestic  animals.  He  outwitted  the  hunter,  and  forced  him 
to  go  to  the  mountains,  while  he  himself  built  his  kraal.  On  the  whole, 
this  myth  is  probably  right.  At  the  time  of  the  first  discovert'  the  Bush- 
men were   already  a  degenerate   tribe  of  hunters   crowded   in   between 


ETIINOGR.  IPI/Y.  293 

settled  nations  carrying  on  stock-raising,  with  whom  for  centuries  they 
had  lived  in  open  enmit)'.  They  seem  to  have  been  the  aboriginal  inhab- 
itants of  South  Africa,  and  were  driven  into  the  less  fertile  mountains  by 
the  Hottentots.  Both  came  from  the  north,  but  the  Hottentots,  migrat- 
ing with  their  herds,  had  by  a  secure  sustenance  greater  power,  and  were 
enabled  gradually  to  expel  the  Bushmen  from  the  better  hunting-grounds. 
Thus  the  expelled  race  sunk  into  want  and  misery,  and  in  its  efforts  to 
maintain  itself  became  involved  in  quarrels  with  all  its  neighbors. 

The  opinion  which  was  formerly  held,  that  the  Bushmen  were  only 
degenerate  Hottentots  forced  by  poverty  to  become  robbers,  must  be  set 
aside  as  erroneous;  though  it  is  true  that  some  scattered  Hottentots  or 
Caffirs  have  united  with  the  Bushmen  and  have  been  compelled  to  lead 
a  similar  life. 

Tribal  Divisions. — The  Bushmen  are  divided  into  many  individual 
tribes,  all  of  which  figure  among  the  Hottentots  by  the  common  name  of 
sail  or  sagua.,  both  plurals  of  the  masculine  singular  sal>^ — sai?  comprising 
both  men  and  women,  and  sagi/a,  which  is  an  emphatic  form,  only  the 
men.  The  form  g//a  or  t/i/a  is  generally  used  to  designate  indi\-idual 
tribes,  as  Nama-qua,  Gona-qua,  etc.  The  Ubiqiia  and  Siisaqua  men- 
tioned by  early  authors  are  Bushmen,  and  the  names  Soiiqua  or  Soaqiia 
are  equivalent  to  Saqiia  {sagiia),  which  term  we  frequenth-  find  applied  to 
the  hordes  of  the  Bushmen.  Kolbe,  the  first  German  describer  of  the 
Cape  (about  the  year  1700),  relates  of  these  Sonqua,  whom  he  mentions 
as  a  single  tribe  living  on  the  Broad  (Breede)  River,  that  they  are  brave 
soldiers  who  serve  everywhere  as  mercenaries,  and  that  they  also  possess 
some  stock,  which  they  kill  only  with  great  reluctance. 

Livingstone  found  tribes  of  Bushmen  on  the  Chobe  River  (a  tributary 
of  the  Zambesi  north  of  Lake  Ngami)  who  were  a  large,  dark-brown, 
cheerful  people  in  good  circumstances.  Furthermore,  the  name  sati 
probably  meant  originally  only  "the  dwelling,"  sedentary  people.  Hence 
we  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Bushmen  originally  occupied  a  higher 
rank  than  at  present — that  they  were  a  courageous  hunting  people,  who  at 
some  places  had  attained  possession  of  herds  and  were  established  settlers, 
until  they  gradually  succumbed  under  unfavorable  circumstances.  The 
individual  tribes  of  the  Bushmen  speak  unlike  languages,  though  their 
deviations  may  have  been  originally  only  of  a  dialectic  kind.  This  phe- 
nomenon is  easily  explained  by  the  complete  separation  of  the  tribes. 

The  Hottentots  were  formerly  divided  into  very  many  tribes:  for  instance, 
the  Goringhaiqtia  (Caepmanns),  the  Gorachouqua,  the  Cocfioqiia,  Gn'gnqita, 
from  the  Cape  northward;  still  farther  north  along  the  western  coast  the 
/J//!r  iVaii/a  horde;  more  to  the  interior  and  west  of  the  Li///c  Naiuaqna 
(Nama  and  Namaqua  are  plural  forms)  the  Great  Nainaqiia,  to  whom 
belong  the  niiiidclzzcarls,  the  Orlaw,  and  (the  most  northern)  the  Tfl/>- 
uaar;  to  the  south  the  Ifcssaqiia,  and  the  /y/y/m  (Hcikom)  as  far  as  Algoa 
Bay.  vStill  farther  to  the  cast  were  the  powerful  Goiiaqiia,  of  whom  but 
few  remains  arc  left  on  account  uf  their  fierce  wars  with  the  Caffirs;  in  the 


294  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

interior,  amoiic;  many  other  tribes,  tlie  Griqita.  The  present  Griqiia  have 
only  retained  an  ancient  name;  they  are  a  mixture  of  Hottentots,  whites, 
Negroes,  Cafl5rs,  etc. ,  and  were  formerly  called  Bastaards.  They  now  live 
much  farther  to  the  west  on  the  IGariep  and  Vaal  Rivers.  The  Orlain, 
who  migrated  from  the  south  to  the  north-west  in  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  and  who  became  very  troublesome  to  the  Topnaar  by  their  hos- 
tile encroachments,  are  also  a  mixed  tribe  of  the  Namaqua  and  elements 
of  Cape  Colony,  but  they  have  retained  their  language  and  more  of  their 
nationality  than  the  Bastaard-Griqua.  The  Kama  and  the  Korana  or 
Koraqjia  on  the  middle  !Gariep,  and  more  to  the  north  (sing,  masc, 
!Kora-p,  plur.  !Kora-n,  or  !Kora-qu,  !Kora-qua),  are  the  only  other  pure 
Hottentots,  but  both  are  unmixed  only  where  they  have  not  come  in 
contact  with  the  whites  or  with  Bantu  nations. 

Phvsical  Characteristics:  Stature. — At  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury- the  Hottentots  were  described  by  travellers  as  middle-sized  or  large 
— from  five  to  six  feet  tall,  according  to  Kolbe,  who  saw  thousands  of 
them.  The  now  extinct  Cochoqua  of  Saldanha  Bay  were  formerly,  and 
the  Griqua  and  other  mixed  races  are  at  present,  mentioned  as  extraordi- 
narily large;  the  rest  are  now  generally  less  than  middle-sized,  the  men 
sometimes  even  below  i6o  centimetres  (63  inches),  the  women  below  140 
centimetres  (55  inches).  The  Bushmen  are  particularly  small,  their  height 
going  as  low  as  125  centimetres  (49.2  inches,  Barrow),  but  on  an  average 
attaining  140  centimetres  (55  inches).  In  proportion,  the  men  are  even 
smaller  than  the  women. 

Form. — The  figure  is  by  no  means  good.  The  pelvis  is  narrow  and 
much  curved  toward  the  front,  and  in  consequence  the  spinal  column  is 
deeply  bent  in  (//.  Zz^  Jig.  j),  and  the  hips  do  not  project  at  the  .sides.  As 
the  lower  ribs  are  frequently  drawn  up  by  a  development  of  the  belly,  the 
rump  presents  an  oblong-square,  clumsy  appearance.  The  muscles  are 
but  poorly  developed,  and  consequently  the  limbs  are  thin  and  the  joints 
prominent. 

The  Bu.shmen  are  still  more  uncouth,  on  account  of  their  large  and 
clumsy  heads  and  the  disproportion  between  the  limbs  and  the  rump. 
Their  arms  are  often  longer  and  their  legs  shorter  than  with  whites.  Their 
hands  and  feet  are  small  and  graceful,  as  are  those  of  the  Hottentots.  As 
their  bellies  are  enlarged  by  innutritions  food,  their  breastbone  becomes 
broader  below,  so  that  their  shoulders  appear  narrow  and  are  curved  to 
the  front.     In  strength  they  are  superior  to  the  Hottentots. 

The  form  of  the  women  is  greatly  di.sfigured  by  the  enormous  develop- 
ment of  the  upper  leg  and  a  bolster  of  fat  on  the  hips.  This  feature, 
w'hich  is  seen  also  among  the  Bantu  and  Negroes,  is  not  peculiar  to  all 
the  women;  it  sometimes,  though  in  an  inferior  measure,  occurs  among 
the  men.  A  change  in  the  nourishment  has  an  exceedingly  rapid  influ- 
ence on  the  outlines  of  their  figures  (Fritsch)  {p/.  82,  Jo-.  7). 

Hottentot  Apron. — Another  famous  peculiarity  of  the  Hottentot  and 
Bush  women    is    the   so-called  "Hottentot    apron."     However,  it  is  not 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  295 

found  on  all  Hottentot  women,  and  is  sometimes  seen  in  North  Africa,  and 
even  in  North  America.  In  spite  of  the  apparently  great  development  of 
the  hips,  the  pelvis  is  small  and  remarkably  narrow,  as  is  illustrated  by  the 
outline  of  the  pelvis  of  a  Bush  woman  on  Plate  i  {fig.  11,  d).  Compare 
this  with  the  pelvis  of  a  Negress  (r),  with  that  of  a  Javanese  woman  {b), 
and  especially  with  the  pelvis  of  a  young  German  woman  (a).  In  com- 
parison with  the  latter  the  difference  is  remarkable.  The  bones  constitut- 
ing the  pelvis  of  the  Bush  women  are  thin  and  brittle. 

The  skin  of  the  Hottentots,  and  especially  of  the  Bushmen,  easily 
becomes  wrinkled  as  though  withered,  not  only  on  the  face,  but  also  on 
the  body  {pi.  82,  Jigs.  2,  4,  5;  //.  85,  fig.  i).  This  shrivelling  is  visible 
in  youth,  and  is  absent  only  during  the  earliest  years  (//.  82,  fig.  6). 

Color. — The  color  of  the  skin  varies:  it  is  generally  of  a  leather- 
yellow  or  brownish-yellow  to  dark  brown — reddish-brown  among  the 
Griqua,  grajish-brown  among  the  Koraua.  The  Bushmen  also  are  gen- 
erally of  a  light  color,  but  there  are  some  tribes  of  Bushmen  on  Lake 
Ngami  who  are  as  dark  as  Congo  Negroes  (Livingstone);  and  this  color 
is  said  to  occur  also  among  some  branches  of  the  Nama.  The  lighter 
tribes  plainly  exhibit  redness  of  the  cheeks. 

Hair. — The  hair  is  peculiar.  It  is  black,  short,  hard  to  the  touch, 
and  grows  in  bunches  or  frizzy  tufts,  between  which  the  surface  of 
the  scalp  remains  bare  (//.  S^,fgs.  1,  2,  3);  some  individuals  seem  to 
have  a  full  hair-covering  (//.  82,  figs,  i,  4).  In  ancient  reports  we  hear 
of  individuals  with  long  curls.  The  hair  of  the  body  is  scant,  though 
not  totally  absent;  there  is  also  a  little  beard,  short  and  furr)-,  generally 
growing  on  the  upper  lip  only  (//.  82,  figs.  2,  3,  5;  //.  85,  figs.  2,  3). 

Skull-Form  and  Features. — The  formation  of  the  skull  is  dolicho- 
cephalic, but  broadened  so  much  toward  the  occiput  that  Welcker  puts  it 
into  a  separate  class,  that  of  the  platyslcnceplialic  or  low  long  skulls  (//. 
82,  figs.  8-1 1).  The  back  of  the  skull  presents  in  most  cases  of  pure 
race  a  pentagonal  form  {pi.  82,  fig.  10).  The  jawbones  are  prognathic 
{pi.  ^2^  fig.  11).  The  chin  is  small;  the  forehead  generally  finely  de- 
veloped,  high,    projecting  globularly  (//.    82,  figs.    1-4,    6,    11;  //.    85, 

fi.^^-  1-3)- 

The  cheekbones  project  more  among  the  Hottentots  than  among  the 

San  (//.  82,  figs.  I,  3,  4).     The  eyes  are  far  apart,  well  opened,  long,  but 

not  very  high,  although  lying  in  broad  sockets  (//.  82,  fig.  8).     The  iris 

is  dark  brown,  the  cornea  jellowish-white.     The  nose  is  broad  and  flat 

especially  at  its  root  (//.  82,  fig.  n),  projecting  but  little  over  the  large 

and  somewhat  thick-lipped  mouth  {pi.  82,  figs.   1-6;  pi.  85,  fiigs.   1-3). 

The  ears  are  large  and  the  teeth  fine.     Some  witne.s.scs  declare  that  both 

Hottentots  and  Bushmen  are  not  entirely  ugl\-,  and  that  some  of  them 

are  even  handsome.     The  r>ushmen  generally  have  a  stealthy,  .subtle  look 

and  a  great  vivacity  of  e.xi)ression. 

Circumcision. — It  is  said   that  formerly  a  peculiar  circumci.sion  was 

practised  on  the  Hottentot  boys  under  the  pretence  of  enabling  them  to 


296  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

run  faster.  The  custom  is  now  obsolete  among  the  mixed  tribes  of  the 
Hottentots,  and  the  Bushmen  seem  never  to  have  practised  it. 

Costume. — The  dress  is  simple.  The  men  wear  a  sheep-skin  mantle, 
and  thev  cover  the  loins  with  a  small  piece  of  skin,  which  they  fasten 
with  straps.  The  women — at  least  among  the  Namaqua — wear  a  larger 
apron  than  the  men,  and  they  also  wear  behind  the  so-called  kaross  or 
kross,  a  piece  of  leather  extending  from  the  waist  about  as  far  as  the  knee, 
or,  among  some  tribes,  reaching  to  the  ankles.  Chiefs  wear  the  skins  of 
the  nobler  animals  of  the  chase. 

The  Hottentot  men  carrj'  about  their  necks  a  small  leather  bag  con- 
taining their  tobacco,  money,  and  an  amulet;  the  women,  a  larger  one  for 
provisions,  tinder-boxes,  tobacco,  etc.  As  long  as  the  national  character 
was  undisturbed,  the  women  also  wore  a  leather  cap  pointed  at  the  top, 
while  the  men  had  a  flat  cap,  which  they  used  only  in  bad  weather. 
They  wear  leather  .sandals  only  on  long  marches.  They  grease  them- 
selves, as  well  as  their  skins  and  dresses,  with  tallow,  which  they  often 
color  black  with  .soot.     The  Bushmen  color  it  yellow  with  ochre. 

The  Hottentot  women  often  paint  their  faces  red  in  grotesque  designs. 
As  they  never  wash  themsehes,  but,  on  the  contrar)',  always  grease  them- 
selves anew,  and  often  mix  dust  or  dried  dung  with  the  tallow,  their 
exterior  is  very  repulsive,  the  body  often  being  covered  with  a  thick  crust 
of  dirt,  infecting  the  air  to  a  great  distance.  They  also  grease  the  hair  in 
a  similar  manner,  put  on  an  odoriferous  powder  made  of  the  buchu-plant, 
a  species  of  Diosma,  and  decorate  the  end  of  each  lock  with  something 
glittering. 

Ornaments. — They  are  very  much  given  to  finery:  chains,  feathers, 
pieces  of  skin  of  captured  animals — in  former  times  the  bladder — are 
worn  in  the  hair  (//.  82,  Jio;.  5);  chains  about  the  neck  and  bosom  and 
ear-rings  are  common;  also  rings  of  ivory,  copper,  and  brass  on  the 
upper  ann  (pi.  84,  Jigs.  4,  5,  6) — the  arm-rings,  however,  being  orna- 
ments of  the  men  only;  and  the  Hottentot  women  protect  and  decorate 
their  legs  from  the  knees  to  the  ankles  with  rings  of  sheep-skin  put 
closely,  together.  One  tribe  of  the  Bushmen  wear  pieces  of  wood  in 
the  cartilage  of  the  nose.  The  Hau-Koin  have  the  same  attire  as  the 
Namaqua.  Of  course  at  present  the  natives,  where  they  associate  with 
the  Europeans,  give  a  more  or  less  European  shape  to  their  garments  {pi. 
82,  Jigs.  1-4),  which  are  mostly  made  of  leather. 

Weapons. — The  kirri,  a  short,  thick  staflf  of  oak-wood  saturated  with 
fat  and  used  in  close  combat,  and  the  rackum,  a  stick  about  three  feet  long 
pointed  at  the  top  and  used  for  throwing,  were  the  inseparable  companions 
of  the  Hottentots.  For  blowing  the  nose  and  wiping  off  the  perspiration 
they  use,  according  to  Kolbe,  a  piece  of  wood  one  foot  long  to  which  the  soft 
tail  of  an  animal  is  attached.  Their  assagais — spears  with  double-edged 
iron  points,  whose  wooden  .shaft  is  from  six  to  eight  feet  long  and  pointed 
at  its  end — are  weapons  of  more  importance  than  the  kirri  and  rackiim. 
They  poison  the  iron  points,  and  also  the  barbed  iron  points  of  the  cane- 


ETIIXOGRAPHY.  297 

shafted  arrows  with  which  they  shoot  far  and  surely  from  large  bows  three 
feet  long  and  made  of  iron  or  wood,  with  bowstrings  of  the  entrails  of 
animals.  The  poison  is  obtained  from  plants  or  from  the  poison-glands 
of  snakes.  The  qniver  is  a  hollow  piece  of  wood.  Most  of  the  Hotten- 
tots no  longer  use  these  weapons,  as  they  are  supplied  with  European  fire- 
arms, but  they  are  still  employed  by  the  Hau-Koin,  and  the  Bushmen  use 
the  bow  and  poisoned  arrows  so  much  that  the  surrounding  Bantu  nations, 
who  greatly  fear  the  arrows,  call  them  bow-shooters — Abatua,  Baroa. 

Building. — The  house-building  is  simple;  the  huts  are  oval  or  oven- 
shaped,  and  are  constructed  by  driving  into  the  ground  both  ends  of  long, 
flexible  poles,  or  else  by  tying  the  poles  together  at  the  top.  This  frame, 
which  is  strengthened  by  firm  joists,  is  thickly  covered  with  mats  or  skins. 
The  doors  are  only  three  feet  high,  so  that  the  people  must  crawl  through 
them;  and  when  inside  they  cannot  stand  up,  as  the  structures,  though 
fourteen  feet  long  and  twelve  feet  broad,  are  scarcely  five  feet  high.- 
These  huts  form  a  closed  circle,  and  their  villages  are  therefore  called 
kraal  (a  Dutch  word  meaning  "circle").  The  Hau-Koin  build  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  but  cover  the  huts  with  shrubbery.  It  is  said  that  some 
Hottentots  formerly  built  square  huts  of  clay. 

The  Bushmen  usually  live  in  caves,  holes  in  the  ground,  huts  of  shrub- 
bery, sheds,  etc.,  but  they  also  sometimes  erect  square  huts  with  plaited 
walls.  Kolbe  often  saw  Hottentot  villages  consisting  of  from  eighty  to 
one  hundred  houses.  The  interior  of  the  huts  is  unclean  and  full  of  ver- 
min. The  Koi-Koin  sleep  in  recesses  in  the  ground,  and  have  the  fire- 
place in  the  centre.  The  fire  is  kindled  by  the  friction  of  pieces  of  wood, 
and  the  usual  fuel  is  dried  cow-dung. 

Manufactures. — Thev  make  the  skins  soft  and  fit  for  use  as  garments  by 
repeated  greasing  and  hard  beating;  their  needles  are  bones,  sinews  their 
thread,  and  they  plait  mats  and  ropes  nicely  and  closely;  they  manufac- 
ture their  ivory  and  metal  rings,  for  they  are  acquainted  with  a  rude 
manner  of  smelting  and  working  iron.  They  also  form  and  burn  earthen 
pots  (from  the  earth  of  ant-nests);  and  they  have  baskets,  wooden  vessels 
which  they  make  hollow  by  means  of  fire,  spoons,  etc. 

Stock-Raisins;. — The}'  are  skilful  stock-rai.sers,  and  keep  sheep  and 
cattle,  the  former  being  driven  within  the  kraal  at  night,  the  latter  tied 
outside  of  it.  The  male  animals  are  generally  castrated;  the  uncastraled 
bulls  are  kept  for  breeding  and  in  order  to  be  let  loose  upon  the  enemy  in 
war,  and  the  others  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden.  In  order  to  make  them 
tractable  the  nose  is  pierced  and  a  jilug  inserted  in  the  hole.  They  ride 
on  them,  and  in  their  migrations  pack  on  them  everything  they  po.ssess, 
even  tlicir  huts.  But  thev  also  bestow  care  upon  their  animals:  a  few 
persons  from  the  kraal  act  as  shepherds  and  always  accompan\-  them  to 
the  pasturage.  There  are  also  veterinary  surgeons,  to  whom  many  rem- 
edies are  known.  The  very  j-oung  lambs  and  calves  are  put  into  a  roomy 
hut  built  in  the  middle  of  the  kraal.  The  manner  of  milking  is  the  .same 
as  that  which  Herodotus  observed  among  the  vScythians,  who  milked  their 


298  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

mares,  and  wliicli  may  at  present  occasionally  be  obsen-ed  among  t1ie 
Mongolians.  While  milking  the  cows  which  are  poor  in  milk  they  blow 
into  the  vagina  and  thus  cause  the  milk  to  flow. 

Food:  Preparation  and  Proliibitioii. — The  Koi-Koin  rarely  eat  the  fle.sh 
of  their  herds,  only  at  feasts  or  when  an  animal  has  died.  Their  chief  food 
is  the  product  of  the  chase,  onions,  fruit,  fish,  etc.  The  tribes  on  Walfisch 
Bay  and  the  Hau-Koin  eat  principally  of  the  fruit  of  a  Cuairbita.  The 
food  is  cooked  or  baked  on  hot  stones  in  holes  in  the  ground,  but  is  mostly 
devoured  half  raw.  The  men  of  each  kraal  eat  together,  as  also  the 
women  and  children;  and  there  are  various  prohibitions  of  food  for  both 
sexes.  The  hare,  for  instance,  is  forbidden  to  the  men,  and  we  shall  later 
on  meet  with  it  as  a  sacred  animal  (p.  301).  During  migrations  and  in  cases 
of  famine  everything  that  can  be  found,  insects,  larvae,  etc.,  is  eaten,  and, 
according  to  Kolbe,  even  the  leather  rings  worn  by  the  women  around 
the  legs.  Milk  is  drank,  but  onh-  that  of  the  cows  is  allowed  to  all,  as 
sheep's  milk  is  prohibited  to  the  men.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Bush- 
men can  fast  for  a  long  time,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  when  provisions  are 
plentiful  the  voracity  of  the  Koi-Koin  knows  no  bound. 

Stimulants. — They  formerly  smoked  wild  hemp  (dacha)  as  a  stimulant, 
and  still  do  so,  although  tobacco  is  now  known  to  them;  they  smoke  it 
from  long  earthen  pipes  which  they  themselves  manufacture,  and,  like 
most  nations  in  a  state  of  nature,  they  swallow  the  smoke.  After  this 
enjoyment  they  are  esj^ecially  voracious.  Through  the  Europeans  they 
have  become  accustomed  to  the  use  of  spirituous  drinks. 

Agriculture,  Hunting,  and  Fishing. — Formerly  they  carried  on  no 
agriculture  whatever,  but  learned  it  later  from  the  Europeans,  especially 
the  missionaries.  They  practise  it  where  the  character  of  the  country 
permits  it;  but,  as  the  Europeans  have  taken  the  most  fertile  districts,  their 
agrriculture  does  not  amount  to  much.  Thev  fullv  deserve  their  ancient 
fame  for  skill  in  hunting.  Besides  their  spears  and  arrows,  they  employ 
pits,  which  they  carefulh'  cover;  they  catch  fish  with  pointed  sticks,  with 
hooks,  or  with  large  nets.  They  are  good  swimmers — not  after  our 
method,  but  by  treading  the  water  and  keeping  the  arms  free.  The  men 
attend  to  the  chase,  the  fishing,  the  care  of  the  stock,  and  the  house- 
building, at  which,  however,  the  women  assist.  The  latter  have  charge 
of  the  cooking  and  of  the  house,  assist  at  keeping  the  animals,  dig  edible 
roots,  and  attend  the  children. 

Marriage :  its  Ceremonies  and  Restrictions. — Pohgani}-  is  pennitted, 
but  was  never  extensively  practised;  the  most  ancient  reports  mention 
three  wives  as  being  the  maximum  number.  Marriage  is  contracted  very 
simply:  the  father  of  the  groom  speaks  to  the  father  of  the  bride  at  a 
solemn  smoking  of  dacha:  the  groom,  if  rich,  contributes  several  head 
of  cattle  to  the  festive  meal,  and  the  contract  is  complete.  Among  those 
tribes  which  are  not  in  contact  with  Europeans,  and  evcrj-where  in  fonner 
times,  both  groom  and  bride  were  before  their  marriage  sprinkled  with 
'■  holy  water"  by  the  priest  of  the  kraal — that  is,  he  urinated  on  them— 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  299 

and  this  water  was  rubbed  into  the  greasy  cnist  o\er  the  skin.  This 
loathsome  act  innst  have  had  some  religious  signification,  for  the  Hot- 
tentots were  otherwise  very  decent  in  matters  of  this  kind.  Relatives  in 
the  second  degree  cannot  marry  eacli  other.  Adultery  and  incest  were 
punished  by  death,  and  consequently  dissoluteness  occurred  but  rarely: 
however,   matrimony  was  easily  dissolved. 

Births  and  Attending  Ceremonies. — Women  in  labor  are  assisted  by 
other  women,  and  each  kraal  has  a  midwife.  Dacha  or  tobacco  boiled  in 
milk  is  used  to  quicken  the  birth.  The  husband  is  not  allowed  to  enter 
the  house  during  his  wife's  confinement,  lest  he  should  become  polluted. 
Twin  sons  are  received  with  joy;  of  twin  girls,  one  is  generally  cast  out 
or  buried  alive,  and  the  same  fate  awaits  a  girl  born  with  a  twin  brother. 
New-born  children,  especially  girls,  are  not  unfrequently  destrojed;  more 
than  three  children  are  rarely  ever  brought  up.  The  Bushmen  show  still 
less  regard  for  the  lives  of  their  children,  especially  if  they  themselves 
are  in  danger  or  want.  Quarrels  between  the  parents  often  result  in  the 
murder  of  the  children,  and  deformed  children  are  always  destroyed. 

The  birth  of  a  dead  child  creates  great  fear  among  the  Hottentots;  the 
father  becomes  unclean  and  the  whole  kraal  is  torn  down.  A  normal 
child  is  first  rubbed  with  fresh  cow-dung,  then  with  the  sap  of  a  Meseinbry- 
anlluDiuni,  next  with  fat,  and  finally  the  odoriferous  buchu-powder  is 
strewn  over  it.  It  is  named  by  the  mother,  more  rarely  by  the  father; 
the  name  is  taken  from  some  animal  or  other  object  of  nature,  and  is 
given  immediately  after  birth. 

The  care  given  to  children  is  not  ven,'  gieat:  the  mother  carries  the 
infant  on  her  back,  the  other  children  run  by  her  side;  later  on  the  boy 
remains  with  the  father,  the  girl  with  the  mother,  and  they  are  taught  the 
arts  of  the  parents  or  acquire  them  by  themselves.  There  is  no  lack  of 
affection  on  the  part  of  parents,  but  examples  of  great  barbarity  are  also 
not  absent,  and  it  is  deemed  no  disgrace  for  grown-up  children  to  beat 
their  parents. 

Among  both  Bushmen  and  Hottentots  superannuated  persons  are  sup- 
]ilicd  with  some  provisions  and  left  in  the  de.sert  to  die.  Both  tribes  care- 
fully nurse  their  old  members  in  sickness  so  long  as  there  is  a  hope  of 
recovery.  When  this  hoiie  fails,  a  hut  is  built  in  the  wilderness  or  a  circle 
of  stones  is  formed  to  represent  one:  the  sick  person  is  placed  in  it,  and 
his  nearest  relatives  or  the  members  of  his  kraal  put  him  to  death.  The 
act  is  accompanied  by  religious  ceremonies,  and,  whether  on  account  of 
the  religious  hopes  mingled  with  it  or  because  of  the  force  of  custom,  it 
is  expected  and  acquiesced  in  by  the  victims  themselves.  This  custom, 
as  well  as  the  manner  of  casting  out  children  and  the  care  with  which  the 
after-birth  and  the  blood  of  a  parturient  woman  are  buried,  is  founded  in 
fear  of  the  souls  of  the  dying  and  of  the  spirits  that  live  in  blood. 

Maturity. — Youths  before  reception  into  the  community  of  men  must 
first  be  made  men,  on  which  occasion  that  unclean  ceremony  which  we 
ha\c  mentioned  (p.  ^i^^i)  is  again  a  main  factor;  at  the  same  time  offerings 


300  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

are  made.  Among  the  Bushmen  of  the  !Karri-!Karri  Desert,  who  wear 
the  nose-phig,  the  nose  is  pierced  at  the  time  of  manhood.  The  women 
are  considered  unclean  during  the  period  of  menstruation,  but,  on  the 
whole,  they  are  not  badly  treated  among  the  better-situated  tribes,  and 
they  even  allay  quarrels  among  the  men.  They  are  treated  worse  among 
the  more  barbarous  tribes  of  the  Hottentots  and  by  the  Bushmen.  Among 
the  Hottentots  widows  are  permitted  to  marry,  but  they  must  then  ampu- 
tate one  joint  of  a  finger  (the  little  finger  first).  This  loss  is  probably 
endured  also  voluntarily  ou  other  occasions;  for  instance,  as  an  oflering 
to  bring  health  to  sick  persons. 

Inheritance. — Daughters  do  not  inherit;  at  the  most  they  receive  pres- 
ents at  their  marriage.  The  oldest  son  inherits  everything.  The  younger 
brothers  receive  presents  only,  and  continue  dependent  on  the  oldest,  whom 
they  assist  in  hunting  and  on  the  pasture,  and  in  return  are  sustained  by 
him,  as  is  also  the  widowed  mother.  Still,  it  was  the  younger  brothers 
who  as  a  rule  sought  service  among  the  Dutch,  although  this  service  was 
far  more  severe  than  that  of  their  own  family. 

Governmott. — First  the  father,  and  next  the  oldest  brother,  enjoy  patri- 
archal power  within  the  family,  and  on  this  form  of  family  life  their  con- 
stitution is  based.  Each  kraal  has  its  "captain,"  whose  dignity  is  heredi- 
tary; the  tribes  also  have  their  superiors,  on  whom  the  captains  are 
dependent,  and  who  are  commanders-in-chief  and  supreme  judges.  No 
exterior  decoration  distinguishes  the  chief;  there  are  no  different  ranks, 
nor  are  there  slaves,  for  the  pastoral  life  of  the  Hottentots  has  created 
perfect  liberty  and  equality  among  them. 

Lazvs. — According  to  law  also  they  are  equals.  Accidental  murder 
can  be  atoned  by  presents.  Adultery,  murder,  and  theft  are  punished 
with  death:  the  captain  assembles  the  kraal,  and  the  accused  is  per- 
mitted to  defend  himself,  but  when  found  guilty  the  captain  strikes 
the  first  blow  in  order  to  kill  him,  and  this  blow  generally  makes  others 
unnecessary.  If  the  murderer  escapes,  he  is  an  outlaw,  for  blood-revenge 
prevails.  The  petty  quarrels  of  the  Hottentots  are  generally  settled 
among  themselves  by  cudgelling. 

Wars. — Wars  are  occasioned  by  violations  of  boundary,  and  are  carried 
on  with  zeal  and  in  open  battles,  which  are  conducted  by  the  captain, 
who  gives  the  signal  for  beginning  and  for  terminating  them.  Generally 
the  combatants  quickly  take  to  flight.  They  do  not  take  captives,  but 
kill  whomsoever  they  overtake  either  in  battle  or  in  flight;  wholesale 
slaughter  and  massacres  are  not  usual.  After  a  battle  both  parties  sol- 
emnly inter  their  dead. 

Funeral  Ceremonies. — Funerals  are  accompanied  by  loud  howling  and 
lamentations,  which  begin  as  soon  as  the  sick  person's  ca.se  is  deemed 
hopeless.  The  corpse  is  placed  in  a  sitting  posture,  the  elbows  on  the 
knees  and  the  head  resting  ou  both  hands,  this  being  the  usual  mode  of 
sitting,  especially  on  solemn  occasions.  The  interment  occurs  very  soon 
after  death,  and  is  made  in  a  cave,  to  which  the  whole  kraal,  howling 


ETHXOGRAPFIY.  301 

and  with  passionate  gestures  of  grief,  bring  the  body.  The  deceased  is  not 
removed  from  his  hut  through  tlie  ordinary'  door,  but  a  special  opening  is 
made  in  the  rear  wall,  probably  from  the  idea  that  he  is  thereby  prevented 
from  returning — a  custom  which  we  have  also  seen  to  exist  in  other  parts 
of  the  globe  (p.  224). 

When  the  corpse  is  interred  and  the  grave  securely  closed,  the  mourn- 
ers return  to  the  hut  and  squat  in  a  circle,  while  the  elder  of  the  village 
sprinkles  all,  men  and  women,  with  his  urine  and  strews  over  them  ashes 
from  the  hearth  of  the  deceased.  Friends  then  bring  sheep  to  be 
slaughtered,  and  the  eldest  son  of  the  deceased  wears  about  his  neck 
a  part  of  the  entrails,  sprinkled  with  buchu,  until  they  rot  off.  Who- 
ever has  no  sheep  to  be  killed  shaves  his  hair,  both  as  an  offering  and 
as  a  sign  of  mourning,  in  such  manner  that  the  crown  and  a  broad  cir- 
cular stripe  in  the  midst  of  the  hair  are  bare.  The  next  day  the  whole 
kraal  is  taken  down  and  transferred  to  another  location,  only  the  house  of 
the  deceased  being  left,  so  as  not  to  anger  his  ghost,  and  the  lamentations 
are  repeated  before  the  house  for  six  or  eight  days.  The  manner  of  burial 
among  the  Bushmen  is  similar:  they  also  leave  the  place  of  death,  but 
they  burn  the  hut  of  the  departed.  Both  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  have 
great  fear  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead. 

Religious  Belief:  Deities  and  Myths. — It  was  a  serious  error  to  assume 
that  neither  the  Hottentots  nor  the  Bushmen  had  a  belief  in  deities.  Both 
are  markedly  religious  peoples,  but  their  conceptions  are  not  clearly  defined 
or  are  not  understood  by  us,  and  at  the  time  of  the  discover^'  they  were  no 
longer  understood  by  themselves.  The  supreme  god  of  the  Hottentots 
was  Tsui-]|goab,  and  it  is  an  evidence  of  his  former  importance  that  his 
worship  was  adopted  by  the  Caffirs  (Vanderkemp  and  Moffat).  He  brought 
men  from  heaven  down  to  earth,  and  gave  them  all  that  is  good.  He  rules 
over  everything,  and  consequently  bears  the  name  of  ruler,  Tsui-|!goab. 
He  is  undoubtedly  a  personification  of  the  vault  of  heaven,  as  among  the 
Nama  there  is  also  found  a  myth  about  the  great  flood  and  the  .ship  of 
clouds  which  brings  white  people  and  rich  blessings.  But  the  veneration 
of  this  god  was  afterward  put  in  the  background,  as  the  whole  conception 
of  him  was  indistinct,  and  later  he  was  looked  upon  merely  as  a  powerful 
man  or  a  wandering  chieftain. 

The  Bushmen  also  believed  in  a  masculine  deity  abiding  in  heaven  who 
gives  all  that  is  good,  and  especially  victory,  and  whom  they  therefore  wor- 
shipped by  dances  before  every  war.  They  feared  an  evil  deity,  whom,  accord- 
ing to  Kolbe,  they  venerated  more  than  Tsui-|!goab,  and  who  takes  a  part 
in  many  of  the  myths.  The  San  believed  in  a  subterranean  deity.  The 
moon  was  highly  venerated,  and  the\-  honored  her  by  nocturnal  dances 
and  songs,  which  were  plaintive  at  the  new  moon,  but  joyous  at  the  full 
moon.  The  mortality  of  men  was  associated  with  tJie  moon:  the  moon 
ordered  the  hare  to  tell  men  liow  she  herself  dies  and  again  ari.scs,  and 
that  they  .should  do  likewise,  Ijut  the  hare  omitted  communicating  the 
news  of  the  resurrection,  and  therefore  man  must  die. 


302  ETHXOGRAPHY. 

Whether  we  must  recognize  in  the  often-mentioned  hero  Heitsi-Eibib, 
who  continually  dies  and  comes  to  life,  whose  graves,  large  heaps  of 
stone,  no  Hottentot  passes  by  without  adding  another  stone,  and  who  is 
also  represented  as  purely  human, — whether  we  must  recognize  in  him  a 
personification  of  the  moon  or  of  the  sun  we  leave  an  open  question.  He 
appears  as  an  independent  deity  who  brings  blessings;  and  he  fights  with 
the  hostile  |iGa  ||Garip,  who  casts  him  into  a  dark  ditch,  from  which  he 
always  returns,  and  into  which  he  at  length  casts  his  enemy.  A  cave 
is  also  shown  as  his  dwelling.  In  one  myth  he  calls  the  water  his 
grandfather's  father,  and  everywhere  the  water-god  was  venerated;  the 
Bushmen  knew  him  by  the  name  of  Tu-sip,  made  offerings  to  him  when 
searching  for  water,  and  implored  him  for  blessings;  and  no  Hottentot 
will  cross  a  river  without  honoring  him  with  dances  and  other  ceremonies. 

Spirits. — The  number  of  inferior  spirits  is  large.  The  stars  receive 
peculiar  veneration,  especially  the  Pleiades,  the  Milky  Way,  Jupiter, 
the  Southern  Cross,  etc.,  about  which  the  Hottentots  and  the  Bushmen 
relate  many  tales.  They  also  venerate  the  large  animals  of  the  chase, 
especially  lions,  elephants,  etc.  If  a  Hottentot  has  killed  any  such,  he 
must  undergo  a  religious  purification;  and  the  same  becomes  necessary 
for  the  whole  kraal  if  they  have  slain  several  while  hunting  together. 
No  Bushman  dares  utter  the  lion's  name  aloud  at  night;  even  during 
the  day  he  avoids  pronouncing  it,  and  in  its  place  says  "the  boy  with 
the  beard"  or  uses  some  similar  periphrasis.  We  have  already  spoken 
about  the  hare  (p.  298),  and  in  this  connection  we  may  mention  the  vari- 
ous prohibitions  of  food  found  among  these  tribes.  One  tribe  is  for- 
bidden to  eat  this  animal,  another  that;  and  this  custom  is  certainly 
founded  on  the  fact  that  the  tribes  see  in  these  animals  respectively  their 
guardian  spirits. 

The  well-known  veneration  which  the  Hottentots  bestow  on  an  insect 
(a  red-and-green  grasshopper),  as  also  on  any  person  on  whom  it  may  have 
alighted,  is  striking.  According  to  analogy  with  other  peoples  who  have 
the  same  custom,  they  recognize  in  this  winged  chirping  insect  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  soul  of  some  ancestor,  who  returns  as  a  guardian  spirit ;  it 
converts  the  person  on  whom  it  alights  into  a  prophet  and  saint,  and  he, 
in  order  to  become  again  an  ordinar}-  mortal,  must  release  himself  by 
offerings.  But  the  souls  also  go  about  as  hostile  demons,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  and  the  Hottentots  have  the  greatest  fear  of  them,  espe- 
cially of  the  ghosts  of  children,  because  these  are  believed  to  be  the  most 
malicious  and  dangerous.  These  souls  enter  into  human  bodies,  some- 
times attracted  by  magic,  and  cause  diseases. 

Superstitions. — The  Koi-Koin  have  innumerable  superstitions,  as  is 
proved  by  their  ejaculations  at  sneezing,  by  their  amulets  which  they 
consult  before  undertaking  anything  important,  and  by  other  customs. 
It  is  also  remarkable  that  they  have  a  complete  taboo  law,  such  as  we 
have  found  in  Polynesia  (p.  200)  and  indeed  almost  everywhere.  To  this 
belongs  the  distinction  made  between  men  and  women,  and  the  law  that 


ETUXOCRAPIIY.  303 

whoever  touches  anything  sacred  or  comes  in  contact  with  a  corpse,  etc. 
must  be  purified. 

Their  manner  of  sacrifice  offers  nothing  of  interest;  they  pra}'  much 
with  short  invocations,  and  especially  do  honor  to  the  gods  by  dances  and 
songs.  They  have  neither  idols  nor  temples,  iinless  the  Heitsi-Eibib 
graves  be  considered  such;  but  they  regard  the  mountain-summits  as 
sacred,  and  pray  there  or  at  places  where  they  have  experienced  some 
favor,  have  been  saved  from  some  danger,  etc. 

They  use  other  remedies  besides  magic  in  case  of  sickness;  they  prac- 
tise cupping  by  means  of  smoothly-cut  cows'  horns,  also  bleeding,  and 
have  a  number  of  medicines,  mostly  derived  from  plants,  which  they 
apply  internally  and  externally.  They  have  a  remedy  for  the  bites  of 
poisonous  snakes,  and  the  feats  of  their  poison-doctors,  who  themselves 
manage  to  escape  being  bitten  by  the  snakes,  are  said  to  be  astonishing. 
When  they  are  in  good  health,  music  and  dancing  constitute  their  prin- 
cipal pleasures. 

Musical  Insfniitiru/s. — Their  musical  instruments  consist  of  a  kind  of 
kettledrum  and  the  remarkable  gorali  (gom-gom),  which  is  a  wooden  bow 
strung  with  a  thick  gut  string;  they  blow  upon  the  latter  through  a 
feather  quill  at  the  end  of  the  bow.  To  make  the  sound  stronger  they 
fasten  under  the  string  a  cocoanut-shell,  the  cavity  of  which  serves  as  a 
sounding-board.  Their  singing  is  plain,  but  correct,  and  they  have  a  good 
musical  ear  and  memory. 

Dances,  etc. — Their  dances,  which  they  mostly  accompany  with  songs 
and  the  clapping  of  hands,  are  of  different  kinds;  generally  they  dance 
singly  or  in  couples,  taking  turns,  but  always  within  a  circle  of  .squatting 
and  singing  spectators.  Originally  all  the  dances  probably  had  a  religions 
meaning.  The  drawings  of  the  Bushmen  which  they  put  on  rocks  in 
white,  red,  or  black  colors  generally  represent  animals,  and  are  in  correct 
proportions  and  easily  recognized.  Furthennore,  the  Koi-Koin  are  given 
to  narration,  and  while  their  lyric  effusions  are  insignificant,  their  fables 
and  fairy-tales,  many  of  which  they  have  adopted  from  foreign  nations, 
are  not  poor,  although  they  contain  much  that  is  fantastic. 

Culture. — We  have  now  sketched  a  picture  of  these  peoples,  and  we 
must  confess  that  not  even  the  Bushmen  occupy  so  low  a  position  as  is 
generally  supposed.  On  the  contrary,  we  must  believe  them  to  be  a 
highly-gifted  and  well-developed  race,  who  have  proved  themselves  able 
to  adopt  European  culture  where  it  has  been  seriously  presented;  nay, 
they  are  superior  to  nuiny  of  tlie  immigrants. 

Character. — Neither  is  their  character  bad.  They  arc  indeed  lazy, 
especially  the  men,  and  very  averse  to  steady  work.  Their  long  habit  of 
not  working  is  not  the  only  cause  of  this;  they  also  consider  work  a  dis- 
grace and  a  species  of  slavery,  and  have  often  told  the  Europeans  this  in 
sophistically  .shrewd  reasoning.  However,  their  laziness  has  been  exag- 
gerated. That  they  had  no  de.sire  to  be  industrious  fi>r  the  benefit  of  the 
Europeans  is  easily  understood  from  tlie  manner  in  which  the  latter  often 


304  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

deceived  them  or  maltreated  them.  Still,  the  diligence  of  the  Hot- 
tentot servants  of  many  missions  and  the  excellence  of  the  men  as 
soldiers  show  that  their  indolence  can  be  overcome  by  reasonable  treat- 
ment. In  their  own  free  life  both  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  are  zealous 
in  work,  as  in  housebuilding,  attending  to  animals,  hunting,  etc. 

At  present  they  are  much  addicted  to  liquor,  and  they  always  have  had 
a  great  liking  for  stimulants  (dacha).  But  they  are  perfectly  honest — or 
at  least  were  so — and  even  when  goods  had  been  paid  for  beforehand  no 
fraud  was  practised  on  their  side.  They  are  hospitable  and  good-natured, 
live  peacefully  together,  and  are  decent,  truthful,  and  trusting.  The  Hot- 
tentots have  an  earnest,  sedate  disposition,  often  changed,  however,  into 
indolence  and  indifference. 

Both  tribes,  Hottentots  as  well  as  Bushmen,  have  a  sense  of  personal 
dignity,  and  they  have  become  civilized  only  where  they  have  been 
respectfully  treated.  The  Bushmen  are  livelier  than  the  Hottentots,  but 
both  are  equally  hannless.  They  all  enjoy  social  entertainments,  dan- 
cing, and  singing.  Their  filth  is  indeed  repulsive,  and  the  fragmentary 
tribes  especially  have  sunk  into  the  grossest  barbarity. 

Considering  their  treatment  by  the  Europeans,  nothing  else  could  have 
been  expected.  Their  country  was  taken  from  them,  they  themselves 
were  made  slaves,  the  Bushmen  were  hunted  like  wild  animals  by  the 
Dutch  and  English,  the  missionaries  were  kept  from  them  by  force  or 
hindered  and  injured  in  every  possible  manner;  and  it  is  indeed  more 
surprising  that  we  still  find  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  than  that  we  meet 
with  vagabonds  and  drunkards  among  them.  The  missionaries  were 
not  able  to  penetrate  everywhere,  owing  to  the  rascality  of  the  other 
Europeans,  but  where  they  did  establish  themselves  they  gradually  pro- 
duced good  results. 

Linguistics. — The  linguistic  conditions  of  this  South- African  race  are 
remarkable.  The  languages  of  the  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  are  indeed 
related,  but,  according  to  Bleek,  not  more  closely  than  the  Latin  and  the 
English.  The  dialects  of  the  Bushmen  are  less  developed  than  the  Hot- 
tentot idioms,  the  latter  being  very  numerous.  The  relationship  of  both 
these  languages  is  seen,  first,  in  the  uniformity  of  the  peculiar  clucking 
sounds  which  we  have  already  mentioned  (p.  291);  second,  in  the  number 
of  common  verbal  roots,  in  which  of  course  whatever  is  merely  borrowed 
is  not  included  (Bleek);  thirdly,  in  the  numerous  similarities  in  gram- 
matical details;  and,  finally,  in  the  uniformity  of  their  fundamental  con- 
struction. 

The  roots  are  monosyllabic;  the  relations  of  words  are  indicated  by 
certain  suflfi.xes,  many  of  which  are  alike  in  both  languages.  There  is  a 
precise  distinction  of  form  between  the  noun  and  the  verb;  no  verbal  root 
can  be  used  as  a  noun,  and  it  can  become  one  only  by  means  of  suflixes. 
Uniformities  are  also  seen  in  the  formation  of  pronouns:  both  languages 
fonn  an  exclusive  and  an  inclusive  plural;  both  have  many  pronominal 
roots  in  common;  and  both  employ  them  in  the  formation  of  suffi.xes. 


ETILXOCRAPIIY.  305 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Hottentot  languajTe  prcpcr\-es  throughout 
three  genders,  whicli  are  entirely  absent  in  the  Bushman  dialects.  Tl.e 
latter  indicate  the  distinctions  between  animate  and  inanimate  objects, 
and  in  this  respect  have  remained  on  an  earlier  grade  of  culture;  the  Hot- 
tentot tongue  also  exhibits  this  conception.  This  is  indeed  a  decisive  dif- 
ference, which  is  of  greatest  influence  on  the  rest  of  the  language,  on  the 
formation  of  pronouns,  etc.  But,  as  in  other  languages,  the  grammatical 
gender  has  developed  only  at  a  late  period,  and  only  from  the  conception 
of  animate  and  inanimate  things;  and  as  this  latter  distinction  is  still 
shown  decisively  in  the  Hottentot  language,  we  are  justified  (though  there 
are  many  undeniable  relations  between  the  two  families  of  languages)  in 
looking  upon  the  grammatical  gender  of  the  tongue  of  the  Hottentots  as 
having  originated  at  a  later  period,  after  their  separation  from  the  Bushmen, 
and  in  consideringthe  difiercnt  expressions  for  animate  and  inanimate  objects 
as  having  been  original  and  common  to  both  langiiages.  The  following  is 
another  evidence:  The  Bushman  tongue,  besides  various  suffixes,  applies 
reduplicatiou  in  various  manners  for  the  formation  of  plurals,  here  also 
retaining  the  most  ancient  form.  For  although  this  manner  of  forming 
the  plural  is  not  now  used  in  the  Hottentot  language,  still  the  fonu  koi- 
koi-b^  for  instance,  is,  in  spite  of  the  singular  sufiix,  of  similar  fonnation. 

2.  The  B-a-ntu  Peoples. 

Languages. — The  languages  of  all  the  peoples  whom  we  comprise 
under  th.e  name  of  Bantu  are  remarkable  and  easily  recognized.  Bleek 
calls  them  "prefix-pronominal  languages,"  and  in  that  characterizes  them 
accurately.  Everything  must  accord  with  the  noun  or  principal  idea. 
The  substantives  are  divided  into  various  classes,  all  designated  by  cer- 
tain prefixes  of  pronominal  origin:  thus,  in  Otshi-herero,  the  prefi.x  »iu 
signifies  a  single  person,  va  a  number  of  persons;  another  prefix  signifies 
plants,  still  another  animals,  utensils,  etc.  Next,  a  concordance  exists 
between  the  attribute  and  predicate  and  the  prefix  of  the  principal 
substantive,  all  taking  a  similar  prefix;  thus,  according  to  Bleek,  in 
the  Zulu  tongue,  ^U-bu-kod  '^b-etu  ^o-bu-'kulu  * bu-ya-bouakala  ^ si-bu- 
laiida — that  is,  ""Our  ^great  'kingdom  ^appears,  we  'love  it."  /?//  signi- 
fies abstract  words;  and  in  order  to  indicate  that  the  pronoun  "our,"  ctu, 
relates  to  this  word,  it  takes  the  like  prefix,  b-ctu;  kulu  is  large,  but  in 
relation  to  a  word  with  the  prefix  bu  it  becomes  o-bu-kii/u,  in  which  case 
tlie  rt  as  well  as  the  ;/  in  u-bu-kosi  is  an  article-like  prefix;  in  the  .same 
manner  the  syllable  bu  is  j^laced  before  the  adjective  verb,  bu-ya-bouakala, 
"  is  appearing;"  and  in  the  next  word  bu  takes  the  place  of  the  noun  in 
an  objective  form.  Moods  and  ten.ses  of  the  verb  are  formed  by  prefixes 
or  by  .suffixes;  there  is  no  distinct  difference  between  verbal  ar.d  nominal 
roots,  at  least  not  everywhere. 

The  above  are  the  fundamental  traits  of  all  Bantu  languages,  but  only 
rarely  is  the  uniformity  carried  out  as  rigidly  as  in  our  example. 

Very  often  the  prefix  of  a  class  takes  the  place  of  a  certain  other  word 

Vol.  I.— 20 


3o6  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

with  the  verb.  Thus,  iu  this  sentence  of  the  Suaheli  language  (Steere), 
*  Yule  - ki-yana  '^a-ka-fitta  *u-paiiga  ^iv-akc — that  is,  "  '  This  -youth  '^drew 
'his  ^sword" — ki  in  ki-yana  is.  the  sign  of  the  first  class  of  substantives, 
which  signifies  living  beings;  a  in  a-ka-futa  is  the  sign  of  the  third  person 
which  conies  before  the  verb  when  the  subject  is  a  noun  of  the  first 
class;  /-^signifies  the  past  tense;  y^/^?,  to  draw.  In  u-panga,  it  indicates 
a  noun  of  the  seventh  class,  which  signifies  utensils;  also  the  u'-{u)  iu 
w-akc,  his. 

Se-suto  is  the  language  of  the  Basiilo,  one  individual  of  whom  is  called 
Mo-suio;  0-mu-herero^  one  of  the  O-va-hereros;  their  language  is  called 
Otshi-hcrcro  (Bleek).  Thus  one  can  draw  an  outline  of  all  these  languages, 
and  can  also  explain  the  apparently  changing  name  of  one  and  the  same 
tribe.  Bleek  calls  the  whole  race  the  Ba-nlii  tribe,  because  the  syllable 
ba  {»ia,  va)  always  precedes  the  names  of  these  nations,  indicating  the 
plural;  ba-tt/u  in  the  language  of  the  Cafiirs  signifies  "people,  persons." 

Classification. — According  to  Bleek,  the  whole  family  of  the  Bantu  is 
divided  into — 

1.  The  Sonth-easicrn  branch,  which  includes  the  Caffirs  (A-ma-kosa, 
Ama-pondo,  Fingos,  Zulus),  next  the  Tckcca  tribes  (]\Ia-tongo  and  others), 
and  finally  the  Betchuanas  (Basuto,  Barolong,  I\IaV:ololo,  etc.),  and  is 
bounded  by  the  Limpopos,  only  the  Makololo  extending  iu  the  interior 
as  far  as  the  Zambesi. 

2.  The  Eastern  division,  which  comprises  first  of  all  the  tribes  as  far 
as  Cape  Delgado;  the  inhabitants  of  the  Sofala  coast,  the  Afakiias,  the 
inhabitants  of  Quilimane,  Mozambique,  and  Kisanga;  in  the  interior 
the  Maravi,  the  Barotse,  and  the  tribes  around  Lake  Nyassa;  farther  to 
the  north  the  Wanyamwezi^  the  Balunda.,  and  the  Moluas;  and  finall\- 
the  northern  group  of  the  Siiahelis  around  Zanzibar,  the  Tsliagas,  and 
other  tribes  farther  to  the  north. 

3.  The  IVesterji  division,  which  is  formed  by  the  Hereros  {t\\t.  Damaras 
of  the  plain),  the  Ovanipii,  the  population  of  Benguela  and  Angola 
(Bunda  nations),  as  also  by  the  Congo  tribes  and  the  Mpongwe. 

4.  The  North-western  branch,  which  includes  the  nations  from  the 
Gaboon  to  the  Cameroon  Mountains  and  the  Niger  Delta,  the  Dikclis,  the 
Bcngas^  Isiibus,  Duallas,  and  the  Ediyahs  on  the  island  of  Fernando 
Po. 

Our  illustrations  show  individuals  of  the  South-eastern  branch,  Plate 
84  {figs.  1-7),  Basuto;  and  Plate  83  {fig.  i),  Plate  85  {fig.  6,  7,  9),  Zulus; 
of  the  Eastern  branch.  Plates  87,  88,  89,  Suahelis,  Tshagas,  and  Kambas 
(the  latter  two  tribes  dwelling  to  the  north  and  north-west  of  the  first- 
named);  the  Ma-bongu  (Mbongu),  the  Mukomanga,  and  the  I\Ia-Nyassa 
(that  is,  inhabitants  of  Lake  Nyassa),  the  latter  of  which  belong  to  the 
^L1kua  {pi.  87,  figs.  2,  3,  4,  5;  pi  88,  fig.  2;  pi.  89,  figs.  8,  9,  13).  The 
Wanyamwezi  (Monomoezi,  Uuiamoezi),  to  the  north  of  Lake  Nyassa  and 
east  of  Lake  Tanganyika  {pi.  87,  fig.  i),  are  closely  related  to  the  Ma- 
Nyassa.     Mozambique  Negroes  are  seen  on  Plate  86  {figs.  18,  19,  20);  to 


ETHNOCRAPIIY.  307 

these  are  related  the  Manganyas,  who  have  their  seats  in  the  interior  ofF 
the  coast  of  Mozambique  {pi.  89,  figs,  i,  2,  6).  The  ilhistrations  on 
Plate  89  {Jigs.  3,  5,  6)  also  relate  to  the  Eastern  tribes,  Figure  3  to  the 
Suahelis,  while  the  Benguela  and  Congo  Negroes  of  Cabinda  (//.  <^,Jigs. 
1-5,  8)  are  representatives  of  the  Western  branch. 

Similarity  of  Tribes. — The  comparatively  great  similarity  exhibited 
within  this  widespread  family  is  striking.  The  inhabitants  of  Mozam- 
bique are  in  language  so  much  like  the  Congo  and  the  Angola  Negroes 
that  the  assertion  that  they  can  easily  understand  one  another  seems 
probable.  Physically  also  we  find  such  great  resemblance  among  these 
tribes  that  one  description  will  apply  to  them  all;  and  indeed  our  plates 
show  at  once  this  universal  similarit}'. 

Intertnixturcs. — In  our  description  we  must  take  into  consideration  the 
numerous  mixed  forms  which  occur  at  the  boundaries  of  this  district;  for 
example,  in  the  south  between  the  Caffirs  and  Betchuanas  on  the  one  hand, 
and  on  the  other  between  the  Hottentots  and  Bushmen,  and  in  the  east 
between  the  nations  of  the  coast  and  the  Arabians.  Thus  the  father  of 
the  Suaheli  family  on  Plate  87  {fig.  3)  shows  this  Arabian  influence  by 
liis  strong  beard  (comp.  //.  88,  y?"-.  i).  It  is  natural  that  toward  the  north- 
west intermixtures  with  Negroes  should  have  taken  place,  but  to  attribute 
the  black  color  of  the  Bantu  peoples  to  an  intermingling  with  Negroes, 
as  has  been  recently  done,  is  clearly  incorrect.  Negro  slaves  have  not 
nnfrequently  intermingled  with  individuals  of  the  different  Bantu  tribes, 
but  such  intermixtures,  as  well  as  others  with  Indian  merchants,  are  only 
single  cases  which  could  ha\-e  no  effect  upon  the  entire  people.  The 
influence  of  the  Europeans  in  this  direction  is  of  greater  importance;  and 
of  still  more  importance  is  that  of  the  Malays,  who  have  frequently  come 
to  the  eastern  coast,  and  of  late  also  to  the  Cape,  but  they  have  not  eflfected 
a  change  of  the  whole  type. 

Physical  Characteristics:  Stature  and  Form. — The  stature  of  all  the 
Bantu  tribes  is  of  middle  .size  or  larger,  and  a  height  of  180  centimetres 
(70.87  inches)  or  more  is  not  uncommon.  A  lofty  stature  and  well-devel- 
oped muscles  are  rarely  found,  and  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  are  brittle; 
the  rump  is  generally  too  long,  the  limbs  too  thin,  and  the  calves  not 
developed  (//.  83,  fig.  6;  //.  84,  fig.  7;  pi.  85,  fig.  9;  pi.  89,  fig.  13). 
Hands  and  feet  are  small  and  graceful,  but  the  latter  are  often  poorly 
arched  and  have  a  greatly  projecting  heel.  The  pelvis  is  narrow,  the 
chest  uniformly  prominent,  and  consequently  the  upper  part  of  the  body 
is  ugly  and  square  {pi.  8%  figs.  9,  13).  The  spinal  column  is  often  much 
curved  anteriorly,  and  as  the  pelvis  (according  to  Fritsch  among  the 
vSouthcrn  branch,  comp.  //.  89,  fig.  8)  is  curved  toward  the  front,  the 
buttocks  and  the  knees  frequently  project;  the  ugly  shape  of  the  foot  may 
also  come  from  this.  The  women  have  a  tendency  to  corpulence  {pi.  8g, 
fig.  8);  the  breasts  of  the  girls  arc  globular  and  erect  (//.  S,[,fig.  4;  pi. 
89,  fig.  5),  those  of  the  women  flabby,  often  hanging  low  down  (//.  89, 
fig.  8);  the  entire  ring  of  the  nipples  is  elevated,  and  not  the  nipples 


3o8  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

alotie.  Ti;e  muscular  strength  is  not  great;  the  senses  are  acute,  and  the 
body  is  capable  of  continued  exertion. 

Color. — The  color  of  the  Southern  branch  is  mostly  a  dark  brown, 
which  on  the  one  hand  is  shaded  into  black,  and  on  the  other  hand  modi- 
fied to  a  leather-brown.  But  this  light  coloring,  as  well  as  the  very  dark 
hue,  occurs  comparatively  rarely.  According  to  Fritsch,  the  dark  color 
prevails  among  the  Betchuanas.  Livingstone,  however,  found  only  the 
inhabitants  of  the  mountains  to  be  of  a  darker  color,  and  in  general  he 
met  with  a  lighter  tint,  a  light  brown  or  bronze — which  frequently  occurs 
among  the  Zulus — but  never  a  real  black.  We  notice  that  the  same  colors 
are  found  in  the  east  as  for  as  the  Equator. 

The  natives  of  ]Mozambique  (/>/.  86,  figs.  i8,  19,  20)  exhibit  a  light 
black,  which  by  a  reddish  tint  passes  over  into  a  copper  color;  other  tribes, 
as  many  of  the  Sualielis  (//.  Sj,figs.  2,  4)  and  some  Tshaga  tribes  {/>/. 
88,  fig.  2),  are  of  a  faint  to  dark  black  color  or  brown  to  yellow.  So  also 
in  the  west  the  Hereros  are  partly  reddish-brown,  and  in  part  so  dark 
that  they  must  be  called  black;  generally  they  are  of  a  dull  iron-gray, 
which  is  frequently  seen  a:nong  the  Benguela  Negroes  (/>/.  go,  figs.  4, 
5)  and  the  other  western  tribes.  Dark  black  and  brown  tribes  and 
individuals  are  also  not  rarely  seen  among  them.  The  skin,  which  is 
rather  thick  and  has  a  tendency  to  WTinkle,  especially  in  the  south,  has 
a  disagreeable  odor,  the  smell  of  which  is  compared  by  Fritsch  to  that  of 
butyric  acid. 

Hair. — The  hair  of  the  body,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  charac- 
ter of  the  skin,  is  very  scant,  down  being  entirely  absent:  it  frequently 
grows  in  disconnected  bunches  (/>/.  90,  fig.  8),  as  does  also  that  of  the 
head  and  beard ;  but  among  some  tribes  and  individuals  it  is  thickly 
matted.  The  beard  grows  only  about  the  chin  and  mouth  (//.  84,  figs. 
5,  6),  and  even  there  is  rarely  abundant.  The  hair  of  the  head,  black  by 
natxire,  is  mostly  short,  as  is  shown  by  our  illustrations,  and  that  of  the 
women  is  shorter  than  tliat  of  the  men  or  grows  in  separate  long,  frizzy, 
spiral  strings  (/>/.  84,  fig.  i ;  pi.  90,  fig.  4).  It  is  worn  differently  by  the 
different  nations,  often  in  a  very  grotesque  manner,  which  is  produced 
by  shaving,  braiding,  matting,  etc.  Plate  83  {fig.  4),  Plate  86  {fig.  19), 
Plate  89  {figs.  I,  9,  13)  show  shaved  heads  0:1  which  at  some  spots  the 
hair  has  been  allowed  to  remain. 

The  national  head-dress  of  the  Zulus  (//.  85,  fig.  9),  which  is  allowed 
only  to  the  men,  is  peculiar:  the  hair  is  shaved  with  the  exception  of 
a  narrow  vertex  ring,  and  this,  pasted  with  mucilage,  grows  into  a  kind 
of  crown.  Plate  87  {fiig.  i)  shows  a  still  more  grotesque  and  troubleson;e 
hair-arrangement.  The  married  women  of  South  Africa  arrange  their 
hair  in  a  manner  shown  by  the  partially  shaved  head  of  the  woman  on 
Plate  89  {fig.  i\  with  this  exception,  that  the  bunch  of  hair  which  is 
allowed  to  remain  is  here  not  on  the  forehead,  but  at  the  highest  point 
of  the  vertex. 

Skull-Fonnation. — The  Bantu  skull,  the  bones  of  which  are   strong 


ETIIXOCRAPHY.  309 

and  thick,  exhibits  many  peculiarities ;  it  deviates  from  the  Hotten- 
tot skull  in  being  narrow  and  hiyh,  and  is  not  flat,  thus  resembling 
the  Negro  skull.  The  development  of  length  is  plainly  shown  in  the 
top  view  (//.  85,  fig.  4;  comp.  pi.  82,  Jig.  9,  and  pi.  89,  fig.  11);  but 
on  comparing  the  front  view  of  the  Betchuana  skull  {pi.  ?>2i,fg-  3)  with 
the  Hottentot  skull  (//.  82,  fg.  8)  the  greater  height  of  the  former  is 
easily  seen. 

The  lower  jaw  is  broader  than  that  of  the  Hottentot,  and  there  is 
greater  development  of  the  teeth,  the  jaws  projecting  far  less  (//.  82, 
fg.  11;  pi.  85,  fg-  5),  although  a  slight  i)rognathism  cannot  be  mistaken 
(//.  2,fg.  12).  The  latter  illustration  shows  an  oj^en  space  between  the 
incisor  and  the  eye  teeth,  which  gap  often  occurs  in  prognathic  skull- 
formations.  The  ba.se  is  rather  even  (//.  2,  fg.  \2\  pi.  8^,  fg.  5).  The 
Bantu  skull  shows  a  decided  resemblance  to  the  Hottentot  skull  in  the 
breadth  of  the  space  between  the  ej'es,  in  the  small  development  of  the 
nose,  in  the  rather  straight  and  angular  forehead,  in  the  not  insignifi- 
cant development  of  the  frontal  bones,  and  in  the  strong  vertex. 

Features. — From  this  it  follows  that  the  faces  of  these  Southern  tribes 
must  have  many  resemblances  to  those  of  the  Hottentots.  The  nose  is 
pressed  in  at  the  root,  and  consequently  the  point  only  projects  from  the 
face  (comp.  //.  82,/^.  i;  pi.  8s,fgs.  i,  2,  y,  pi  87,  fg.  i;  //.  go,  fgs.  i, 
4);  it  is  thick  at  the  point,  broad  at  the  back  and  the  nostrils.  The 
mouth  is  large,  the  lips  thick  and  even  everted  (pi  84,  fgs.  i,  3,  5),  but 
the  face,  in  consequence  of  the  broader  lower  jaw,  is  broader  than  that  of 
the  Hottentot. 

The  eyes  are  full-sized,  brown,  generally  with  a  dull  yellowish  cornea, 
but  they  appear  small  because  the  lids  droop  as  though  pinched  together 
(//.  84,  fgs.  I,  3).  The  ears  are  large.  Of  course  the  different  tribes 
exhibit  many  dissimilarities,  as  is  shown  on  our  plates,  but  the  type, 
such  as  it  has  been  described  in  its  fundamental  traits,  is  widespread,  as 
Plate  86  {fg.  17),  Plate  87  {fg.  i),  Plate  88  {fg.  2),  Plate  89  {fgs.  8,  9, 
13),  Plate  go  {fgs.  I,  4,  etc.),  prove.  Deviations  for  the  better  consist 
principally  in  the  freer  development  of  the  eye  and  of  the  nose,  which 
projects  more,  especially  in  the  north,  and  c\cn  becomes  aquiline  {pi  83, 
A^''-''-  4.  5;  /"'■  86,  fgs.  19,  20;  //.  89,  fg.  2;  pi  90,  fgs.  2,  8,  although 
Creoles,  belong  to  the  Bantu  tribe). 

Disfgurations. — Piercing  the  ear-lobes  is  universally  practised  (for 
instance,//.  8\,  fg.  5;  pi  86,  fg.  17;  //.  8-],fg.  i;  //.  8g, fg.  13),  and 
.some  tribes  in  the  east  di.sfigure  the  lips  by  piercing  them  and  wearing  a 
large  ring  in  the  opening  (//.  89,7?^.  2).  This  ring  is  generally  an  orna- 
ment of  the  women  only,  and  is  laid  aside  in  case  of  mourning;  in  some 
places  it  is  worn  also  b\-  the  men.  In  the  east  tattooing  is  very  generally 
practised,  sometimes  over  the  whole  body  {pi.  8<),fg.  i),  but  mostly  only 
on  the  face  and  on  the  breast  (//.  8(\  fg.  20;  //.  89,  fgs.  2,  5,  6).  The 
designs  shown  by  our  illustrations  differ  somewhat  among  the  differ- 
ent  tribes,  but  on   the  whole  they  are  alike.     In  the  west  this  decora- 


3IO  ETIIXOGRAPHY. 

tion  of  the  skin  is  also  known  {pi.  (yi,  figs.  3,  S),  but  it  is  less  frequently 
practised  in  the  south,  where,  however,  the  women  scratch  a  few  lines  on 
their  cheeks,  forehead,  and  breast,  encircling  the  neck,  as  on  Plate  89 
{figs.  2,  5,  6). 

Some  tribes,  as  the  Batoka,  who  belong  to  the  Makololo,  knock  out 
the  upper  incisor  teeth  at  the  time  of  manhood;  others  file  them  to  a 
point;  others  break  them  into  various  shapes,  crescentic,  angular,  etc. 
The  Hereros  extract  two  or  all  four  of  the  lower  incisor  teeth  and  make 
triangular  holes  in  the  upper  ones.  Circumcision  of  the  boys  and  youths 
prevails  among  most  tribes,  but  not  among  the  Zulus. 

Costume. — The  original  attire  of  these  nations — which,  however,  now 
often  gives  way  to  the  European  (//.  84,  fig.  3)  and  in  the  east  to  the  Arabic 
{pi.  S'/,fig.  3;  //.  8S,fig.  i)— is  simple  and  in  its  main  character  imvary- 
ing.  In  the  south  the  Caffir  tribe  and  tlie  Amakosa  go  about  almost 
naked,  the  men  wearing  only  such  covering  as  is  worn  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Admiralty  Islands  (/>/.  11,  fig.  5);  but  instead  of  the  white  sliell 
they  have  an  embroidered  leather  bag  or  a  carved  fruit-shell,  and  they 
often  wear  a  belt  about  the  waist  as  a  decoration.  The  Betchuana  men 
wear  a  narrow  leather  girdle  drawn  between  the  legs  (//.  S.\,fig.  7),  as 
do  also  the  Zulus  {pi.  85,  figs.  6,  7),  but  the  latter  have  pieces  of  leather, 
of  skins,  etc.  hanging  from  it.  The  kaross  or  cloak  of  hides  is  here  also 
in  use,  not  always  worn  about  the  shoulders,  but  girded  about  the  waist 
(//.  S^^fig.  7;  pi.  S^,fig.  9,  the  standing  figure  to  the  right). 

The  women  generally  wear  only  a  scarf  {pi.  89,  fig.  i),  which  among 
the  Basuto  is  often  artistically  decorated  {pi.  84,  fig.  6);  the  married  ones 
wear  a  broader  one  over  it;  they  invariably  use  cloths  for  tying  down 
the  breasts  (pi.  89,  fig.  13;  comp.  //.  88,  fig.  2),  concealing  the  bod\-, 
or  carrying  the  children  (/>/.  83,  fig.  6).  They  sometimes  also  wear 
the  kaross,  which  has  among  the  Betchuanas  a  turned-down  collar  {pi. 
84,  fig.  4,  the  figures  in  the  background).  It  is  generally  of  tanned 
o.x-skin,  but  the  nobles  prefer  the  skins  of  wild  and  fierce  animals  (//. 
84,  figs.  5,  6).  A  leather  cap  for  the  women,  such  as  is  seen  on  Plate  87 
{fig.  4),  is  common;  it  varies  according  to  the  tribes:  among  the  Hereros 
it  is  supplied  with  two  long  erect  ears.  In  place  of  the  skins  of  domestic 
animals,  European  materials  are  now  much  used,  especially  cotton  goods, 
in  the  east. 

Decorations. — The  Bantu  nations  are  fond  of  finer}-.  They  wear  gayly- 
colored  chains  or  ribbons  in  the  hair  (in  the  south,  //.  84,  fig.  5;  east,  pi.  87, 
fig.  i;  west,  pi.' S2,  fig.  5),  chains  about  the  neck  from  which  amulets,  small 
tubes  with  antidotes  against  snake-bites  (Fritsch),  and  among  the  Betchuana 
tribes  short  daggers  in  richly-decorated  sheaths,  are  generally  suspended 
(/>/.  84,  figs.  I,  5,  6).  Both  men  and  women  wear  in  the  hair  pins  dec- 
orated with  glass  beads  {pi.  8g,fig.  2).  Necklaces  of  pierced  teeth  of  animals 
(such  as  are  on  the  leaping  warrior,  //.  S^,  fig.  9)  are  especially  precious; 
one  from  the  island  of  Fernando  Po  which  serves  as  an  amulet  is  shown 
on  Plate  92  {fig.  10).     Ivory  or  metal  rings  about  the  arms  are  frequently 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  3 1 1 

seen  {pi.  84,  figs.  4-7;  pi.  85,  fig.  9);  around  the  lower  leg  rings  of 
leather  {pi.  84,  fig.  5;  //.  85,  _/?»-.  g)  or  of  metal  (//.  84,  fig.  6)  or  strings 
of  beads  (//.  ^\.,fig.  4)  are  worn,  and  often  the  entire  leg  to  the  calf  is 
covered  with  them. 

The  warriors  have  particular  ornaments:  among  the  Caffirs  they  cover 
the  circle  of  hair  with  wood  and  put  soft  hanging  feathers  over  it  (//.  85, 
fig.  9,  the  standing  figure  to  the  right);  besides  which  the  projecting 
feather  of  a  species  of  crane  is  frequently  worn  as  a  warlike  ornament 
{pi.  84,  fig.  5;  //.  85,  fig.  6).  They  also  hang  upon  their  bodies  pieces 
of  skin,  especially  of  the  Angora  goat  (Fritsch,//.  85,  y?^.r.  6,  9),  and  other 
decorations  which  contrast  with  the  color  of  the  skin. 

The  ornameuts  of  the  Basuto  warrior  are  similar  {pi.  %\.^fig.  6).  Some- 
times the  kaross  of  the  women  is  supplied  with  a  cockade-like  decoration 
(//.  84,  yfo-.  4,  at  both  sides  below),  which  is  said  to  have  originally  apper- 
tained only  to  the  wives  of  elephant-slayers.  For  a  covering  of  the  feet 
sandals  or  a  rude  kind  of  shoe  are  sometimes  worn.  Fans  of  various 
shapes,  often  artistically  plaited  and  decorated,  are  in  use  among  the 
civilized  tribes  {pi.  '&']^fig.  3,  to  the  right;  //.  92,7?^.  11). 

Divellings. — The  houses  of  the  Amakosa  Cafhrs  are  like  the  beehive 
huts  represented  on  Plate  86  {fig.  17),  constructed  of  a  centre  post  and 
elastic  poles,  the  latter  being  joined  at  the  top  to  the  main  post,  so  as  to 
form  the  walls.  The  whole  is  covered  with  reeds,  is  rather  low,  and  often 
has  in  front  of  the  only  opening,  opposite  to  which  the  fireplace  is  situ- 
ated, a  narrow  tunnel-like  entrance  so  low  that  one  can  only  crawl  through 
it  (//.  86^  fig.  2).  This  style  of  house,  which  is  very  much  like  the  Hot- 
tentot hut,  prevails  among  all  Bantu  nations. 

The  huts  of  the  Zulus  are  plaited  better,  the  reed  coverings  being  fast- 
ened with  a  net  of  ropes  (the  hut  in  the  background  on  Plate  &6,fig.  2, 
may  ser\'e  as  an  illustration');  the  same  is  the  case  among  the  Basuto  (//. 
86,  fig.  2).  Among  other  tribes  of  the  Betchnanas  the  house  has  a  coni- 
cal-shaped roof  of  reeds  resting  on  a  double  wall,  an  inner  solid  one  of 
clay,  and  an  outer  low  one  of  wooden  poles  (coinp.  ^/.  go,  fig.  6,  to  the 
left),  or  also  of  clay,  as  on  Plate  84  {fig.  2);  the  elliptical  holes  in  the  wall 
take  the  place  of  doors.  The  middle  post,  from  which  rafters  extend  to 
the  clay  inner  wall,  often  projects  like  a  button  above  the  roof  (//.  8T„fig. 
2;  pi.  8/\,fig.  2).  The  Suaheli  tribes  of  the  interior  build  in  a  similar 
manner  {pi.  8j,fig.  5).  The  houses  of  the  Betchnanas  are  often  divided 
into  several  apartments  by  a  wall;  those  of  the  chieftains  are  painted  red 
and  white  inside,  generally  with  linear  designs,  but  also  with  animal 
figures. 

I'illagcs. — Large  villages  are  found  (/>/.  8-i,,  fig.  2;  pi.  8-],  fig.  5),  and 
those  of  the  southern  trilx^s  are  circular  in  the  shape  of  a  kraal.  The 
Zulus  build  their  huts  in  circles,  fenced  on  Ijoth  sides  by  thorn  hedges, 
and  enclosing  a  large  thorn-fenced  place  for  the  stock.  Opposite  to  this, 
in  a  special  enclosure,  are  the  chieftain's  huts,  wliich  include  not  only  his 
dwelling-house,  but  houses  for  his  wives,  storage-houses,  etc.;  the  entire 


312  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

village  is  again  enclosed  with  a  hedge  of  thorns  which  is  about  fifty  feet 
distant  from  the  outer  enclosure  of  the  houses. 

The  villages  of  the  Betchuanas  are  similarly  but  less  regularly  arranged; 
the  houses  are  also  around  the  enclosed  place  for  the  animals,  which  is 
shown  on  Plate  83  {fig.  2,  in  the  centre);  and  at  its  side,  half  hidden  by 
the  square  house,  is  the  place  of  meeting  and  counsel  (Fritsch).  The 
separate  houses  are  again  enclosed  by  close  thorn  hedges  of  irregular  shape, 
though  often  several  houses  and  families  (//.  St,,  fig.  2)  are  included  in 
the  same  enclosure.  The  beginning  of  a  palisade,  consisting  of  strong, 
irregular  poles,  which  fonn  the  framework,  is  shown  on  Plate  86  {fig.  2). 
European  houses,  square  and  built  of  wood  (//.  87,  fig.  5)  or  clay  (//.  83, 
fig.  2),  with  windows  and  stairs,  are  now  frequently  erected  by  the  Bantu 
nations;  those  of  the  eastern  coast  build  in  the  Mohammedan  manner.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  meet  with  very  simple  buildings  on  the  island  of  Fer- 
nando Po:  roofs  to  protect  against  the  sun  are  shown  on  Plate  90  {fig.  7). 

Household  Furniture  and  Utensils. — The  household  goods  are  numer- 
ous. They  have  vessels  of  plaited  work,  with  or  without  a  cover,  which 
serve  partly  as  baskets  and  partly  as  pots,  for  they  are  close  enough  to  hold 
liquids  {pL  S6,fig.  i).  The  southern  tribes  are  especially  skilful  at  plait- 
ing. They  decorate  their  utensils  with  the  figures  of  animals  {pi.  84, 
fiig.  14),  and  also  make  artistic  implements  of  ivory  {pi.  84,  yf^J.  10,  11) 
and  large  vessels  of  wood,  cutting  the  latter,  including  the  handles  and 
feet,  from  the  solid  block.  On  Plate  86  {fiig.  i,  to  the  right)  we  see  such 
wooden  vessels  of  the  Betchuana  tribes:  the  smaller  one  is  a  bucket,  and 
the  larger  a  wooden  mortar.  Plate  88  {figs.  11,  13,  18)  contains  similar 
wooden  utensils  of  the  eastern  tribes — pots  for  cooking,  dishes,  etc. 

The  Zulu  women  on  Plate  83  {fiig.  i,  Livingstone)  carry  water- vessels 
of  a  remarkable  cup-like  shape;  another,  of  more  common  form,  is  carried 
on  her  head  by  the  wretched  mother  on  Plate  83  {fig.  6).  Ostrich  egg- 
shells and  calabashes  are  also  used,  and  as  the  latter  grow  in  all  shapes  they 
serve  for  numerous  purposes.  They  are  decorated  with  various  and  often- 
times rich  carvings  (//.  86,  fig.  4). 

These  tribes  also  make  earthen  vessels,  and  obtain  the  material  for 
them,  as  do  also  the  Hottentots  (Kolbe),  from  ant-nests  (Fritsch).  Such 
earthen  vessels  are  seen  in  the  interior  of  the  huts  on  Plate  84  {fig.  2), 
Plate  86  {fig.  2),  the  large-bellied  vessel  in  Figure  2  (//.  84)  being  espe- 
cially striking.  It  is  a  grain-receptacle,  closed  with  a  lid  and  resting  on 
feet  to  protect  it  from  ants  and  other  vermin.  Ruder  pots  of  this  kind, 
serving  as  temporary  receptacles  of  grain,  are  often  found  in  the  fields,  the 
better  ones,  containing  the  threshed  grain,  being  covered  by  a  light  hut  or 
stored  in  the  dwelling-house;  they  are  also  found  among  the  northern  tribes 
and  among  the  Negroes  of  Soudan  {pi.  ()o,fig.  10);  other  tribes — for  in- 
stance, the  Caffirs — keep  their  provisions  in  pits.  For  grinding  the  grain 
a  rough  hand-mill  is  used,  which  consists  of  a  flat  hollowed  stone  and  a 
small  round  one,  the  latter  serving  as  a  crusher  (//.  86,  fig.  3).  An 
ingenious  apparatus  for  crushing  is  shown  on  Plate  88  ijig.  15). 


ETIIXGGRAPIIY.  313 

The  Bantu  sit  on  the  ground  or  on  small  stools,  which  in  the  south 
have  three  legs,  and  in  the  east  four  {pi.  ^Z,  fig.  14);  there  is  seen  along 
the  eastern  coast  an  oblong  structure  of  plaited  work,  called  kibani  in  the 
Suaheli  language,  which  serves  as  a  table  during  the  day  and  as  a  bed  at 
night  {pi.  SSyfio-.  10);  the  more  barbarous  tribes  sleep  on  the  ground,  rest- 
ing their  heads  on  a  round  hollow  piece  of  wood.  Other  conveniences  for 
the  house,  as  a  rough  kind  of  rack  on  which  to  hang  articles,  are  shown  on 
Plate  84  {fig,  2)  and  Plate  86  {fig.  2). 

The  Bantu  have  articles  of  iron,  among  which  are  the  simple  needles 
(without  an  eye)  with  which  the  Betchuanas  bore  the  skins  they  wish  to 
sew  together.  These  needles  are  carried  about  the  neck  in  small  decorated 
cases  of  skin  {p/.  84,  fig.  8). 

Iron-Smelting. — The  art  of  smelting  and  working  iron  has  long  been 
known  to  the  Bantu,  but  the  preparation  of  steel  is  unknown.  In  the 
north  and  east  of  this  district  the  iron  is  smelted  in  small  furnaces  and 
sold  in  bars  to  the  southern  tribes.  It  is  heated  by  means  of  an  odd 
bellows:  two  closed  leather  bags  with  wooden  handles  are  connected  by 
a  pair  of  cow's  horns  with  a  horn  pipe  leading  to  the  furnace.  The  alter- 
nate opening  and  closing  of  the  bags  supplies  a  continuous  stream  of  air. 
These  bellows  are  used  throughout  the  entire  district.  Th.e  one  that 
Livingstone  .saw  in  the  country  of  the  Batoka  (//.  86,  fitg.  8)  was  some- 
what different.  Clay  pij^es  took  the  place  of  the  cow's  horns;  the  leather 
bags  were  fastened  to  wooden  dnnus,  and  were  alternately  pressed  in  arid 
drawn  up  by  means  of  a  perpendicular  stick.  But  the  arrangement  by 
which  fresh  air  gets  into  the  drum  was  not  described  by  him:  probably 
the  leather  opens  when  drawn  up  and  closes  when  pressed  in.  The  glow- 
ing iron,  held  with  rough  tongs,  is  forged  by  stone  or  metal  hammers, 
and  is  made  into  various  utensils  and  implements,  such  as  weapons — often 
with  artistic  barbs  {pi.  89,  fiig.  4) — spoons,  hoes,  kni\-es,  etc. 

Weapons. — The  assagai  (assegai,  hassagai)  is  the  chief  weapon  of  all 
these  nations.  It  is  used  either  for  throwing,  and  is  in  that  case  light 
and  has  a  pointed  shaft,  or  for  thrusting,  and  then  the  shaft  is  thicker  and 
even.  The  point  is  a  long  iron  rod,  which  is  tightly  fastened  with  straps 
to  the  sliaft.  The  model  of  this  assagai  varies:  among  the  Betchuanas 
and  in  the  north  it  is  a  little  heavier  than  among  the  Caffir.s,  and  the  iron 
point  is  supjjlied  with  several  barbs  (//.  84,  fiig.  6;  //.  85,  fig.  9;  //.  86, 
fiig.  16). 

The  lance  of  the  Suahelis  (//.  88,  fig.  12)  is  very  long,  and  is  formed 
exactly  like  the  lances  of  the  northern  peoples  (//.  96,  fig.  1).  All  the 
Bantu  nations  have  a  wooden  club  which  they  u.sc  for  throwing  (//.  84, 
fiigs.  5,  6) — the  kirn  oi  the  Hottentots,  which  foreign  name  it  also  bears 
among  the  Caffir.s.  They  also  obtained  their  .small  striking-rod  from  the 
Hottentots.  Battle-axes  of  various  forms  are  found  everywhere  in  the 
ea.st,  but  in  the  south  only  among  the  Betchuanas  (/>/.  86,  fig.  15),  who 
have  also  that  dagger-like  knife  (/>/.  86,  fig.  14)  which  is  .seen  elsewhere 
(//.  ^S,fiigs.  3,  6,  7),  and  which  is  enlarged  into  a  sword  by  the  Ediyahson 


314  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Fernaudo  Po  {pi.  92,  Jig.  8).  Bows  and  arrows  are  not  found  in  the 
south,  but  they  are  used  by  the  Hereros  and  elsewhere  in  the  w^est  and 
east  (//.  86,  fig.  9;  //.  88,  figs.  4,  5;  pi.  89,  fig.  4);  the  natives  are  not 
very  skilful  in  their  use. 

The  arrows  are  generally  poisoned,  and  those  of  the  ]\Ianganyas  and 
Ayawas  (nations  between  Lake  Nyassa  and  the  Zambesi,  belonging  to  the 
Makua)  are  so  arranged  that  the  cane  shaft  to  which  the  poisoned  point 
is  attached  falls  off  after  wounding  (//.  8g,  fig.  4).  The  bow  of  the 
Maravi  on  the  Zambesi  is  odd:  by  a  broadening  of  its  two  ends  it  is  made 
to  serve  also  as  a  shield  (//.  86,  fig.  9),  but  it  is  little  qualified  for  this 
purpose. 

The  shields  of  the  Caffirs  are  large,  round,  and  made  of  ox-skin, 
which  is  sewed  to  a  wooden  frame  {pi.  85,  figs.  6,  9);  those  of  the  Bet- 
chuanas  are  oddly  curved;  and  both  of  these  tribes  decorate  their  shields 
with  fur  ornaments,  which  often  project  (//.  84,  fig.  6);  in  some  districts 
— for  instance,  with  the  Hereros — shields  are  not  in  use. 

Hunliug  and  Fishing. — Bows  and  arrows  are  generally  used  in  hunt- 
ing. At  Sena,  on  the  lower  Zambesi,  a  peculiar  harpoon  is  employed  for 
the  capture  of  the  hippopotamus:  when  the  barbed  point  has  struck  the 
animal,  the  shaft,  which  is  fastened  to  the  point  by  a  long  cord,  is  detached 
and  floats  on  the  water,  thus  indicating  the  precise  location  of  the  woimded 
animal  (//.  86,  fig.  13).  All  the  Bantu  nations  are  skilful  in  tanning 
and  preparing  skins,  and  are  able  hunters,  both  in  direct  attack  upon 
dangerous  animals — lions,  hippopotami,  buffaloes,  etc. — and  in  the  use 
of  crafty  stratagems.  They  use  pits  in  which  to  capture  the  large  animals. 
At  present  firearms  are  almost  everywhere  used  for  hunting  and  in  war. 
Fishing  is  also  extensively  carried  on  with  fish-baskets  of  various  kinds 
(//.  86,  fig.  5),  and  on  Lake  Nyassa  with  hand-nets  {pi.  86,  fig.  10) 
seven  feet  long;  however,  many  nations  eat  no  fish. 

Agriatlfitre  and  Implements. — Among  the  southern  tribes  fanning  is 
wholly  left  to  the  women;  among  the  Basuto  the  men  also  take  part  {pL 
84,  fig.  7),  and  among  other  tribes — for  instance,  the  Manganyas,  the 
Hereros,  and  the  Ovampo — men  and  women  labor  together.  The  chief 
farming  implement  is  a  peculiar  hoe  with  a  long  handle  {pi.  84,  figs.  4, 
7;  pi.  SS,  fig.  16);  the  Manganyas,  however,  have  hoes  with  short  handles 
{pi.  86,  fig.  6);  and  other  tools  are  found,  as  along  the  western  coast  some 
with  two  handles,  so  that  they  can  be  used  with  both  hands.  The  soil  is 
cleared  negligently  and  fertilized  with  vegetable  ashes,  more  rarely  (among 
the  Ovampo)  with  dung;  and  when  it  has  been  slightly  scratched  the 
sowers  scatter  the  seed,  which  others,  following  in  a  long  row,  hoe  in 
(//.  84,  fig.  7).  Their  farming  is  primitive,  but  they  exhibit  some  skill 
in  the  details. 

The  Batoka  plant  trees;  the  CaflSrs  surround  their  fields  with  close 
thorn  hedges,  and  have  male  or  female  field-watchers  and  several  inven- 
tions to  keep  away  birds  and  other  animals.  In  the  south  maize  and 
doura  are  the  principal  products,  and  also  beans,  pumpkins,  and  various 


ETHXOGRAPHY.  315 

kinds  of  tobacco  and  dacha-liemp  are  raised ;  while  in  the  north  and  east 
nuinioc,  groundnuts  {Aracltis)^  },anis,  batatas,  and  cotton  are  cultivated. 
Tlie  harvested  grain  is  taken  home  and  threshed  on  cla)-  threshing-floors 
(//.  83,  fig.  2,  the  light-shaded  enclosed  field  to  the  right),  and  is  then 
preserved  in  the  storerooms. 

ColtoH. — Some  of  the  eastern  nations  raise  cotton,  spin  it  into  a  close 
yarn,  and  use  it  for  weaving  in  the  manner  of  the  Malagassies  {pi.  90, 
fig.  6).  It  seems  that  this  art  came  to  them  from  the  Malagassies  or 
some  other  eastern  source. 

Siock-Raisiiig. — Stock-raising  ranks  higher  than  farming,  and  is  prin- 
cipally the  work  of  the  men,  although  the  women  assist.  The  southern 
tribes  and  the  Hereros  have  nothing  more  valuable  than  their  cattle,  for 
goats  and  sheep  are  rare.  The  Makololo  are  especially  skilful  cattle- 
raisers.  O.xen  are  used  for  riding,  for  carrying  loads,  and  for  driving,  the 
bridle  being  put  into  the  pierced  cartilage  of  the  nose.  The  flesh  is  con- 
sumed only  on  special  occasions,  but  milk  constitutes  the  principal  article 
of  food,  adults  preferring  to  use  it  after  it  becomes  sour.  It  is  kept  in 
wooden  vessels  or  in  leather  tubes. 

Food  and  Stinnilanis. — We  ha\-e  already  treated  of  the  food  of  these 
nations  (p.  31^);  it  is  broiled  at  the  open  fire  or  cooked  in  pots  (//.  90, 
fig.  6);  fire  is  kindled  by  friction  {pi.  84,  fg.  2).  They  have  spoons  and 
shovels  with  which  the  food  is  dished  out  and  eaten  (/>/.  S4,fgs.  12-14); 
the  handles  of  these  are  often  carved  into  figures  of  animals  (//.  84, 
fg.  14).  Intoxicating  drinks  are  much  brewed,  chiefly  a  kind  of  beer 
from  doura  malt,  and  in  the  east  palm  wine  is  made.  The  Bantu  are 
given  to  intoxication. 

Their  main  stimulants  are  smoking  and  snuffing,  either  the  national 
dacha-hemp  or  tobacco,  which  is  extensively  known.  A  pipe  of  the  Ba- 
suto  is  illustrated  on  Plate  84  {fg.  9),  and  that  of  the  weaver  on  Plate  90 
{Jig.  6)  is  of  similar  construction.  In  the  Basuto  pipe  the  leaves  are  in 
the  small  head  of  the  side  tube;  the  cow's  horn  into  which  the  side  tube 
enters  is  filled  with  water,  and  by  closing  the  opening  of  the  horn  with 
the  mouth  and  cheek  (com p.  />/.  qo,  fg.  6)  the  smoke  is  inhaled  and  swal- 
lowed. The  eflfects  of  this  manner  of  smoking  are  .so  powerful  that  the 
smokers  frequently  become  unconscious.  The  strongest  tobacco  is  pre- 
ferred by  the  Bantu.  If  a  person  is  without  his  pipe,  he  kneads  a  lump 
of  clay  on  the  ground,  puts  the  weed  into  a  hole  on  top,  and,  applying 
his  mouth  to  an  orifice  in  the  side,  smokes  lying  flat  on  his  belly.  The 
Cafhr  tribes  smoke  generally  in  company;  with  tliem  it  s^enis  to  be  con- 
nected with  ancient  religions  ideas.  They  snuff  from  small  spoons  of 
ivory  or  metal  (//.  84, y?^'-.  10),  and  always  carry  their  tobacco  either  in 
.small  bags  or  in  boxes  often  of  an  animal-like  shape  (//.  84,  fg.  11). 
Various  prohibitions  of  food  prevail  among  these  nations,  one  tribe  being 
forbidden  to  eat  this  animal,  another  that.  The  Cafl^irs,  for  example,  do 
not  eat  fisli,  and  consequently  acconqilish  nothing  in  fislicry. 

The  CafTirs  have  no  sliips,  and,   like  most  of  the  southern  peoples, 


3i6  ETIIXOGRAPHY. 

they  cannot  swim  well.  The  case  is  different  among  the  inhabitants 
along  the  large  rivers  and  on  the  eastern  coast;  but  the  shipbnilding  of 
these  eastern  tribes  {pi.  ^S,yij^s.  8,  9)  is  only  a  consequence  of  their  inter- 
course with  the  Arabians.  All  Bantu  nations  exhibit  great  capacity  for 
mercantile  enterprises. 

Ar/  and  Musical  Inslriuciits. — These  tribes  accomplish  little  in  art. 
We  have  already  mentioned  (p.  312)  that  paintings  representing  animals 
are  sometimes  met  with  in  the  huts  of  the  chieftains,  and  these  are  their 
highest  achievements  in  the  line  of  decorative  art.  The  nnisical  instru- 
ments  of  the  southern  tribes  seem  to  have  originated  with  the  Hottentots 
(Waitz);  the  widest  spread  is  a  single-stringed  instrument  which  has  on 
one  end  a  calabash  for  a  sounding-board  and  which  is  played  with  a  bow. 
It  is  seen  in  different  shapes:  Plate  86  {fig.  11)  represents  it  as  it  is  used  on 
t!ie  Zambesi  and  the  Shire,  with  a  string  that  can  be  tuned  by  a  peg,  while 
at  other  places  this  is  effected  only  by  the  manner  in  which  the  instru- 
ment is  held.  Drums,  pipes,  and  Pan's  flutes  {pi.  ^2>>Jig.  i)  are  common 
in  the  east;  among  the  Batoka  (on  the  upper  Zambesi)  the  sansa  {pi.  86, 
Jig."])  is  used,  the  nine  keys  of  which,  made  of  iron  or  of  bamboo  splinters, 
are  played  with  the  fingers,  the  sound  being  strengthened  by  a  calabasli 
serving  as  a  sounding-board  (//.  S6,  Jig.  4);  the  marimba  is  very  similar: 
hard  wooden  rods  are  placed  on  calabashes  of  various  sizes,  so  as  to 
increase  the  sound,  and  are  struck  with  sticks  {pi.  83,  Jig.  i). 

Singing  ami  Dancing. — The  Bantu  play  for  hours  on  their  monotonous 
instruments,  and  they  also  sing  much.  They  scarcely  have  true  poetr)', 
but  they  like  to  sing  diffusely  in  an  extemporary  manner  about  the  occur- 
rences of  the  day  or  in  praise  of  their  animals  or  their  chieftains.  They 
dance  with  pleasure,  generally  the  men  only,  the  women  looking  on  while 
clapping  their  hands  and  singing.  The  general  purport  of  the  dances, 
which  often  last  very  long,  is  imitation  of  war  and  the  chase  {pi.  85, 
fig.  g).     The  women  have  their  own  dances. 

Domestic  Life  and  Habits. — The  position  of  the  women  is  not  favor- 
able. We  have  already  said  (p.  314)  that  it  is  their  duty  to  perform  the 
hardest  work,  such  as  housebuilding,  making  the  enclosures,  field-labor, 
getting  the  fuel  and  provisions  and  preparing  the  latter,  and  caring  for 
the  children.  The  men  hunt,  take  charge  of  the  stock,  dress  the  skins, 
and  go  to  war;  they  sometimes  assist  at  farming,  as  do  the  women  with 
the  stock. 

The  wife  is  purchased,  and  polygamy  prevails.  A  man  is  allowed  as 
manv  wives  as  he  can  bu^■.  Chieftains  consequently  have  a  great  num- 
ber, and  old  men  often  buy  young  wives.  One  of  the  wives  is  looked 
upon  as  the  highest  in  rank,  and  is  called  the  "great  woman."  Among 
some  tribes  concubines  are  freelv  allowed.  Sometimes  there  are  no  mar- 
riage ceremonies,  except  great  feasts  given  by  the  bride's  father;  among 
the  Kambas  (north-east)  the  bride  is  captured  in  a  sham  battle  with  her 
relatives.  Among  the  Caffirs  the  daughter-in-law  is  not  allowed  to  pro- 
nounce the  names  of  her  father-in-law  and  the  male  relatives  of  her  hus- 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  317 

band  in  an  ascending  line,  and  she  must  even  avoid  words  of  a  similar 
sound;  nor  is  she  allowed  to  associate  with  them:  the  same  remarks  apply 
to  the  husband  and  the  mother-in-law.  Marriage  is  easily  dissolved,  but 
the  children  remain  the  property  of  the  husband,  and  if  the  separation  be 
his  fault  he  must  return  to  his  father-in-law  a  certain  number  of  cattle. 
Adultery  does  not  often  occur,  and  it  is  generally  punished  by  a  mere  fine. 
Examples  of  devoted  love  are  seen  even  among  the  most  barbarous  tribes. 
In  the  east  the  wives  occupy  a  higher  position,  and  possess  rights  as  well 
as  their  husbands;  Krapf  e\-en  found  among  the  Sambaras  (north-east)  a 
woman  occupying  a  high  political  station.  Lichtenstein  states  the  same 
of  the  Caffirs. 

A  widow  is  considered  impure  for  one  month  after  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band, but  she  may  marry  again;  the  care  of  her  devolves  on  the  oldest  son 
if  he  be  an  adult,  or  on  the  brothers  of  her  husband.  She  has  perfect  sex- 
ual liberty  as  long  as  she  remains  unmarried,  as  also  have  the  girls.  In 
general,  the  females  of  the  more  advanced  tribes  are  chaste  and  reserved. 
Wlieu  one  is  asked  whether  she  is  married  or  not,  she  points  to  her  bosom, 
which  only  unmarried  women  are  allowed  to  have  uncovered.  In  this 
there  is  not  the  slightest  shamelessness.  The  tribes  which  have  come 
in  contact  with  the  great  stream  of  the  Avorld  are  far  more  corrupt. 

Infanticide  is  frequent  among  the  Caffirs;  misshapen  children  and  one 
of  twins  are  always  killed;  the  casting  out  of  the  old  and  d)ing  is  also 
customary.  However,  traces  of  true  family  attachment  are  found  among 
them,  especiallv  among  the  eastern  Bantu  tribes  and  the  Hcreros.  Chil- 
dren receive  a  kind  of  education;  that  is,  they  are  instructed  in  necessary 
tilings;  they  are  nursed  for  a  long  time,  and  remain  with  the  mother  until 
they  are  eight  years  old;  they  know  the  same  infantile  games  as  are  in  vogue 
among  European  children.  No  child  is  allowed  to  eat  with  its  parents,  it 
being  deemed  impure  until  solemnly  received  into  the  society  of  adults. 

Births  and  their  Attending  Ceremonies. — Shortly  after  birth  certain 
ceretnonies  are  performed  over  the  child,  but  the  feast  of  manhood,  at 
which  the  boys  of  most  of  the  tribes  are  circumcised,  is  the  most  import- 
ant. The  girls  have  to  undergo  a  similar  ceremony  as  soon  as  the  first 
signs  of  puberty  appear.  After  the  feast  of  manhood,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  bovs  arc  driven  into  the  water,  they  are  considered  pure,  and 
live  together  with  the  other  unmarried  folks,  with  whom  they  sleep,  the 
sexes  being  separated.  Those  who  attain  manhood  at  the  same  time 
often  form  a  lifelong  association,  and  among  the  Hereros  they  have 
their  wives  in  common. 

The  .Slate. — The  constitution  is  based  on  the  family.  The  father  has 
absolute  power  over  his  family,  and  in  like  manner  the  chief  is  absolute 
in  the  state,  for  the  tribe  is  but  a  widely-branched  family.  The  dignity 
of  chieftain  is  inherited  by  the  oldest  son  of  the  principal  wife;  the  younger 
sons  are  the  chiefs  of  those  who  celebrated  the  feast  of  manhood  with  them. 
These,  settling  down  independently,  form  new  villages  or  new  clans,  but 
they  arc  in  strict  dependence  on  the  chief  of  the  tribe.     The  sovereign 


31 8  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

power  of  the  chieftain  is  based  on  this  constitution,  and  is  exercised  not 
only  by  the  king  over  the  whole  nation,  but  also  by  the  inferior  rulers 
over  their  respective  subjects.  The  king  has  a  council  composed  of  six 
or  eight  of  the  principal  chiefs,  the  indnna  or  amapakati  or  (among  the 
Caffirs)  inkosi,  but  they  do  not  constitute  a  check  upon  his  power,  as  they 
merely  execute  his  commands,  and  they  are  generally  appointed  by  him. 
The  people,  however,  exercise  a  kind  of  restriction  on  the  royal  power, 
as  they  may  leave  him  in  case  he  violates  custom  and  right. 

This  constitution  prevails  among  all  Bantu  nations.  Among  the 
Betchuanas  the  power  of  the  king  is  restricted  by  the  pils/io,  an  assembly 
of  all  the  chiefs  which  meets  at  a  fixed  place  in  the  centre  of  the  kraal 
(//.  83,  _/?^.  2),  and  which  has  the  right  to  criticise  and  attack  the  politi- 
cal measures  of  the  king.  In  general  the  subjects  speak  of  the  chief  in 
the  most  extravagant  terms,  and  some  tribes  swear  by  him.  He  has  no 
exterior  mark  to  distinguish  him  from  the  other  members  of  his  tribe, 
or,  at  the  most,  only  a  kaross  of  panther-skin  (//.  84,7?^.  5),  though  in 
Central  Africa  the  Cazcmbe  wears  a  more  costly  costume  and  has  more 
ceremonies. 

La-vs,  Pimishmenfs^  and  Ordeals. — The  chiefs  pronounce  the  highest 
judicial  decisions.  Those  of  less  importance  are  declared  among  the 
Amakosa  by  the  amapakati  ox  lower  chieftains,  but  murder,  theft,  adulter}', 
intentional  abortion,  and  magic  are  punished  by  the  king.  Capital  pun- 
i.shment  is  inflicted  for  the  last-named  crime.  Among  the  Amakosa  and 
the  Hereros  the  other  offences  mentioned  may  be  atoned  b\'  fines,  though 
formerly  they  were  punished  by  death  or  mutilation,  as  is  still  the  practice 
with  the  other  Caffir  and  Bantu  tribes,  among  whom  only  small  oflFences 
are  punished  by  fines.  Most  of  the  tribes  are  truthful  in  legal  proceedings. 
Different  ordeals  (by  fire,  water,  or  poison)  are  applied  in  the  east.  Joint 
responsibility  of  the  family  and  blood-revenge  prevail,  or  did  prevail, 
everj'where. 

Wars. — The  chieftains  have  often  acquired  great  power  by  their 
wars.  They  are  commanders-in-chief  in  war,  and,  as  the  Bantu  nations 
are  generally  warlike,  some  of  the  sovereigns  have  become  mighty  con- 
querors. The  Zulu  princes  Tchaka  and  Dingaan,  Gaika,  the  sovereign 
of  the  Amakosa,  and  Sebitoane,  chief  of  the  ]Motchuana,  are  well  known: 
the  kingdom  of  the  now  powerless  Cazcmbe  in  the  interior  (see  Map)  and 
many  similar  states  may  have  originated  from  such  conquerors.  The  his- 
tor>'  of  these  tribes  has  become  complicated  on  account  of  their  numerous 
wars  of  conquest. 

The  men  decorate  themselves  gorgeously  when  going  to  war  {pi.  85, 
Jiq;s.  6,  9):  a  decoration  of  animal  tails  (//.  88,  y?^.  17)  or  a  flag-like  ensign 
distingtiishes  ambassadors  and  chieftains,  who  are  spared  during  the  battle. 
War  is  proclaimed,  and  the  army  marches  off  after  performing  religious 
ceremonies  and  war-dances.  Although  these  tribes  like  sudden  attacks 
and  stratagems,  still  open  battles  are  common  and  sanguinary.  Women 
and  children  are  generally  spared,  except  among  some  Caflfir  tribes.     It 


ETIIXOGRAniY. 


319 


cnnnot  be  denied  that  the  Bantu  nations  exhibit  j^reat  valor  in  war,  and, 
with  all  their  barbarity,  not  unfreqnently  show  nobility  of  mind.  Traces 
of  cannibalism  have  been  found  among  them,  and  the  Batoka  and  the 
warriors  of  the  Cazembe  are  eager  to  obtain  the  skulls  of  the  enemy;  but 
there  are  also  unwarlike  tribes  among  them,  as  the  Herero.  Even  in  the 
wars  against  the  Europeans,  although  all  their  passions  were  excited,  tlie 
Caffirs  did  not  show  themselves  bloodthirsty  or  cruel.  The  great  wars 
conducted  by  Tchaka  were  less  humane,  but  this  was  owing  to  the  peculiar 
character  of  that  king. 

The  Caffirs  never  carried  on  wars  in  order  to  make  slaves,  and  the 
slave-trade  and  slavery  are  unknown  to  them.  Neither  have  the  IMakololo 
anything  of  the  kind.  In  the  east  and  west  the  slave-hunts,  which  are 
now  common,  originated  from  foreign  influence.  This  is  not  the  place  to 
speak  of  the  inhumanity  of  the  slave-hunters  and  slave-traders:  it  suffices 
to  point  out  the  manner  in  which  the  unfortunate  victims  are  tran.sported 
{pi.  83,  fig.  6).  They  are  tied  in  pairs,  with  the  slave-yokes  about  their 
necks,  and  are  fastened  together  with  chains  {pi.  83,  fig.  6;  //.  86,  fig. 
12).  The  lot  of  the  slaves  among  the  tribes  of  the  interior  is  not  a  severe 
one,  as  they  belong  to  the  family.  It  is  much  harder  along  the  coast. 
War-prisoners  are  enslaved  by  the  southern  tribes,  and  constitute  a  sep- 
arate caste  from  the  free  persons. 

Death  and  Burial. — Even  at  his  death  the  chieftain's  lot  is  better  than 
that  of  others.  He  is  always  solemnly  buried.  The  other  dead  were 
simply  carried  to  desert  places,  wdiere  the  beasts  of  prey  devoured  them. 
This  is  frequently  the  case  even  at  present;  but  generall)-  the  dead  are 
buried  in  narrow  ditches,  either  within  the  kraal  (among  the  Betchuanas 
in  the  animals'  kraal)  or  near  it,  in  a  squatting  position,  the  face  turned  to 
the  north  or  east  {pi.  85,  fig.  8).  Among  the  Betchuanas  the  corpse  is 
not  carried  out  through  the  ordinary  door,  but  through  another  made  for 
the  purpose,  and  is  placed  in  a  side-vault  of  the  tomb.  Loud  lamenta- 
tions of  the  women  are  heard  at  the  death  and  at  the  funeral.  The  graves 
of  princes  are  guarded  for  a  while,  sometimes  for  a  year.  These  tribes  cut 
off  their  hair  as  a  sign  of  mourning,  and  wear  a  necklace  made  of  the 
hair  from  the  tail  of  an  ox — one  is  also  put  on  new-born  children — initil 
it  falls  oflT  (Lichten.stein):  in  the  same  manner  the  ]\Ianganyas  liang  strips 
of  palm-leaves  about  themselves  (Livingstone). 

The  Manganyas  break  all  the  utensils  and  destroy  all  the  provisions 
belonging  to  the  deceased,  and  Lichtenstein  reports  that  the  Amakosa 
have  the  same  peculiar  custom.  We  have  already  seen  this  custom  in 
Polynesia  (p.  201).  The  hou.se  of  the  dead  is  no  longer  used;  pcrhai\s 
also  the  whole  kraal  if  the  deceased  has  died  within  it.  This  is  tlic 
practice  among  the  Hereros  at  present,  but  in  other  places  the  custom 
has  been  modified.  Tlicy  take  particular  care  to  let  no  one  die  within  a 
house,  and  con.sequcntly  the  dying  are  carried  into  the  open  air.  There 
is  no  lack  of  offerings  for  the  dead:  his  weapons  are  placed  in  the  grave 
with    him,    and    in    the  case  of  a  chief  several    animals  from   his   herd 


320  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

are  left  at  the  grave  for  his  use.  Formerly,  at  the  grave  of  the  Cazembe 
— and  also  among  some  tribes — slaves,  and  even  wives,  were  slain,  and 
human  skulls  were  heaped  upon  the  grave. 

Religions  I'iczc's. — In  these  descriptions  we  have  indicated  some  of  the 
religious  views  of  the  Bantu  tribes.  That  the  people  were  originally 
considered  unclean  in  comparison  with  the  chief  is  shown  by  many  cus- 
toms. Women  and  children  are  held  to  be  less  pure  than  men,  and  all 
women  are  impure  during  parturition  and  menstruation.  Defilement  is 
produced  by  touching  a  corpse  or  anything  relating  to  the  dead,  and 
by  slaying  a  lion  or  an  elephant.  If  the  kraal  is  struck  by  lightning,  the 
entire  kraal  becomes  impure.  Water  and  the  blood  of  animals  of  sac- 
rifice are  used  for  cleansing  the  impurit\-. 

This  condition  of  "  uncleauness"  should  rather  be  called  a  state  of 
consecration  or  interdiction,  for  those  who  have  been  consecrated  by 
contact  with  anything  sacred  are  excluded  from  ordinary'  people.  Thus, 
those  who  have  slain  lions  are  consecrated  by  their  relation  to  the  lion. 
Similarly,  their  relation  to  the  dead  consecrates  widowers  and  widows. 
Thev  are  restored  to  ordinarj-  communion  with  their  fellow-beings  only 
by  a  ceremony  of  secularization. 

The  men  are  considered  more  sacred  than  the  women  and  the  chil- 
dren; consequently,  the  latter  must  be  consecrated  at  the  feast  of  manhood 
before  being  received  among  the  adults,  and  for  the  same  reason  women 
are  excluded  from  many  things  that  are  prominent  in  the  lives  of  the 
men.  But  they  also  have  their  periods  of  consecration  (the  time  of 
giving  birth,  etc.),  from  which  they  must  be  liberated.  Here,  as  in  Poly- 
nesia, objects  are  interdicted  or  "tabooed,"  being  thereby  made  holy  and 
withdrawn  from  use. 

Siipcrslilions. — A  belief  in  the  future  life  and  in  guardian  spirits  gen- 
erally prevails.  The  latter  usually  show  themselves  in  the  guise  of 
animals,  and  thus  the  prohibitions  of  food  which  we  have  already  men- 
tioned (p.  315)  may  be  explained,  for  to  eat  the  animal  which  is  the 
incarnation  of  a  guardian  spirit  would  be  a  crime  which  would  be 
punished  with  sickness — that  is,  with  being  possessed  by  evil  spirits.  Th.e 
Caffirs  eat  no  fish,  because  they  imagine  them  to  be  water-snakes;  and 
snakes  are  everywhere  in  South  Africa  believed  to  be  one  shape  assumed 
by  the  guardian  spirits  or  souls.  The  crocodile  and  hippopotamus  are 
believed  to  be  evil  spirits. 

Each  tribe  of  the  Betchuanas  has  some  animal  in  which  it  sees  its 
"ancestor,"  from  which  it  takes  its  name  and  which  it  celebrates  by  sol- 
emn dances.  Many  tribes  are  named  after  these  animals.  Thus  the  name 
Ba-knena  signifies  "crocodile  people;"  Ba-tlapa,  "fish  people;"  Ba-katla, 
"ape  people;"  Ba-tuang,  "lion  people;"  Ba-tsetze,  "  tse'tze-fly  people;" 
but  there  are  also  "iron  people"  (Ba-tsipi,  Ba-rolong),  and  some  tribes 
are  considered  to  be  sacred;  as,  for  example,  the  otherwise  powerless 
Ba-hurutse. 

The  Hereros  are  divided  into  different  "families"  {c-yaiida\  each  of 


ETIIXOGRAPIIY.  321 

which  considers  some  plant  as  sacred.  By  the  qnestion,  "Vv'hat  do  you 
dance?"  one  learns  to  which  tribe  the  party  addressed  bclonjjs,  for  the 
answer  will  consist  of  the  name  of  the  animal  after  which  the  tribe  is 
called.  The  belief  in  "ancestral"  animals  prevails  among  all  the  Bantu 
nations.  Guardian  spirits  and  souls  are  not  always  distinct.  The  latter 
are  feared,  as  is  shown  by  the  funeral  customs  of  the  CafTirs;  but  many 
offerings  are  brought  to  them  and  prayers  are  addressed  to  them  among  the 
Wanikas  and  Tshagas  in  the  north-east  of  this  district,  the  iManganyas, 
the  Betchuanas,  the  Zulus,  the  Amakosa,  the  Hereros,  and  others.  The 
Bantu  everj'where  believe  in  men  who  can  change  themselves  into  ani- 
mals, and  in  other  ghost-like  beings. 

These  ideas  are  by  no  means  clear  to  the  Bantu  nations,  and  least  of 
all  to  the  southern  tribes.  The  clearest  idea  is  that  of  guardian  spirits 
w!io  settle  in  animals  or  in  other  objects.  Thus  we  have  pure  fetichism. 
Hidden  under  these  rude  ideas  there  are  others,  which,  though  obscure, 
may  nevertheless  be  recognized.  "The  religious  system  of  these  peoples," 
.says  the  missionary  Moffat,  "has  entirely  disappeared,  as  their  rivers  dis- 
appear in  the  sand;"  and  this  is  very  true.  Yet  there  are  some  traces  of 
it  remaining.  Thus,  the  nocturnal  dances  at  the  time  of  the  full  moon 
and  others  at  the  time  of  the  new  moon,  and  also  some  myths  about  the 
sun,  seem  to  indicate  an  ancient  worship  of  the  hea\^enly  bodies.  They 
also  know  and  venerate  many  stars. 

The  Amakosa  esteem  one  of  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors  particularly 
powerful.  They  call  him  iiikosi,  "chief,  master,"  and  they  represent  him 
as  casting  down  the  lightning  (Fritsch).  The  Ma-rimo  (literally,  "lie 
above")  of  the  Betchuanas  is  described  by  the  magicians  as  an  especially 
powerful  and  generally  hostile  being.  The  Betchuanas  say  that  they 
themselves  do  not  care  about  such  things,  but  that  their  ancestors  knew 
much  about  him.  His  name  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  creation 
of  all  things:  he  is  said  to  have  proceeded,  with  the  human  race  and  the 
animals,  from  a  large  cave  in  the  north,  and  for  this  reason  the  dead  are 
buried  with  their  faces  turned  to  the  north. 

Other  tribes  (Hereros,  Zulus)  derive  the  origin  of  all  beings  from  a 
kind  of  world-tree,  a  sacred  aboriginal  stem.  Toward  the  cast  and  the 
north-east  we  find  a  clearer  idea  of  a  supreme  being:  he  is  called  jMii-uiiqii 
b\-  the  Suahelis  and  Afn-lungit  by  the  Makua.  From  this  it  would  seem 
that  the  Bantti  had,  besides  their  animistic  and  ancestral  cult,  a  venera- 
tion of  heaven  and  the  heavenly  bodies  which  in  time  gave  way  to  the 
ancestral  cult:  for  this  reason  the  originally  supreme  gods  are  described  as 
having  been  former  chieftains. 

Magicians  and  rain-makers  are  everywhere  important  personages.  Th.c 
former  constitute  several  classes,  and  one  of  them  is  a  sort  of  high  priest 
over  the  oth.ers.  They  cure  diseases,  are  fortune-tellers,  and  detect  and 
fru.strate  witchcraft;  the  belief  in  them  is  firm,  and  they  are  of  supreme 
importance  in  the  entire  life  of  the.se  peoples.  They  initiate  even,'thing: 
warriors  and  animals  arc  rendered  invulnerable  by  a  black  cross  which  the 

Vol.  I.— 21 


322  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

priest  paints  on  them — among  the  Caffirs  it  is  put  on  the  forehead  of  the 
warrior  (comp.  //.  86, 7?§-.  20;  //.  8g,^^s.  5,  6).  Offerings  are  everywhere 
made  to  the  spirits  of  ancestors,  wliom  the  Hereros  represent  by  little 
rods,  each  "family"  {c-yandd)  taking  for  this  purpose  the  rods  from  the 
branches  of  its  sacred  plant.     The  Tshagas  are  said  to  have  idols. 

Political  Development. — After  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  character  and  ability  of  the  Bantu  are  good.  The  kingdoms  of  inte- 
rior Africa,  as  well  as  the  able  achievements  of  some  of  the  Herero  sov- 
ereigns, show  what  they  can  accomplish  in  politics.  They  have  main- 
tained their  place  against  European  culture,  and  can  rarely  be  outwitted 
by  the  whites.  In  their  political  conventions  they  often  exhibit  eloquence; 
and  they  have  frequently  embarrassed  the  missionaries  by  their  sceptical 
but  sagacious  questions.  In  ordinary  life  they  are  active  and  impulsive. 
They  are  but  slightly  accessible  to  the  teachings  of  the  Christian  religion, 
as  they  concern  themselves  little  about  religious  questions. 

Moral  Development. — In  regard  to  their  moral  qualities,  they  are  brave 
and  do  not  lack  a  kind  of  high-mindedness.  They  exhibit  a  sense  of 
honor  and  of  justice.  We  have  seen  (p.  318)  how  severely  they  punish 
theft,  which,  however,  is  of  frequent  occurrence;  and  avarice  and  begging 
are  now  prevalent  among  the  Caffirs,  though  less  so  in  the  east.  They 
are  generally  truthful,  especially  the  inland  tribes.  Although  the  Bet- 
chuanas  never  contradict  and  are  outwardly  polite  and  friendly,  they  are 
by  no  means  always  sincere.  They  do  not  value  human  life,  and  conse- 
quently they  are  generally  heartless  and  cruel  to  the  suffering ;  all  the 
more  so  as  superstition  prompts  them  to  it.  But  they  are  not  really  blood- 
thirsty, neither  are  they  revengeful  or  resentful.  Hospitality  and  indus- 
try are  lai^gely  found  among  them  where  they  have  retained  their  native 
character,  and  they  are  no  more  dissolute  than  peoples  in  a  natural  state 
are  wont  to  be. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  our  judgment  about  the  Bantu  must  be  favor- 
able: they  are  a  gifted  race,  and  have  attained  in  civilization  what  was 
possible  in  the  geographical  and  historical  circumstances  in  which  tUey 
live,  and  much  good  may  be  expected  from  them  in  the  future. 

3.  The  Peoples  of  Soud.\n. 

Classification. — No  part  of  Ethnology  is  more  difficult  than  that  which 
treats  of  the  Negro.  We  have  indeed  on  one  side  a  boundary-line  sepa- 
rating the  Bantu  nations  from  the  Negroes,  but  other  difficulties  oppose  a 
precise  classification. 

First,  the  physical  type.  The  Hottentots  and  _the  Caffirs  are  indeed 
physically  different  from  the  tribes  along  the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  Schweinfurth  finds  the  appearance  of  the  equatorial 
dwarf  people,  the  Akkas,  so  like  that  of  the  Bushmen  that  he  scarcely  dares 
decide  whether  they  ought  not  to  be  put  into  one  ethnological  division 
with  them.  So  the  north-western  and  north-eastern  Bantu  nations  often 
exhibit  so  great  a  likeness  that  to  distinguish  them  by  their  physical 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  323 

peculiarities  is  scarcely  possible.  Second,  language  does  not  sen-e  as  a 
distinction.  Vidal,  Bleek,  Norris,  and  other  competent  students  of  the 
African  languages  and  peoples  number  the  languages  along  the  Old 
Calabar  River  and  the  Yoruba,  the  Ashantee,  even  the  Bullom  and  other 
tongues  of  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone,  among  the  Bantu  languages,  and 
consequently  the  inhabitants  among  the  Bantu  nations. 

Language. — An  investigation  of  the  Tinine  language  (Sierra  Leone) 
and  of  the  Ashantee  dialects  shows  the  same  structure  in  them  as  in  those 
of  Congo  and  Mozambique.  In  the  Odshi,  which  is  spoken  by  the  Ashan- 
tees,  we  find  the  same  division  of  substantives  into  certain  classes,  the 
first  consisting  of  collective  words,  the  second  comprising  individuals, 
either  neuter  and  inanimate  or  personal  and  animate;  and  these  classes 
are  distinguished  by  certain  prefixes,  and  prefi.xcs  also  form  the  plural  of 
each  of  the  classes  mentioned.  Tluis,  cn-sit  is  "water;"  cn-iakua^  "tuft 
of  hair;"  cm-pabua,  "  a  pair  of  sandals;"  a-fafanto^  "butterfly;"  a-g-va, 
"chair;"  o-g-vaii^  "sheep;"  o-bcrre,  "woman;"  f«- is  at  tlie  same  time 
the  plural  form  for  (grammatically)  inanimate  objects:  en-gzca,  "chairs;" 
em-fafiuito,  "butterflies;"  while  the  class  with  the  prefix  o  forms  the 
plural  with  ^,  thus  a-herrc,  "women." 

The  tenses  also  are  formed  by  prefixes  which  come  immediately  after 
the  pronoun:  nii-fco,  "I  walk,"  but  'w-  ^a-  ^/co,  "'I  "have  (sign  of  the 
perfect  tense)  •''walked."  The  structure  of  the  Bantu  verb  is  exactly  like 
this:  'AY-  ^me-  ^penda,  "'I  ^have  (sign  of  the  perfect  ten.se) 'loved."  The 
addition  of  various  suffixes  to  the  noun  (for  instance,  to  form  diminuti\-es) 
and  to  the  verb  (for  the  formation  of  cases,  etc.)  is  in  the  Od.shi  much  the 
same  as  in  the  Bantu  tongues;  and  if  we  find  no  likeness  of  roots  in  these 
two  districts,  this  is  of  no  significance  in  the  ethnologic  relation  of  lan- 
guages, as  we  have  already  explained.  The  original  connection  of  the  lan- 
guages is  only  removed  to  an  earlier  period.  Thus  it  seems  that  we  ought 
to  assume  with  Bleek  a  relation  between  the  Odshi  and  the  Bantu  lan- 
guages. 

The  Ehwe  language  along  the  vSlave  Coast  and  the  Yoruba  are  rather 
closely  related  to  the  Odshi,  while  the  Yoruba  exhibits  the  same  phe- 
nomena as  the  Odshi.  We  find  in  the  Ehwe  the  same  fundamental  traits, 
but  undeveloped:  the  nouns  are  distinguished  from  the  verbs  by  a  vowel 
prefix,  a  or  e,  between  which  no  definite  distinction  can  be  made.  Many 
additions  are  made  in  forming  substantives,  and  suffixes  are  also  of  import- 
ance in  the  formation  of  verbs.  Almost  all  the  forms  of  the  languages  of 
Soudan — the  Vei,  the  Maude,  etc. — are  by  suffixes,  so  that  the  languages 
of  this  territory',  in  contrast  with  the  .soiithern//-r/f.r  languages,  have  been 
called  st/J/Jx  languages.     The  Ehwe  exhibits  the  peculiarities  of  both. 

The  u.se  of  prefixes  to  form  .substantives  is  found  in  other  Central- 
African  languages,  as  in  the  Yolof  in  Senegambia,  and  also  in  tlie  east, 
in  the  Kauuri  in  the  northern  and  western  vicinity  of  Lake  Chad,  where 
abstract  words  (and,  as  in.  the  Bantu  languages,  the  so-called  infinitive) 
are  formed  by  prefixes,  the  same  languages  having  a  number  of  other 


324  ETHXOGRAPIIY. 

forms  willi  suffixes.  The  employment  of  prefixes  is  found  at  various 
places  in  Soudan,  but  it  lacks  one  trait  which  unites  the  Bantu  languages 
and  forms  their  vital  principle:  the  agreement  of  these  prefixes  in  the 
forms  of  words  logically  belonging  together,  the  adjective  and  the  verb 
taking  the  same  prefix  as  the  noun. 

It  looks  as  if  the  South-African  languages  had  separated  from  the 
Negro  tongues  by  making  the  prefixes  and  their  grammatical  agreement 
the  predominant  trait  of  their  languages,  while  the  languages  of  Soudan 
sliow  only  germs  of  such  formation.  Certainly  such  languages  as  the 
Odshi,  Yoruba,  Bullom,  and  Timne  are  intermediate  between  the  Negro 
and  Bantu  stocks. 

We  can  thus  determine  the  Negro  district  on  the  south:  those  nations 
in  whose  languages  the  syntax  is  based  on  the  agreement  of  the  prefixes 
belong  to  the  Bantu  stock,  and  those  whose  languages  do  not  show  this 
agreement,  even  though  they  otherwise  make  use  of  the  prefixes,  belong 
to  the  Negroes. 

It  is  far  more  difl[icult  to  draw  the  boundary  of  the  Negro  territor}'  on  the 
north  and  east.  Even  in  historical  times  the  Negroes  have  occupied  tracts 
of  land  more  to  the  north  than  at  present:  we  find  them  spread  throughout 
the  oases  of  the  desert  as  far  as  to  the  Atlas  Mountains,  from  which  they 
were  gradually  driven  by  Berber  tribes.  The  Tedas  (Tebus,  Tibbus),  a 
Negro  tribe,  have  maintained  their  place  as  far  north  as  Fezzan  even  to  the 
present  day.  Naturally,  as  a  consequence,  intermixtures  of  various  kinds 
have  occurred  in  the  north,  even  with  the  Arabian  conquerors.  Toward 
the  east  the  Negroes  come  in  contact  with  the  Nubian,  the  Abyssinian, 
and  the  Galla  nations.  What  makes  an  ethnological  division  so  diffi- 
cult on  this  side  is  the  gradual  passing  over  of  one  national  type  into 
the  other. 

The  boundaries  are  vague  or  entirely  absent.  This  holds  good  as  to 
the  physique,  as  to  customs  and  usages  (comp.,  for  instance,  pi.  92,  _/?f.  20; 
pl-  ^%fiS-  2,  with  pi.  H.fig.  2;  pi.  ?>6,fig.  2;  //.  100,/^.  I,  with  pi.  98, 
Jig.  6,  and  pi.  100,  Jig.  5),  and  as  to  language.  Some  of  the  Central- 
African  idioms  show  much  similarity  to  those  of  North-east  Africa,  even 
with  the  Semitic  languages.  To  this,  for  exainple,  belong  the  manner  in 
which  the  personal  pronoun  is  inseparabh-  prefixed  to  the  verb  in  the 
Hausa,  Kanuri,  and  Tibbu,  and  the  suffixing  of  the  pos.sessive  pronoun 
and  the  union  of  the  pronominal  object  with  the  verb:  for  example,  in 
Hausa:  "■  Kancn-- ta^ya-^ tajji,  "=  Her 'brother  ('he)  Svalked;"  ^Na--ba- 
^ ka.,  '"I  ^give  ^to  you."  It  is  still  more  striking  that  in  the  Kanuri  and 
the  Tibbu  the  sign  of  the  person  of  independent  verbs  is  /;'^'fixed  in  the 
third  person,  but  otherwise  .y?//'fixed:  Kanuri,  ^ A7idi'^di-^yen.,  "'We  "do 
(-'we);"  however,  ^ Nandi-tsa-^di-n,  "'They  f  they-)  Mo." 

The  Hausa  makes  even  a  precise  distinction  as  to  gender,  and  has  dif- 
ferent fonns  in  the  second  and  tliird  persons  of  the  verb  for  the  masculine 
and  feminine  subject:  goba,  "he  gives;"  taha,  "she  gives."  However, 
these  tongues  so  closely  coincide  in  their  most  important  traits  with  the 


ETIIXOGRAPIIY.  325 

remaining-  Nes:ro  idioms  that  they  cannot  be  separated  from  them.  The 
strangest  transitions  are  found  toward  the  north-east,  and  they  are  very 
difficult  to  explain. 

But  this  is  not  all.  In  the  interior  of  Soudan  we  find  a  number  of 
tribes  which,  related  among  themselves,  are  very  unlike  the  Negroes  in 
their  physique,  and  are  distinguished  from  them  by  all  writers.  These 
are  the  Fulah,  Pul,  Peul  (//.  ^i.figs.  6,  7,  10,  11),  who  are  called  Fellani 
in  Hausa,  Fcllatah  in  Bornu  (//.  <^2,fig.  3),  and  Fulah  in  Mandingo:  pul 
means  "light  brown" — therefore  pitl-be  ox  ful-be,  "the  brown  ones" — 
and  from  these  plural  forms  the  above  names  have  been  derived. 

The  Fulah  dwell  along  the  middle  and  upper  part  of  the  Senegal  and 
the  Gambia,  from  Futa-Toro  to  Futa-Jalon;  they  have  spread  through  the 
districts  between  the  great  curve  of  the  Niger  as  far  as  Timbuctoo,  also 
from  the  district  of  Yoruba  throughout  Hausa,  where  they  are  verj'  power- 
ful, as  also  in  Bornu.  They  extend  to  Adanuxwa  south  of  the  Benue  and 
to  Waday;  their  extreme  eastern  point  is  Darfur,  perhaps  even  some  tracts 
on  the  White  Nile.  Consequently,  wherever  we  find  Negroes  we  also  have 
the  Fulah;  and  it  is  natural  that  we  should  find  many  transitional  forms 
between  them  and  the  Negroes  proper  as  the  results  of  intermingling. 

But  it  becomes  more  difficult  to  comprehend  that  gradual  transition 
between  the  Negro  and  Fulah  types  should  be  observed  where  the  Fulah 
live  without  intermingling,  and  that  some  unmixed  Negro  tribes  should 
resemble  them  in  stature  and  color.  Here  language  must  pronounce  the 
decision.  Their  tongue  is  remarkable.  We  find  again  the  prefixing  of 
dependent  pronouns  to  the  verb,  and  the  annexing  of  suffixes  to  denote 
the  tense:  ^Mciion  ^juin-^nycuna,  "'//<?  ^(we-)  ^eat;"  nyavi-i  is  the  past 
tense.  Even  traces  of  distinction  of  genders  are  noticeable  in  the  verb 
(Barth). 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  nouns  are  divided  into  classes  by  means  of 
suffixes,  and  this  division  is  made  according  to  their  meaning:  the  stiffix 
urn  distinguishes  objects,  o  persons,  /;-  places  where  something  is  enacted, 
am  liquids,  etc. ;  for  instance,  ^^'W-zrw,  "thing;"  gitdc-o,  "thief;"  dcntrg- 
ir-dc^  "place  for  reading,"  "school;"  nd'iani^  "  water;"  vcbbam^  "melted 
butter."  This  similarity  between  the  languages  of  the  Fulah  and  of  the 
Bantu  becomes  the  more  surprising  from  a  kind  of  concordance  between 
the  noun  and  the  adjective;  adjectives  relating  to  persons  end  in  0;  if  they 
relate  to  an  animal,  the  termination  is  git  or  da ;  if  to  a  liquid,  they  er.d 
in  daw:  ftedo /somdo,  "the  quick  man;"/>///.w  /.w;;f^«,  "  the  fast  horse;" 
vdiyam  guldam^  "warm  water."  Though  the  cfl!brt  for  a  similarity  of 
sotind  may  have  contributed  to  this  concordance  or  have  been  its  cau.<:e 
(Barth\  nevertheless  language  has  formed  of  it  a  grammatical  principle, 
as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  in  the  adjectives  some  of  the  suffixes  may 
become  prefixes;  ncdo  vio-kullul,  "the  timid  \\\m\-^''  putsu  gu-kaide  tsoidr^ 
"  the  fleet  horse."  The  plural  of  the  nouns  has  countless  ."^uffixes,  with 
wliich  the  adjectives  nuist  always  agree;  here  the  endeavor  to  mark  the 
plural  by  a  change  in  the  first  sound  is  perceptible,  just  as  in  the  Bantu 


326  ETIIXOGRAPHY. 

languages  the  first  letter  as  well  as  the  prefixes  is  changed;  demmo-ico, 
"fanner,"  plural  rcm»io-hc ;  gor-ko^  "woman,"  plural  icor-bc. 

The  Fulali  exhibits  the  same  principles  of  construction  as  the  Bantu 
languages,  but  in  the  manner  of  the  Soudan,  not  in  the  initial  sound,  but 
in  the  suffix,  the  really  formative  element  of  the  Negro  languages,  although 
we  here  meet  with  the  tendency  to  employ  also  the  first  sound,  as  we  have 
found  it  more  developed  in  the  other  Negro  languages.  That  the  Fulah  is 
entirely  a  Negro  language  is  apparent  from  its  close  relation  to  the  tongue 
of  the  Yolofs.  This  relation,  if  the  various  dialects  of  the  Fulah  and  the 
idioms  related  to  the  Yolof  language  be  taken  into  consideration,  extends 
not  only  to  the  inner  structure,  but  also  to  a  large  portion  of  the  vocabu- 
lary, which  is  not  borrowed.     Consequently,  the  Fulah  are  a  Negro  people. 

We  also  find  in  the  Fulah  numerous  points  of  contact  with  the  eastern 
languages;  for  instance,  the  Gal  la.  The  formation  of  the  passive  voice  is, 
with  the  exception  of  the  suffix,  alike  in  both  languages;  indeed,  all 
Nesjro  lansjiiaaes  are  verv  much  like  the  Galla  in  the  formation  of  this 
voice.  The  verbs  and  nouns,  in  the  Galla  as  well  as  in  all  Negro  lan- 
guages, are  so  little  separated  that  many  of  the  roots  can  serv^e  for  both. 
In  the  use,  and  even  in  the  form,  of  the  pronoun  many  points  of  agree- 
ment are  found;  yet  the  Galla  belongs  to  those  languages  which  bear  a 
plain  relation  to  the  Semitic.  We  therefore  repeat  this  important  state- 
ment: a  precise  delimitation  of  the  Negro  languages  in  an)'  direction  is 
not  possible.  It  may  be  added  that  these  languages  make  frequent  and 
often  odd  use  of  reduplication,  and  that  a  negative  verb  is  everywhere 
found. 

After  these  remarks  we  can  draw  a  closer  boundary  around  those  peo- 
ples whom  we  call  Negroes,  and  at  the  same  time  class  the  Negro  tribes 
in  groups.  We  have  already  drawn  the  southern  boundary  (p.  324).  In 
the  north  the  boundary  coincides  as  far  as  the  thirtieth  degree  of  longi- 
tude with  the  border  of  the  desert,  to  which  the  Negroes  were  forced  to 
retreat  by^the  Berber  tribes.  The  latitude  of  about  Timbuctoo,  and  a 
line  from  the  south-eastern  curve  of  the  Niger  to  Lake  Chad,  separate 
the  main  mass  of  the  Negroes  from  the  North-African  peoples.  North 
of  this  line  there  extends  a  broad  tract  inhabited  by  mixed  tribes  about 
whose  original  nationality  little  can  be  decided.  East  of  the  thirtieth 
degree  the  country  of  the  Tibbus  begins,  extending  as  far  as  Fezzan,  and 
consequently  far  to  the  north.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  eastern 
boundary'.  Darfur  and  Kordofan  are  still  occupied  by  Negroes,  who  reach 
the  Blue  Nile  at  Sennaar,  and  thence  extend  as  far  as  Lakes  Mwutan 
(Albert  Nyanza)  and  Ukerewe  (Victoria  Njanza).  A  line  drawn  from 
here  to  Calabar  separates  them  from  the  Bantu  tribes,  but  on  no  side  can 
a  distinct  boundar}'  be  drawn. 

Groups. — Among  the  Negro  peoples  individual  groups  can  be  dis- 
tinguished, which  we  shall  arrange  principally  with  reference  to  their 
language,  retaining  as  much  as  possible  the  names  given  by  Koelle: 

(i.)  The  Ailanlic   Group,    which  comprises  the   north-western   coast 


ETIIXOGRAPHY.  327 

inhabitants,  the  nations  of  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  the  tribes  of  the 
Niger  Delta.  Among  the  north-western  peoples  the  following  are  the 
principal:  The  Sarrars  (Serercs)  on  Cape  Verde;  on  the  lower  Gambia 
the  Feloops  (Aiamat);  south  of  these,  to  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Filhavi  and 
Biafadas  iyoSxoX'ds)-^  the  Papch  (Maniagoes)  on  the  Bissagos  Islands;  the 
Balanlcs  in  the  interior,  east  of  the  Tcholas;  on  the  coast  south  of  the 
Rio  Grande  the  Nalas,  the  Tiapis,  and  the  remnants  of  the  Banyiins, 
who  lived  on  the  Gambia  two  hundred  years  ago;  and  finally,  on  the 
Sierra  Leone,  the  Bii/Ioiiis  and  the  Tinincs. 

Of  the  tribes  on  the  Guinea  coast,  the  most  important  are  the  Krus  on 
the  Pepper  Coast,  the  Avckvoms  and  the  Gnbos,  the  tribes  speaking  the 
Odshi  language,  the  Aslia>ilrcs^  the  Faiitis,  the  Akras  (using  the  Gha 
language),  and  others;  the  tribes  speaking  the  Eh  we  language,  the 
Da/iomans  \\\i\\  their  divers  dialects  and  tribes;  and,  finally,  the  Yoritba 
tribes,  the  Aku  (5f  Koelle,  to  whom  belong  the  Igaras  south  of  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Benue,  the  Nupis  (Nuffi)  on  the  north,  and  perhaps  also  the 
Ibos  of  the  Niger  Delta,  but  these  are  more  distantly  related;  also  the 
Yalas,  Alan,  Bimbias,  and  others  at  the  same  place.  In  the  languages 
of  all  these  tribes  the  characteristic  trait  of  the  grammatical  structure  is 
the  change  of  the  prefixes. 

(2.)  Tlic  Peoples  of  the  Eastern  Plateau  0/ Soudan,  who  dwell  north  of 
the  Dahomey  and  Yoruba,  extending  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Niger,  are, 
as  far  as  the  vocabulary  of  their  language  is  considered,  related  to  the 
Yorubas.  But  as  the  structure  of  their  languages  (they  seem  to  employ 
the  suffixes  for  the  grammatical  formation  of  speech)  is  too  little  known, 
it  will  be  well  to  treat  of  them  at  present  as  an  independent  group,  whose 
chief  tribes  are  the  Tiii/ibas  (Tombo),  the  Moses,  the  Gurmas  to  the  east  as 
far  as  the  Niger,  and  south  of  these  the  Legbas  and  Kiambas.  The  Tunibos 
border  on 

(3.)  The  Peoples  of  the  Western  Plateau  of  Soudan,  the  Afandingoes 
(Mandcngas,  Maude  peoples),  to  whom  belong  the  Sarakulcs  (Serechules, 
Serrakolets),  the  Mandingoes  proper  with  their  various  divisions,  the 
Bambarras  on  the  upper  Niger,  the  Bavibukis  on  the  upper  Senegal,  the 
Kurankos  and  Susus,  and  finally,  more  to  the  west  than  the  last-named 
tribes,  and  dwelling  on  the  coast  between  the  Krus  and  the  Bullom,  the 
I'ei,  who  moved  thither  from  the  interior  plateau. 

(4.)  The  Northern  and  Central  African  Negro  Tribes  fonn  a  group  to 
which  belong  the  Yolofs  (Wolofs)  and  the  Fulah,  also  the  Sonrhais,  the 
Hausas,  the  Kanuris,  and,  on  the  islands  of  Lake  Chad,  the  Budunias,  the 
Tcdas,  Tebus,  or  Tibbus,  as  well  as  the  inhabitants  of  Logone,  the  Musgus, 
the  /rrt«rt'rt'/«.f  (Mandaras),  and  the  Bagirmis;  perhaps  also  the  tribes  of 
Adamazca,  whose  languages  are  as  yet  very  little  known;  and  finally  all 
those  who  speak  the  Maba  dialects,  as  well  as  the  inhabitants  of  Waday, 
and  perhaps  also  of  Darfur. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  in  so  large  a  group  subdivisions  are  formed; 
thus,  the  Yolofs  and  I'tilah  are  closely  related,  and  again  the  Kanuris, 


328  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Tibbus,  and  Bnduinas;  but  the  language  of  the  latter  has  been  preserved 
quite  independently  and  in  its  ancient  form.  Also  those  tribes  belong 
more  closely  together  whom  Earth  calls  the  Massa  tribes — the  Logoue, 
Wandala,  l\Iusgu,  Batta,  and  Marghi. 

Connected  with  this  division  are  the  numerous  small  tribes  lately 
united,  in  theory  at  least,  under  one  government  to  form  the  so-called 
"Congo  Free  State,"  as  laid  out  by  Mr.  Henry  !\I.  Stanley.  Of  these, 
the  Mussitrongos^  Basiutdi,  and  Zombos  occup}'  the  banks  of  the  Congo 
near  its  mouth;  the  Balcke  and  Mhe^  the  region  around  Stanley  Pool; 
the  Mayakiilia,  the  shores  of  the  Kuango  River,  an  important  tributary 
of  the  Congo;  while  the  upper  waters  of  that  stream  itself  are  peopled 
by  numerous  detached  tribes,  of  whom  we  may  name  the  Balui,  the 
Bakuti,  the  IVatica^  the  Bolotnbo,  etc. 

It  is  unusual  to  class  into  one  group  the  peoples  we  have  mentioned 
under  No.  4,  but  we  are  authorized  in  doing  it,  because  all  their  lan- 
guages show  a  similarity  which  does  not  result  from  borrowing.  Thus, 
for  example,  the  personal  pronoun  is  of  the  same  or  similar  origin  in 
them  all,  dissimilar  as  they  may  appear  at  first  sight.  All  coincide  in 
the  structure  of  the  verb,  prefixing  to  the  verbal  root  an  abbreviated  form 
of  the  personal  pronoun,  which  is  preceded  by  the  independent  pronoun 
or  the  subject;  for  instance,  Fulah,  ^ kan-^ ko-^o-^nyami^  '"he^eat;"  Son- 
rliai,  '^auga-ta  ^a-'gna;  Hausa,  '^ya-^tsiox  ^  si-^ ya-^  tsi^  where  jz',  the  ordinary 
pronoun  for  the  third  person  masculine  gender,  precedes  the  dependent 
pronoun,  just  as  it  is  invariably  correct  to  say,  yaro  ya-tsi^  "boy  he-ate," 
"the  boy  ate;"  Kanuri,  ^ si-  tsu-^ bit ;  Tibbu,  ^ vie-re  ^kc-^bu;  Logone, 
^  iii'^ )ia--zii)n  (compare '«i'-'«-"^/w,  "he  loves,"  where  we  have,  besides  «/, 
a  as  an  inseparable  pronoun);  Wandala,  ^ a-''-za  ba-nganc^  which  fonna- 
tion  deviates  a  little  in  the  independent  pronoun  ba-itganc^  "he,"  being 
at  the  end;  Bagirmi,  ^ ne-^ n-^ sa-ga  {ga  is  the  designation  of  the  aorist); 
and  Maba,  ^  ti^  ti-^  nya-re^  re  again  denoting  the  aorist.  The  roots  nya^ 
gna,  tsi,  21C-W,  sa,  are  originally  alike,  as  >/y  in  some  of  the  languages  is 
exactly  the  same  as  is  or  z  of  others.  This  fonnation  of  the  verb  is 
found  neither  in  the  languages  of  the  Maude  people  nor  in  those  of  the 
Atlantic  tribes. 

(5)  T/ic  Negroes  of  /he  Region  of  the  Nile,  south  of  Kordofan  to  the 
Equator,  the  most  northern  of  whom  probably  are  the  Shangol  (Shan- 
gallas),  as  the  extreme  north-eastern  part  of  Dar-Fertit  is,  in  consequence 
of  the  continual  .slave-trade,  depopulated.  It  is  difficult  to  define  how 
far  to  the  north-east  the  Negroes  are  spread.  No  doubt  more  than  one 
Negro  tribe  may  be  found  there;  but  as  only  the  most  minute  linguistic 
study  can  decide  as  to  the  relations  of  such  fragments,  we  will  leave  this 
difficult  question  unanswered. 

A  little  to  the  south,  on  the  Nile  proper,  we  find  the  Shilhiks,  next 
the  Nuers^  then  the  Dinkas  or  Dangehs  with  their  diverse  tribes  and 
dialects;  after  these  the  Elliabs  (Kitsch  or  Kek)  and  others.  To  the  east 
of  these,  on   the  8th  degree  of  latitude,   in   the   southern  part  of  Dar- 


ETUXOGRAriiY.  3-9 

Fcrtit,  dwell  the  ugly  Krrj  tribes,  who  are  called  Fertit  by  the  Furian 
Negroes  of  Kordofaii;  next,  toward  the  south,  the  Golos  and  the  Djurs; 
then  the  Bongos,  or  Dohrs  as  the>-  are  called  b>-  the  Dinkas,  or  O-bongs  as 
the  Djurs  name  them.  These  latter,  as  well  as  the  Devibos  to  the  north 
of  them  and  the  Bcllandas  south  of  the  Bongos,  are  migrated  tribes  of 
tlie  Shilluks.  South  of  the  Djurs,  and  living  on  the  same  degree  of 
latitude  as  the  Bongos,  we  find  the  Niam-Niavi,  or  Sandclis;  more  to  the 
south,  around  Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  the  Moiibultiis  and  Akkas.  These 
are  the  most  important  of  the  eastern  Nile  tribes,  the  most  southern  of 
which   .Schweinfurth  has  made  known  to  us. 

According  to  language,  all  these  tribes  belong  together,  some  closely, 
others  more  remotely.  The  Shilluk  and  Dinka  languages  form  larger 
groups;  it  has  also  been  asserted  that  there  are  two  main  divisions,  the 
northern  of  which  comprises  the  languages  around  the  Dinkas,  the  southern 
the  so-called  Bari  languages.  We  lack  linguistic  material  to  pronounce  a 
decision  on  this  point.  This  much  is  certain,  that  the  eastern  languages 
do  not  possess  the  ingenious  construction  of  the  -^erb  of  our  preceding 
division;  they  simply  prefix  the  pronoun  to  the  verb,  as  in  the  Atlantic 
languages,  and  they  also  seem  to  coincide  in  their  structure. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  language  of  the  Bongos  has  a  feminine,  as 
also  that  of  their  neighbors  the  Djurs;  but  the  forms  of  these  languages 
are  so  independent  that  an  influence  of  one  on  the  other  is  not  to  be 
thought  of  In  this  they  are  like  the  Logone  and  Hausa,  which  are 
distingui.shed  by  the  same  peculiarity.  The  princijile  of  fonning  the 
feminine  by  the  change  of  the  vowels,  and  more  rarely,  but  only  in  the 
third  person,  by  a  change  in  the  first  sound,  is  common  to  all.  Tlie 
Dinka  bears  resemblance  in  its  vocabulary  to  the  western  languages, 
and  has  many  other  common  properties  with  them. 

Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Negro:  Form  and  Cohr. — The  true  Negro 
type  is  foiuid  at  but  few  places,  and  not  universally.  The  dolichocephalic 
head  with  the  small  globular  forehead  (//.  8g,fgs.  10-12;  //.  <^2>>/ig.  3) 
rests  on  a  thick  fleshy  neck  and  hangs  a  little  forward,  as  the  occipital 
foramen  is  farther  back  than  that  of  the  European,  while  the  spinal  column 
is  straighter,  because  the  pelvis  is  not  curved  toward  the  front,  but  is  per- 
pendicular. This  ex]-)lai!is  why  the  knees  are  gcucrall\'  cur\cd,  and  why 
the  calves  are  far  uj),  iirojecting  a  little  to  the  side,  aiul  not  nnich  dc\-cl- 
oped.  As  the  muscles  of  the  upper  leg  arc  also  undeveloped,  and  the 
legs  are  proportionately  longer  than  those  of  Europeans,  the  stature  of 
the  Negro  appears  slender.  The  pelvis,  although  broader  than  that  of 
the  Bushmen,  is  comparatively  narrow  and  small:  Plate  i  {/ig-  ii,c)  shows 
the  outline  of  the  pelvis  of  a  Negress. 

The  foot  is  often  flat,  and  the  heelbone  projects.  Roth  the  upper  ann 
and  the  forearm,  especially  the  latter,  are  longer  than  with  Europeans; 
the  hands  of  the  Negroes,  according  to  measurements  by  Wcisbach,  are 
not  extraordinarily  long;  the  hardness  of  the  palm  of  the  hand  is  pro- 
duced  b}-  the  jicculiar   formation   of  the  skin.      The  skin  is   thick,  on 


330  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

account  of  the  abundance  of  papillce  (//.  i,  yf^.  9),  velvet-like,  soft,  and 
always  cool;  in  spite  of  its  dark  pigment,  which  varies  from  slate-color  or 
leather-brown  to  the  darkest  black,  it  is  sensitive  to  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

Hair. — Down  is  almost  absent,  and  there  is  but  little  hair  generally; 
the  beard  grows  late,  and  only  about  the  mouth  and  chin  (//.  93,7??".  3). 
The  hair  of  the  head,  invariably  black  and  glossy,  is  distinctly  marked, 
well  defined  as  to  its  limits,  mosth'  short,  rather  hard,  and  on  account  of 
its  close  curl  of  a  woolly  appearance.  Sometimes  it  grows  in  tufts,  the 
single  tufts  and  strips  being  separated  by  bare  spots,  as  is  seen  among 
the  South  Africans. 

Stature. — The  stature  is  generally  large,  and  not  rarely  attains  a 
height  of  180  centimetres  (70.87  inches);  160  centimetres  (63  inches)  is 
the  average  height;  but  there  are  entire  tribes,  especially  in  the  east,  which 
are  much  smaller — only  130  to  140  centimeters  (51  to  55  inches).  The 
bones  are  thick  and  heavy,  especially  those  of  the  skull,  whose  extreme 
hardness  makes  it  insensible  to  injuries  which  would  be  fatal  to  whites;  in 
quarrels  the  combatants  not  unfrequently  butt  each  other  with  the  head. 

Brain.,  Skit/l-Forin,  and  Features. — The  brain,  although  not  the  small- 
est of  the  species,  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  European  both  in  size  and  in 
the  number  of  its  convolutions.  The  form  of  the  skull,  the  vertex  being 
highly  curved,  is  hypsistenoeephalic  (Welcker) ;  the  cheekbones  project 
broadly  (//.  '^^^figs.  10,  11);  the  jawbones  are  decidedly  prognathic  (//. 
%(),Jigs.  II,  12);  the  teeth,  which  are  large  and  of  an  opaque  white,  are 
inclined  forward  toward  each  other  {pi.  89,  Jigs.  10,  12).  The  chin  is 
broad  (//.  Sg,  _/ig.  10),  but  not  very  long  (//.  8g,  Jig.  12).  The  eyes  are 
narrow  (//.  gi,  Jig.  i),  the  iris  black,  the  white  is  yellowish  (reddish)  and 
dim;  the  auricles  of  the  ear  stand  away  from  the  head  and  are  flat  and 
large;  the  fleshy  nose  is  broad  and  flat,  with  wide  nostrils;  the  mouth  is 
everted,  the  thick  lips  project  (comp.  p/.  91,  _^gs.  i,  9;  pi.  93,  ^g.  3)  and 
are  of  a  reddish-brown  color. 

/nterming/ings. — This  type — which,  as  Waitz  says,  would  appear  to 
many  Negro  tribes  of  finer  physique  as  a  caricature  of  them.selves — is, 
according  to  the  statement  of  most  writers,  the  true  type  of  the  Negroes, 
on  which  the  better  forms  have  been  ingrafted  by  means  of  commixtures. 
But  this  is  certainly  an  erroneous  opinion.  We  find  the  type  as  described 
in  the  lowlands  along  the  coasts  and  in  the  swampy  regions  of  the  inte- 
rior: on  the  coast,  for  instance,  among  the  Papel,  the  Feloops,  the  Susns, 
the  Ashantees,  the  Fantis,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Niger  Delta,  and  those 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Calabar;  in  the  interior  among  a  few  Mandingo 
tribes,  the  tribes  on  the  lower  Niger,  and  many  tribes  on  the  White 
Nile,  among  the  Dinkas,  the  Shilluks  (//.  g6,Jg.  2),  the  Nuers  (//.  97, 
_fig.  5),  the  Elliabs,  the  Baris  (//.  94,  _pgs.  4,  6),  etc.  Where  the  Negroes 
dwell  in  healthier,  drier,  and  higher  regions,  where  they  and  their  civil- 
ization are  more  developed,  their  type  becomes  better;  and  it  must  be 
said  that  the  tj'pe  is  more  pronounced  among  the  lower  classes  than  among 
the  higher. 


ETIIXOGRAPHY.  331 

If  the  cause  of  all  modification  lies  in  intenningling,  then  not  only 
on  the  northeni  boundary-line,  but  in  various  places  of  this  region,  the 
influence  of  foreign  blood  must  have  been  such  that  it  has  entirely 
changed  the  cliaracter  of  whole  tribes.  Such  extended  intermixtures 
may  have  been  possible  among  single  princely  families,  but  they  were 
in:possible  among  the  whole  nation,  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  with 
some  modifications  it  has  retained  its  language,  its  customs,  and  all  the 
important  features  of  its  physical  constitution. 

The  Berber  tribes  were  by  no  means  so  far  superior  to  the  Negroes  that 
one  could  infer  an  intellectual  subjugation  of  the  Negroes  to  them.  The 
physical  transformations  are  not  great  enough  to  confinn  such  a  supposi- 
tion. Besides,  the  tribes  in  the  lowlands  of  the  coast  were  also  exposed 
to  intermixtures,  and  yet  they  have  preserved  their  original  type. 

Consequently,  intermingling  is  not  the  cause  of  the  modification  of 
type:  it  rather  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  arrest  of  development  caused  by 
unfavorable  geographical  conditions.  Where  the  surroundings  are  more 
favorable  it  appears  in  a  milder  form. 

Dcviatiojis  in  Form. — Most  of  the  Mandingoes  are  of  fine  stature,  large 
and  vigorous,  but  their  features  are  of  the  Negro  type.  The  glossy  black 
Yolofs  are  of  fine  stature  and  regularly-shaped  face,  with  but  a  faintly 
pronounced  Negro  t}-pe  {pi.  ^%fig-  2);  and  similar  statements  are  made 
about  the  Atlantic  tribes — ^about  the  A.shaulccs  (//.  <^i,/ig.  i),  the  Vorubas, 
etc.  Of  the  northern  and  central  nations  we  pass  over  the  Sonrhais,  as 
they  have  intermingled  greatly,  but  the  Hausas  and  some  tribes  of  the 
Bornuese  are  not  ugly;  still  less  so  are  the  Tibbus,  with  the  exception  of 
their  southern  tribes,  which  are  extremely  ugly.  Great  differences  are 
also  seen  in  the  east:  Plate  91  {fg.  9)  shows  a  finely-fonned  Baginni 
Negro,  and  in  the  regions  of  the  Nile  the  northern  tribes  are  distinguished 
by  elegant  slcnderues.s,  the  Niam-Niam  {pi.  95,7?^.  i)  and  the  Monbuttu 
by  a  lower-set  figure  and  good  faces,  the  Akka  {pi.  <)J,/'g-  4)  by  a  miser- 
able dwarfishness. 

It  is  worth)-  of  especial  \\o\.c  that  the  Niam-Niam,  the  Bongos,  and  per- 
haps also  the  Krej,  do  not  show  a  dolichocephalic,  but  rather  a  brachy- 
cephalic,  shape  of  the  skull;  the  latter  is  also  ibuud  among  some  Atlantic 
and  Mandingo  tribes.  Not  only  do  the  Sarakulcs,  some  Sonrhai  tribes, 
and  the  Tibbus  have  long  hair  falling  down  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  and 
much  straighlcr  than  Negro  hair  usually  is,  but  also  the  Wandala  and  many 
of  the  eastern  tribes — for  instance,  some  of  the  Shillnks,  the  Niam-Niam, 
and  their  neighboring  tribes,  with  whom  certainly  no  intenningling  can 
be  thought  of,  tlie  Monbuttus,  and  others.  The  eastern  nations  have  a 
more  abundant  beard  than  the  western.  Among  the  Akkas  (//.  97,7/4''.  4), 
the  western  Wandalas,  Bagirmis  (//.  <)i,fig.  9),  and  others  the  eyes  are 
widely  opened;  aquiline  noses  occur  among  the  Monbuttus,  and  arc  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  Bambarras,  the  Sonrhais,  the  Fanti.s,  and 
many  of  the  Vorubas  in  the  west.  The  women  are  mostly  smaller  than 
the  men  (//.  94,y/i,^  4;  pi-  9(>,/ig-  2);  the  build  of  the  breast  is  like  that 


332  ETHXOGRAPHY. 

of  the  South- African  tribes  {pi.  <^\,  fig.  4;  //.  '^^^  fig-  2;  //.  ^%  fiig-  2),  and 
in  tlie  east  of  the  district  not  only  the  large  development  of  the  haunch  is 
seen,  but  also  an  analogue  to  the  "Hottentot  apron."  The  Negroes  gener- 
ally sit  in  a  crouching  position  (//.  93,7?^.  6;  pi.  <^\^fig.  6;  //.  ()(>■,  fig-  2); 
in  order  to  rest  they  often  stand  on  one  foot,  as  the  youth  on  Plate  96  {fig. 
2,  to  the  left). 

Variations  in  (he  Color  of  the  Skin. — The  color  of  the  skin  varies. 
INIany  of  the  Mandingoes  and  many  individuals  among  the  Atlantic  tribes 
are  dark  brown;  the  Ibos,  yellow  brown;  the  northern  Tibbu  tribes,  cop- 
per or  dark  brown;  and  many  tribes  in  Adaniawa,  reddish-brown.  Accord- 
ing to  Schweiufurth,  all  the  eastern  tribes  have  a  more  or  less  reddish  tint, 
though  the  skin  be  dark;  thus  the  Furians  are  black  with  a  reddish  hue, 
also  the  Dinkas,  but  especially  the  Bongos,  Mittus,  Niam-Niam,  and  Krej, 
who  often  are  light,  even  to  a  reddish-brown.  Schweinfurth  discovers  in 
this  reddish  tint  of  the  skin  a  mark  distinguishing  the  Negroes  from  the 
North  Africans,  whose  skin  often  shades  from  a  yellow  ground-color, 
instead  of  a  red  one,  into  darker  tints,  and  even  into  black.  The  Akkas 
and  many  of  the  Wonbuttus  are  of  a  faint  coffee-brown;  even  the  hair, 
although  short  and  woolly  among  the  Akkas,  is  frequently  of  a  brownish- 
or  grayish-blond  color. 

We  may  class  the  Fulali  among  the  Negroes,  as  in  physical  peculiarities 
they  are  not  strikingly  different,  especially  from  the  eastern  Negroes,  and 
from  the  east  the  Fulah  came  to  the  country  of  the  Yolofs,  which  is  their 
chief  habitat  in  the  west.  The  color  of  their  skin,  mostly  of  a  reddish- 
brown,  becomes  light,  sometimes  even  a  leather-yellow,  but  not  unfre- 
quently  darkens  through  a  coffee-brown  to  an  ebony-black. 

The  hair  of  their  head,  although  not  rarely  woolly,  is  generally  less 
frizzled  and  also  longer  than  the  Negro  hair,  and  they  wear  it  in  curls  or 
artistically  arrange  and  braid  it  about  the  head  {pi.  ()j.,figs.  6,  7,  10,  11). 
Aquiline  noses  frequently  occur,  also  large,  widely-opened  eyes,  as  a  con- 
sequence of  which  their  features  often  do  not  seem  Negro-like,  although 
the  mouth  remains  large.  But  all  these  traits  we  found  among  the 
Negroes.  Though  other  ethnologists  pronounce  the  Fulah  to  be  "an 
intermediate  form  between  Negroes  and  Arabians  and  Berbers,"  it  is  more 
correct  to  assume  them  to  be  a  Negro  people  without  pronounced  Negro 
peculiarities.  Their  voice  is  praised,  while  among  the  NegToes,  in  both 
the  east  and  west,  the  voice  is  weak,  indistinct,  and  shrill. 

Disfigurement  of  the  Body. — The  hair  of  the  body  is  generally  removed 
by  the  Negroes;  the  incisor  teeth  are  extracted  among  some  tribes  at  the 
time  of  manhood  {pi.  ^(),  fig-  10),  among  others  only  filed  to  a  point;  the 
ear-lobes  (sometimes  also  the  interior  of  the  auricle,  as  among  the  Mon- 
buttus)  are  mostly  pierced  {pi.  97,  fig.  5) — among  the  women  of  the  Bam- 
barra  and  some  tribes  of  the  interior  (IMarghi,  Musgu)  the  lips  also — in 
order  to  place  a  plug  of  wood,  a  stone,  or  a  piece  of  metal  in  them  (//.  92, 
fig.  14;  pi.  <^%  fig.  2);  both  lips,  or  the  upper  lip  in  the  manner  of  the 
Manganyas  {pi.  89,  fig.  2),  are  disfigured  b}-  the  women  of  the  Mittu  and 


ETIIXOGRAPIIY.  m 

other  tribes  of  the  Nile,  while  others  again  bore  rows  of  holes  in  the  upper 
lip,  the  edge  of  the  auricle,  and  even  the  outside  of  the  nose,  in  order  to 
put  short  straws  into  the  openings.  Circumcision  is  practised  frequently 
in  the  west,  but  not  by  all  nations;  in  the  east  it  is  not  at  all  found  among 
the  tribes  of  the  Nile,  but  the  Monbuttus  and  some  smaller  tribes  related 
to  them  practise  it;  almost  all  make  scars  or  certain  tattoo-marks  (the  lat- 
ter never  very  extensive)  on  their  heads  or  bodies,  which  serve  as  tribal 
marks.  According  to  Schweinfurth,  the  Bongos  pierce  the  skin  of  the 
belly  at  the  navel  and  place  in  it  a  small  piece  of  wood  or  a  plug. 

Hair-Dressing. — The  hair  is  frequently  cut  short  or  shaved,  often  only 
a  crown  of  hair  remaining  (//.  88,  yf^.  19;  pi.  <)^,fig.  4),  and  sometimes  it 
is  entirely  removed  (/>/.  93,  Jig.  3);  or  it  is  worn  in  the  oddest  manner — 
sometimes  in  long  thin  curls,  sometimes  like  a  helmet-crest  on  the  top 
of  the  head  (//.  <)T„yig.  6,  the  sitting  figure  to  the  right)  or  standing  out 
like  a  broad  halo  all  around  the  head  (p/.  g6,yig.  2),  or,  as  among  the 
Niam-Niam,  braided  up  over  large  wheel-like  wooden  frames,  and  among 
the  Monbuttus  drawn  up  over  a  cylindrical  wooden  frame  and  braided  in 
fine  strings,  often  mixed  with  false  hair  about  the  forehead,  etc.  It  is 
also  decorated  with  feathers  (//.  93,7?^.  6),  bushes  of  plumes  of  various 
kinds,  with  ribbons,  beads,  with  caps  laced  with  beads  (//.  94, _/?^i.  4,  6; 
p/.  C)y,y/g.  5,  to  the  right),  and  in  the  east  it  is  not  unfrequently  dyed  red 
by  means  of  cow's  urine. 

Costume. — In  tho.se  regions  where  the  Negroes  live  without  contact  with 
European  or  Semitic  civilization  they  wear  but  little  clothing,  the  men 
often  only  a  small  loin-cloth,  or,  as  among  many  tribes  of  the  east  (Nuer, 
Djur,  Shilluk,  Dinka,  and  others,  //.  94,  fig.  i),  they  are  entirely  naked. 
But  also  among  them  the  nobles  and  the  rich  sometimes  wear  a  loin-scarf 
as  a  decoration.  The  unmarried  women  of  these  tribes  are  also  frequently 
nude  (Marnos,  //.  99,  fig.  2),  but  the  married  women  wear  almost  ever>-- 
where  either  a  wrap  of  skins  about  the  hips  or  a  bunch  of  leaves  both  in 
front  and  back;  among  the  Monbuttus  the  aprons  of  the  women  are  very 
scant,  1))it  they  always  carry  a  strip  of  bast  with  them  which  they  throw 
over  their  laps  in  sitting  down.  The  Monbuttu  men  cover  themselves 
with  bark  substances,  those  of  the  Niam-Niam  with  hides.  Some  of 
the  eastern  nations — as  the  Niam-Niam,  for  instance — paint  their  entire 
bodies  red  or  white  (//.  94,7??-.  4,  middle),  or  in  stripes  or  designs.  In 
Central  Africa,  Mohammedan  attire  made  of  cotton  materials  is  worn;  in 
the  west,  either  this  or  a  more  or  less  European  dress,  or  the  primitive  scarf, 
forms  the  attire  (//.  ()i,fiigs.  3-7,  10,  11;  //.  <)2,figs.  1-3,  20;  //.  93,/ir-f- 
1,  2,  4,  5;  //.  99,  fig.  2,  the  women  to  the  left). 

Ornamculs.—The:  dress  is  decorated  with  various  kinds  of  ornaments, 
which  are  worn  principally  by  the  men— hides  thrown  about  the  shoul- 
der.s,  long  hanging  tails  of  animals  (//.  ()\,  fig.  i,  middle  figure),  strings 
of  beads  around  the  neck  and  brea.st,  necklaces  of  teeth  or  of  bufialo 
leather,  and  bracelets  and  anklets  of  metal  (//.  88,/?--  IQ!  P'-  94. /.e^.  4. 
6)  or  of  ivor>'  {pi.  ^S.fig.  2;  //.  97^fS■  b)-     0^^^"  ^hcy  wear  a  row  of 


334  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

sucli  things  around  the  arm  or  leg  (/>/.  9^,  Jig-  6);  these  are  not  rarely 
welded  on,  and  are  sometimes  of  a  great  weight.  The-  Monbuttus  wear 
similar  heavy  rings  about  the  neck.  Their  ornaments  are  a  source  of 
great  pleasure  to  the  Negroes,  and  in  some  places  there  are  rules  in  this- 
line  as  to  what  appertains  to  each  rank.  The  Negroes  are  not  more 
vain  than  any  other  people  in  a  state  of  nature,  only  they  give  a  more 
lively  utterance  to  their  pleasure. 

Building. — The  housebuilding  of  the  Negroes  is  very  uniform:  on  a 
cylindrical  foundation  of  clay  or  plaited  work,  the  latter  being  generally 
cemented  with  clay  on  the  inside,  rests  a  pointed  or  conical  roof  which  is 
braided  of  straw  or  palm-leaves,  generally  overlapping.  The  shape  of  the 
roof,  which  is  often  decorated,  as  among  the  Niam-Niam,  varies:  some- 
times it  is  rather  flat  (//.  9%  Jig.  2),  then  again  pointed  (//.  92).,  Jig-  6, 
background)  or  round  (//.  94,  fig.  6).  The  houses  have  but  one  door 
and  no  windows:  the  door  is  often  so  low  that  the  inhabitants  must 
crawl  through  it;  consequently,  the  interior  is  full  of  smoke  and  bad 
air,  but  it  is  generally  clean.  The  fuel  in  many  places  consists  of  dried 
cow-dung. 

The  Monbuttus  arrange  a  seat  on  the  central  pillar  of  the  house  where 
it  projects  above  the  roof.  Among  the  Monbuttus,  Schweinfurth  saw 
artistically-built  halls  one  hundred  feet  in  length,  forty  feet  high,  and 
fifty  feet  broad.  In  the  west,  among  the  Ashantees,  artistic  buildings 
are  found.  It  is  well  known  that  cities  of  from  ten  to  eighty  thousand 
inhabitants  exist  in  the  northern  Negro  countries.  They  are  built  in  the 
Mohammedan  style  of  architecture,  and  are  fortified  with  walls,  gates, 
and  strong  castles.  The  dwelling-houses  are  constructed  of  air-dried 
bricks.  Some  nations — for  instance,  the  Krus — build  their  houses  on 
piles;  by  others  only  the  granaries  or  the  smaller  huts  in  which  they 
sleep  are  constructed  in  that  manner  {pi.  90,  figs.  10,  11). 

The  huts  are  frequently  collected  into  villages  (//.  92,  fig.  20;  //.  93, 
fig.  6,  a  Fulah  village);  in  the  less  civilized  regions  they  are  located 
together  on  farms  or  in  small  hamlets.  The  farm  premises  generally  con- 
tain several  huts — one  for  the  master  of  the  house,  others  for  the  women, 
others  for  the  animals;  among  the  Niam-Niam  and  other  tribes  one  for  the 
immature  boys,  who  sleep  together,  and  smaller  ones  for  the  storage  of 
grain,  etc.  The  smaller  towns  and  villages  are  often  fortified  with  walls 
or  palisades  (//.  92,  fig.  20);  often  the  villages  have  a  separate  fort,  such 
as  we  met  with  in  South  Africa,  which  serves  as  a  residence  of  the 
chief  {pi.  90,  fig.  9).  In  many  Negro  villages  in  the  east  and  west 
there  are  secluded  privies  or  ditch-like  sewers.  The  household  goods  are 
simple.  The  family  sleep  on  the  floor,  blocks  of  wood  serving  as  pillows; 
the  nobles  both  in  the  east  and  west  have  chairs  or  .stools  {pi.  89,  fig.  7); 
the  weapons,  pots  {pi.  92,  fig.  18),  or  whatever  else  they  may  possess  are 
kept  either  in  or  in  front  of  the  house. 

Farm  Buildings. — Plate  99  {fig.  2)  shows  the  farm  of  a  chief  of  the 
Mu.sgus  in  Central  Africa:  the  bell-shaped  buildings  to  the  right  and  in 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  335 

tlie  bacTcgronnd,  constructed,  as  well  as  the  enclosing  wall,  of  clay,  are 
granaries,  which  are  bnilt  in  a  great  variety  of  shapes  (//.  90,  fig.  10). 
On  all  the  farms  we  also  find  open  sheds,  under  which  the  inhabitants 
cook,  tie  their  cattle,  sit  and  talk,  etc.  (comp.  pi.  92,  fig.  20;  pi.  99,  fig. 
2);  and  the  village  of  Fernando  Po  (//.  90,  fig.  7)  is  composed  entirely 
of  such  protecting  roofs.  The  semi-globnlar  huts  so  frequently  met  with 
in  South  Africa  are  rarely  found  here,  but  we  see  them  in  Soudan  (//.  92, 
fig.  20),  and  also  on  the  upper  Nile. 

Agriculture  and  Iiiiplcincn/s. — Immediately  about  the  villages  are  the 
fields  and  plantations.  All  Negro  peoples  are  agriculturists,  some  to  a 
greater  extent  than  others.  Farming  is  rarely  conducted  by  the  men, 
generally  by  the  women  and  children  or  the  slaves.  The  implement 
most  frequently  used  is  a  hoe  {pi.  88,  fig.  19,  background).  This  hoe  is 
a  very  useful  tool  and  fully  suffices  for  the  tropic  soil  of  Africa  (Waitz). 
In  the  west,  w^here  the  art  of  transplanting  is  known  and  the  fields  are 
drained,  ploughed  regularly,  and  weeded,  the  Sarrars,  Krus,  many  of  the 
Mandingoes  and  Fulali,  arc  the  best  agriculturists;  in  the  cast  the  Bongos, 
Shilluks,  and  Mittus. 

Plant-Prodticts. — The  chief  nutritive  plant  from  Cape  Verde  to  the 
White  Nile  is  the  doura  {Sorg/nini);  other  grains  are  rice  on  the  western 
coast  (Sarrar,  Kru),  and  maize  almost  everywhere.  Other  plants  are  beans, 
groundnuts  {Arac/u's),  the  manioc,  batatas,  yams,  a  species  of  Arum  the 
root-bulbs  of  which  are  edible,  bananas,  sugar-cane,  various  members  of  the 
gourd  family,  and  two  kinds  of  tobacco — Nicoliana  rustica  and  N.  labacutn. 
In  the  west  they  successful!)'  grow  cotton  as  a  fibre-plant,  and,on  the  upper 
Nile  a  species  of  fig  the  bark  of  which  is  used  for  dress  materials.  Flowers 
are  also  cultivated  here  and  there  in  the  vicinity  of  the  houses.  It  is 
strange  that  of  all  the  most  important  nutritive  plants  scarcely  any 
originated  in  Africa:  sorghum,  millet,  rice,  batatas,  and  arum  originated 
in  A.sia;  arachis,  manioc,  and  tobacco  in  America  (Decandolle). 

Stock-Raisiug. — Stock-breeding  is  not  so  actively  pushed  b\-  the  Ne- 
groes as  by  the  nations  of  South  Africa,  but  the  Nuers  and  Diukas  carr\' 
it  on  as  zealously  as  the  Hottentots.  Cattle  belonging  to  the  Zebu  race  in 
the  east,  goats  and  sheep  among  the  Niam-Niam  and  in  the  west,  are  the 
domestic  animals,  besides  dogs  and  chickens.  The  fact  that  the  latter 
are  not  found  among  the  Nuers  and  Dinkas  is  based  on  such  regulations  of 
food  as  we  have  hitherto  frequently  found.  The  flesh  of  these  animals  is 
not  so  palatable  as  it  is  with  us — a  peculiarity  met  with  in  the  cast  as 
well  as  in  the  west  of  this  vast  district.     Swine  are  also  raised. 

The  Dinkas  do  not  kill  any  of  their  cattle,  but  they  eat  those  that  die; 
they  have  great  afTcction  for  their  flocks,  which  constitute  their  pride, 
their  pleasure,  and  their  greatest  wealth.  The  cattle  are  well  tended  by 
slaves,  and  when  sick  are  kept  in  special  houses.  During  the  ni.qht  they 
are  tied  either  in  clo.se  pro.ximity  to  the  dwelling  or  in  particular  pens, 
and  are  guarded  by  fires  from  being  stolen,  etc.  Such  care  is  rarely  taken 
in  the  west,  where,  however,  the  Krus  and  I\Iandingoes  are  quite  able  stock- 


336  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

raisers.  The  fact  that  the  Fulah  often  lead  a  pastoral  life  and  possess 
great  herds  does  not  distinguish  them  from  the  Negroes,  for  we  find  the 
same  among  the  eastern  tribes.  Horses  are  plentiful  only  in  Central 
Africa  (//.  91,  Jig.  8;  pi.  92,  fig.  2;  pi.  99,  fig.  2),  but  everywhere  they 
are  considered  of  great  value.  Bees  are  kept  in  the  west  (?iIandingoes) 
and  in  the  interior  of  Soudan  (Musgus). 

Food. — Thus  the  Negroes  derive  their  food-supply  principally  from 
agriculture  and  stock-raising.  But  they  are  fond  of  fish,  which  they 
catch  with  spears  (//.  93,  fig.  6,  the  figures  in  the  skiffs),  with  nets,  or 
with  fish-baskets  (//.  99,  fiig.  2),  and  which  are  often  eaten  in  a  half- 
decayed  condition.  Dog-flesh  is  everywhere  an  article  of  food.  The 
products  of  the  chase  are  of  importance,  especially  to  such  nations  as  have 
no  herds,  and  many  wild  plants  and  fruits  are  used.  Prohibitions  of 
certain  articles,  such  as  we  have  seen  among  the  eastern  peoples  in  regard 
to  chickens  (p.  335),  are  also  numerous  in  the  west,  for  entire  tribes  as  well 
as  for  individuals. 

Grain  and  dried  fruits  are  groiind  between  two  stones  in  the  manner 
of  the  Bantu  (comp.  pi.  86,  fig.  3),  or  are  pounded  in  wooden  mortars, 
which  either  are  portable  (//.  99,  fig.  2)  or  are  constructed  on  the  ground 
in  front  of  the  houses,  where  the  grain  is  also  threshed  on  level  floors. 
The  Negroes  generally  cook  their  food  in  earthen  pots  of  various  shapes 
and  sizes,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  they  are  skilful  (//.  92,  fiig.  iS; 
P^-  97)  fig-  5i  by  the  side  of  the  sitting  women);  they  generally  eat  from 
wooden  dishes  which  are  sometimes  flat,  sometimes  very  deep:  the  girl  on 
Plate  99  ^fig.  2),  standing  by  the  side  of  the  sitting  woman,  holds  one  in 
her  hand  (comp.  also  //.  96,  fig.  2 ;  pi.  97,  fig.  5).  Meals  are  taken  at 
regular  hours,  the  principal  one  being  that  of  the  evening;  cleanliness, 
and  even  some  grace,  prevail  at  eating.  The  Negroes  in  general  eat 
plentifully,  but  they  are  not  voracious,  and  know  how  to  content  them- 
selves with  little. 

Stiimilants. — In  many  places  (for  e.\ample,  in  the  east)  they  have  hardly 
any  salt,  but  they  are  not  without  stimulants.  Aside  from  half-decayed, 
piquant  fish  and  the  fruits  like  the  kola-nut,  which  they  chew,  they 
have  palm  wine,  and  they  brew  a  kind  of  beer  from  grain.  The  Negroes 
are  fond  of  these  beverages,  and  their  festivities  often  become  wild  orgies, 
but  in  general  they  are  not  addicted  to  drunkenness.  The  most  import- 
ant stimulant  is  tobacco,  which,  mi.xed  with  ashes  or  soda,  they  snuff  or 
chew,  but  most  frequently  smoke  from  long  pipes  made  of  clay,  of  th.e 
stems  of  banana-leaves,  or  of  iron.  The  size  of  the  bowl  varies  (/>/.  93, 
fig.  6;  pi.  ()6,fig.  2). 

The  Bari  Negroes,  the  Nuers,  Dinkas,  and  Shilluks,  smoke  from 
enormous  bowls,  on  the  long  stems  of  which  a  gourd  filled  with  bast 
figures  as  a  mouth-piece  {pi.  93,  fig.  6,  somewhat  indistinct) :  the  bast, 
which  absorbs  the  nicotine,  is  afterwards  chewed.  They  generally 
smoke  in  company,  passing  the  pipe  after  a  few  draughts,  and  even  th.e 
chewed  bast.     In  the  east  the  women  also  smoke  passionately  (//.  96, 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  337 

fig.  2);  in  the  west  the  :\Ianrlingoes  do  not  smoke,  as  it  is  prohibited  to 
them  and  other  nations  (Waitz). 

Industrial  Arts. — The  Negroes  have  considerable  industrial  ability. 
We  have  already'  referred  to  their  manufactures  of  dress  and  pottery 
(p.  312).  They  obtain  salt,  to  them  a  valuable  article,  by  evaporating 
sea-water  or  by  burning  certain  plants  and  lixiviating  the  ashes.  Some 
of  the  western  tribes  make  their  own  gunpowder.  Their  housebuilding 
is  important;  they  also  build  bridges  and  dig  wells;  and  the  art  of  pro- 
curing iron  is  known  throughout  the  entire  south.  In  the  east  and  west 
they  erect  small  furnaces  of  clay,  and  use  the  style  of  bellows  which  we 
have  already  seen  (p.  313)  in  South  Africa  (//.  88,  yf^.  19).  They  employ 
heavy  stones  in  the  place  of  hammers  (//.  88,  ^fo-.  19).  They  manufacture 
artistic  articles — for  instance,  rings  worn  as  ornaments. 

A  number  of  illustrations,  further  displaying  their  technical  skill  in 
the  various  arts,  will  be  obser\-ed  on  Plates  93,  91,  95,  96,  and  97.  Thus 
on  Plate  93  we  see  carpenters'  tools  {figs.  7,  8),  an  oil-jar  {fig.  9),  a  stool 
and  bench  {figs.  10,  11),  a  basket  {fig.  12),  and  a  large  hut  {fiig.  13),  all 
from  the  Monbuttus.  On  Plate  94  {fig.  2)  is  a  similar  dwelling  of  the 
Dinkas,  and  Figures  5  and  7  are  respectively  a  drum  and  a  Avater-pitcher  of 
the  same  tribe;  Figure  3  is  a  clay  pipe-head  of  Golo  manufacture.  Plate 
95  shows  a  variety  of  articles  made  by  the  Niam-Niam;  Figure  2,  a  dagger 
and  sheath;  Figure  3,  a  wooden  vase;  Figiire  4,  a  stringed  musical  instru- 
ment; Figure  5,  a  pitcher;  Figure  6,  a  box;  Figure  7,  an  earthen  flask; 
Figure  9,  a  shield;  Figure  10,  a  dagger;  Figures  11,  12,  swords.  On  th.e 
same  plate  {fig.  13)  are  a  basket  from  the  Basuro  country  and  {figs.  14, 
15)  a  pipe  and  a  musical  instrument  from  the  Mittus.  On  Plate  96  {fig. 
3)  are  shown  lance-heads  from  the  Bongos,  and  Figures  4,  5,  and  6  illus- 
trate the  construction  of  a  furnace  or  smelting-oven  among  the  Djurs. 
A  shovel  and  bracelet  of  native  Djur  manufacture  are  represented  on 
Plate  97  {figs.  6,  7),  and  on  the  same  plate  {fig.  i)  is  a  granary  of  the 
Bongos;  Figure  2,  one  of  their  furnace-bellows,  and  Figure  3,  a  carved 
figure,  such  as  they  erect  on  graves.  The  almost  nude  man  {fig.  4)  is 
an  Akka  warrior  with  bow,  arrows,  and  lance. 

Afoiicy. — Iron  as  well  as  copper  bars  frequenth-  form  a  sort  of  money, 
the  iron  (according  to  Schweinfurth)  assuming  in  the  east  the  shape  either 
of  spear-points  or  of  round  disks  with  a  handle.  Silver  money,  and  even 
paper  money,  have  been  introduced.  The  cowries  (small  shell.s)  have  now 
lost  their  significance,  and  are  worn  only  as  ornaments,  but  their  scr%nng 
for  so  long  a  time  and  in  so  important  a  measure  as  coin  (see  p.  116) 
proves  the  mercantile  spirit  of  the  Negroes.  All  Negroes  carry  on  trade 
with  great  passion  and  still  greater  skill.  Many  tribes  are  not  only  adepts 
in  swinnning  and  diving,  but  carry  on  active  communication  by  water; 
and  perhaps  the  Krus  {crr7c)  derive  their  name  from  their  skill  in  naviga- 
tion. Plate  93  {fig.  6)  shows  some  fishing-skiffs  of  an  eastern  tribe.  In  all 
these  things  the  Fulah  arc  closely  related  to  the  Negroes. 

Arts  and  A/i<sic. — Their  artistic   accomplishments  are  quite   limited. 
Vol..  I.— 22 


338  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Although  some  taste  may  at  times  be  observed  in  their  carvings  and  in 
their  buildings,  it  would  be  saying  too  much  to  assert  that  they  have 
accomplished  anything  in  the  plastic  arts.  Their  dances,  generally  noc- 
turnal and  originally  of  a  religious  character,  are  mostly  dissolute  i^pL  94, 
figs.  I,  6).  The  dancers  are  fantastically  attired,  especially  when  they  are 
solo  dancers,  as  is  frequently  the  case:  Plate  91  {fig.  5)  shows  one  in  half 
mask.  There  are  also  jugglers  and  clowns.  Their  musical  attainments 
are  of  a  higher  order.  They  sing  and  play  much,  often  for  the  sake  of 
the  music  alone,  without  any  words.  The  musicians  frequently  dance 
while  playing  (//.  93,  fig.  4).  Their  music  is  mostly  rude,  especially  at 
their  public  festivities,  which  are  described  by  witnesses  as  being  conducted 
with  disorderly  noise  and  wild  screaming.  But  they  have  melodies  for 
songs  and  fixed  rhythms,  and  exhibit  great  ability  in  learning  music. 

Alusical  Instruments. — They  have  various  harp-  and  lute-like  instru- 
ments (//.  ^2.,  figs.  16,  17),  besides  the  monochords  {pi.  <^2,fig.  12),  which 
remind  one  of  the  monochords  of  South  Africa,  and  are,  like  them,  vibrated 
by  blowing;  they  have  also  large  wooden  drums,  kettledrums  (//.  94,7?^. 
i),  flutes  of  various  fonns  {pi.  92,  figs.  13,  15;  pi.  93,  fig.  4),  trumpet-like 
instruments  {pi.  <^^^fig.  i),  Pan's  flutes,  etc.  Instruments  similar  to  those 
represented  on  Plate  83  {fig.  i)  are  found  in  the  west. 

Literature. — Their  poetry  is  not  insignificant.  Their  epi-lyric  eSu- 
sions  are  mostly  extemporary — among  some  tribes  of  the  west  there  are 
professional  improvisators — and  consequently  are  of  no  high  order;  but 
they  show  the  ability  of  the  Negroes  to  conceive  facts  and  subjective 
experiences  with  a  certain  depth  of  feeling  and  to  express  them  poetically. 
Their  lyrical  stanzas,  and  above  all  their  numerous  and  apposite  proverbs, 
are  an  evidence  of  this  ability.  The  Negroes  are  fond  of  stories,  and 
especially  fable-like  narratives,  which  are  far-spread  and  have  a  practical, 
instructive  conclusion.  They  also  have  fairy-tales,  some  of  which  Schon 
relates;  but  a  powerful  and  unchecked  imagination  inclines  them  to  the 
monstrous. 

Family  Life. — Passing  to  the  family  life  of  the  Negro,  we  find  the 
same  mixture  of  good-nature  associated  with  vulgar  selfishness  which  we 
have  so  frequently  noticed.  Everywhere  the  wife  is  bought,  everywhere 
polygamy  prevails,  and  only  the  ver\'  poorest  are  satisfied  with  one  wife. 
The  women  generally  have  separate  houses,  and  one  of  them,  eitlier  she 
who  was  first  married,  or  the  one  of  highest  rank,  or  the  mother  of  the 
principal  heir,  is  considered  the  chief  wife  in  the  west  as  well  as  in  Cen- 
tral Africa.  It  is  different  in  the  east,  where  the  women  when  old  and 
ugly  are  treated  by  the  men  as  slaves,  or  at  least  are  no  longer  visited, 
and  are  replaced  by  yoiinger  wives;  but  they  still  belong  to  the  family  of 
the  man  who  has  purchased  them.  Sovereigns  are  obliged  to  take  the 
wives  of  their  fathers,  and  often  have  a  great  number. 

Sexual  Relations. — Before  marriage  the  sexes  are  permitted  to  have 
free  intercourse  with  each  other,  but  there  are  tribes  which  are  more  strict 
in  this  regard.     In  the  east  the  women,  with  the  exception  of  the  impor- 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  339 

tunate  Monbtittu  women,  are  well  behaved,  and  even  exhibit  great  reserve 
(Schweinfurth).  Adultery  is  criminal  everywhere,  and  is  either  punished 
b)'  money-fines  or  by  death.  But  of  course  the  wife  cannot  call  her  hus- 
band to  account  in  like  manner.  Among  some  degenerated  tribes  prosti- 
tution of  the  wife  by  her  husband  is  frequent,  and  among  the  western 
(coast)  nations  there  are  everywhere  public  women  who  give  the  money 
they  earn  to  their  masters,  and  in  Dahomey  to  the  king.  The  Negroes 
are  a  very  sensual  race. 

Forjiis  0/ Marriage. — Engagements  of  marriage  are  made  ver}'  simph', 
and  declarations  on  the  part  of  the  man  rarely  meet  with  opposition. 
Oftentimes  children  are  engaged.  Marriage  is  contracted  without  cere- 
mony among  some  tribes  (Gold  Coast);  among  others  (Mandingoes)  the 
groom  arranges  a  festivity,  the  bride  is  wrapped  over  and  over  in  the  fes- 
tive dress  of  white  cotton,  and  she  is  conducted  b\-  the  women  with  songs 
and  dances  to  her  new  hut.  The  purchase-money  is  delivered  and  the 
bride  handed  over.  Husband  and  wife  have  no  property  in  common, 
which  is  very  significant  in  regard  to  inheritance. 

Divorce. — Divorce  is  not  much  practised,  from  the  fact  that  if  the  wife 
leaves  her  husband  she  must  return  all  the  presents  he  gave  for  her,  and 
she  must  even  pay  for  the  children  she  takes  with  her !  On  the  other  hand, 
the  husband  on  renouncing  his  wife  loses  all  he  paid  for  her.  In  spite  of 
the  despicable  degradation  to  which  the  Negro  women  are  condemned, 
individually  they  are  not  badly  treated:  they  share  in  pleasures  and  fe.s- 
tivities,  often  also  in  state  affairs — for  instance,  among  the  Mandingoes — 
and  a  Monbnttu  princess  in  male  attire  marched  at  the  head  of  her  anny 
to  many  a  victory  (Schweinfurth).  Many  of  the  Negroes  love  their  wives, 
as  Schweinfurth  relates  about  the  Niam-Niam  and  others,  and  Bo.smann 
about  the  Atlantic  tribes.     They  are  seldom  treated  with  actual  cruelty. 

Births  and  Atlcndiug  Ceremonies. — To  be  blessed  with  children  con- 
stitutes the  greatest  felicity  of  all  Negroes.  A  woman  who  is  for  the  first 
time  with  child  has  to  undergo  peculiar  ceremonies  among  the  tribes  of 
the  Gold  Coast.  She  is  conducted  to  the  sea,  while  boys  and  girls  throw 
earth  at  her;  there  she  bathes,  and  is  consecrated  b>-  the  priest.  The 
Negroes  believe  that  the  neglect  of  this  ceremony  would  be  punished  by  the 
death  of  one  of  her  relatives  or  of  her  child.  Some  tribes  kill  dcfonned 
children  and  one  of  twins,  or  even  both.  On  the  other  hand,  children 
generated  in  adultery  or  prostitution  are  received  into  the  family  without 
any  ado.  After  giving  birth,  while  nursing,  and  during  their  periods  the 
women  are  considered  unclean.  The  child  is  named  immediately  after 
its  birth,  and  often  the  name  of  the  mother  (Hausa,  Sierra  Leone)  or  of 
different  relatives,  or  the  name  of  the  day  when  it  was  born  (Gold  Coast) 
or  a  reference  to  some  important  occurrence,  is  added.  Additional  names 
are  earned  by  brave  deeds  in  war  or  in  hunting.  Subsequent  children  are 
named  by  number,  like  the  Roman  Ouartus,  Ouintus,  Sextus. 

Religious  rites  and  festivities  arc  connected  with  the  giving  of  the 
name:  others  take  place  at  the  time  of  puberty,  when  the  boys  are  circum- 


340  ETHXOGRAPHY. 

cised,  and  they  as  well  as  the  girls  must  participate,  among  some  tribes,  in 
ceremonies  which  are  kept  secret.  Circumcision  is  practised  at  the  same 
time  on  several  youths,  who  then  fonn  a  certain  community:  they  have 
an  established  costume  (/>/.  83,  fig.  7),  go  about  from  place  to  place  sing- 
ing and  dancing,  and  are  everywhere  received  and  entertained  with 
honor. 

The  children  are  instructed  in  the  arts  of  their  parents  in  a  perfunc- 
tory manner,  but  among  the  IMandingoes  and  some  of  the  Atlantic  tribes, 
according  to  Mungo  Park's  account,  they  receive  regular  lessons  and  are 
taught  to  speak  the  truth.  The  Negroes  have  a  passionate  love  for  their 
children,  who  are  much  attached  to  their  parents,  especially  to  the  mother. 
Chiding  words  addressed  to  the  mother  is  the  greatest  insult  that  can  be 
offered  a  Negro.  "  Beat  me,  but  do  not  rebuke  my  mother,"  said  one  of 
Park's  Negro  servants  (comp.  p.  79).  Inheritance  is  through  the  female 
line. 

Children  obey  their  father,  but  do  not  love  him  as  much  as  they  do 
their  mother — a  natural  result  of  polygamy.  The  father  has  unlimited 
power  over  wife  and  child,  so  that  he  may  even  sell  them  into  slaver)-. 
This  is  sometimes  doue,  but  only  in  case  of  extreme  necessity  or  where 
all  social  relations  have  become  completely  demoralized  by  the  slave-trade. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  Africa  slaves  (at  least  when  kept  by  the 
Negroes)  are  not  badly  treated,  and  that  consequently  slaver}'  does  not 
appear  the  greatest  of  all  evils.  It  is  an  important  distinction  between 
the  Bantu  and  the  Negroes  that  it  is  easy  to  speak  of  the  former  as  a  class, 
but  very  difficult  to  do  so  of  the  latter.  Almost  ever}-  tribe  shows  marked 
dissimilarity  both  in  custom  and  language  to  the  neighboring  tribes;  and 
as  this  holds  good  for  the  manner  of  contracting  marriage,  so  it  also  holds 
in  political  institutions. 

Government. — We  saw  the  father  as  the  absolute  master  of  the  family, 
and  we  see  the  king  an  absolute  ruler  over  the  state,  which  is  entirely  con- 
structed on  a  family  foundation.  To  him  everything  belongs;  all  subjects 
are  his  slaves;  he  takes  to  wife  whom  he  pleases;  and  his  consent  is 
required  for  the  marriage  of  his  subjects.  The  greatest  honors  therefore 
are  paid  to  him;  in  fact,  he  is  deemed  a  god.  In  the  Niger  Delta  the 
king's  sleeping-place  was  kept  secret,  and  on  the  inquir}-  of  Bosmann 
(1700)  as  to  its  whereabouts,  a  Negro  answered,  "Do  you  know  where 
God  sleeps?  How  then  are  we  to  know  where  the  king  sleeps?"  He 
always  eats  alone,  and  it  is  scarcely  allowable  to  see  him  eat.  The  sub- 
ject crawls  up  to  him  and  kisses  the  dust,  and  to  stand  before  him  would 
be  a  crime.  In  Waday  the  upper  part  of  the  body  must  be  uncovered  in 
his  presence,  and  the  subjects  must  change  their  names  if  they  resemble 
his.  His  exterior  is  distinguished  by  great  pomp:  we  see  the  sheik  or 
sultan  of  Bomu  in  complete  Arabian  attire  on  Plate  92  (^fig.  i),  his  body- 
guard in  their  strange  garbs  on  Plate  91  {fig.  8)  and  Plate  92  {fig.  2). 
The  rider  and  horse  (//.  <)i,fig.  8)  are  armed  with  a  thickly-plaited  coat 
of  mail. 


ErilXOGRAPHY. 


341 


Each  sovereign  of  any  importance  is  supplied  with  similar  guards, 
and  the  monarch  of  the  Gold  Coast,  although  not  very  powerful,  was 
always  accompanied  by  a  bod}^guard,  weapon-bearers,  overseers  of  his 
wives,  and  heralds:  the  latter,  it  seems,  were  individuals  who,  besides 
announcing  his  arrival,  also  served  as  his  interpreters,  for  the  king  speaks 
to  others,  even  to  his  subjects,  only  through  interpreters.  Whole  liosls  of 
musicians,  and  sometimes  the  entire  train  of  his  wives,  accompanied  him. 
The  statements  of  Schweinfurth  about  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  Munsa, 
sovereign  of  the  ]\Ionbuttus,  are  similar:  in  Benin  the  wives  of  the  mon- 
arch constituted  his  armed  bodyguard  and  executed  his  penal  judgments. 
The  same  is  the  case  in  Dahomey.  The  palace,  as  in  Dahomey  and  among 
the  Monbuttus,  is  frequently  of  great  splendor.  Some  of  these  sovereigns 
are  distinguished  by  ceremonies  only  at  festivities,  while  in  every-day  life 
they  associate  with  their  subjects  almost  as  though  they  were  equals. 
Their  incomes  consist  of  fixed  duties  or  of  taxes  and  presents,  the  last  not 
always  voluntary.  A  sovereign  without  money  has  no  power.  Among 
many  of  the  Atlantic  nations  at  the  death  of  the  king  perfect  anarchy 
prevails  until  the  new  king — generally  the  son  of  the  late  king's  sister, 
for  royalty  is  also  almost  universall)-  inherited  by  female  lineage — has 
ascended  the  throne.  We  saw  a  similar  usage  in  Polynesia  (p.  201). 
Pluman  sacrifices  are  often  offered  at  the  king's  grave.  The  Mexicans  and 
the  Peruvians  (pp.  228,  230)  sacrificed  human  beings  on  all  important 
occasions. 

The  king  is  supreme  judge,  commander-in-chief,  in  some  places — for 
instance,  among  the  Fulah — and  also  the  highest  priest.  In  several  states 
his  power  is  somewhat  limited  by  the  subordinate  chiefs,  who  constitute 
the  second  rank  in  the  state,  and  who  are  selected  from  the  near  relatives 
of  the  king.  The  third  rank  is  composed  of  the  wealtln-  merchants  and 
mechanics;  the  fourth  of  the  people;  and  the  fifth  of  the  slaves.  A 
similar  gradation  of  society  is  found  among  the  western  Fulah,  but  each 
grade  has  its  own  villages.  The  smiths  are  a  caste  set  apart,  and  among 
tlie  Bantu  tribes  and  also  among  the  Bambarras  they  elect  the  king;  but 
in  some  tribes  they  are  held  in  dishonor. 

These  classes  have  developed  differently  in  different  states:  in  some 
the  power  of  the  king  has  been  weakened  by  them  (Mandingocs,  vSarrars, 
some  of  the  Feloops,  the  tribes  of  tlie  Gold  Coast,  etc.);  in  others  he  is 
absolutely  supreme,  as  in  Dahomey  and  among  the  Monbuttus;  and  in 
still  others,  though  he  possesses  supreme  power,  he  is  guided  by  the 
nobility  and  the  elders,  who  constitute  his  council,  as  in  Hausa  and  in 
Bornu.  .\mong  the  Yolofs  an  annual  court  of  censure,  such  as  we  have 
seen  among  the  Caffirs  (p.  318),  sits  in  judgment  over  him.  The  Krus  are 
governed  by  a  council  composed  of  the  eldest  member  of  each  family — the 
family  is  here  the  unit  of  society — and  by  a  second  council  fonned  of  men 
from  the  people,  besides  which  there  are  four  chief  officials. 

Fmis's  and  Piiuishmrnts. — The  Negroes  are  eloquent  and  skilful  in  tlie 
management  of  their  lawsuits,  the  decision  of  which  generally  rests  with 


342  ETIIXOGRAPHY. 

the  king.  Even-thiug  is  vouched  by  witnesses,  and  there  are  established 
penalties  for  almost  every  offence;  even  murder  can  be  atoned  by  money, 
and  thus  blood-revenge  may  be  escaped.  Failure  or  inability  to  pay  the 
fines  is  punished  by  slaverj*.  Slavery  is  the  usual  mode  of  punishment, 
though  mutilation,  and  sometimes  death  (often  in  very  cruel  forms),  are 
inflicted.  The  punishment  follows  close  upon  the  judgment.  A\-arice, 
which  is  a  prevalent  vice  of  the  Negroes,  has  dictated  many  customs  and 
laws;  it  also  renders  the  judges  open  to  bribes.  On  the  Gold  Coast  a 
creditor  unable  to  collect  from  his  debtor  may  take  by  force  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  debt  from  a  third  person,  and  leave  the  latter  to  recoup  his  loss 
from  the  delinquent  debtor.  lu  some  Negro  states  there  is  a  capable  police 
force,  but  usage,  everywhere  so  powerful,  is  the  best  police. 

Oaths  and  Ordeals. — The  Negroes  see  in  every  misfortune  only  the 
consequences  of  witchcraft,  and  therefore  oaths,  especially  oaths  of  puri- 
fication, are  frequent.  They  adjure  a  god  or  a  magician  to  punish  them 
if  they  lie  (see  p.  i66).  Ordeals  are  numerous,  and  consist  in  drinking 
poison,  touching  some  red-hot  substance,  swimming  across  rivers  full 
of  crocodiles,  etc.  Of  the  secret  societies,  which  act  as  executioners  of 
justice,  we  will  treat  on  page  348,  and  merely  remark  here  that  the 
bodyguard  of  the  king  of  the  Ashantees  fonns  a  league  of  the  faithful 
who  would  sooner  die  than  leave  their  master. 

Weapons  and  Wars. — Wars  are  frequent  and  fierce.  Let  us  first 
consider  the  weapons — bows  and  arrows,  spears,  and  a  peculiar  missile, 
the  trumbash — a  name  originating  in  Sennaar,  but  used  iu  Soudan 
(Schweinfurth). 

Bows  and  arrows.,  although  not  found  among  the  Niam-Niam,  the 
Dinkas,  and  the  Nuers,  were,  together  with  the  spear,  the  most  important 
arms  of  the  Negroes  in  ancient  times.  We  find  them  among  the  Atlantic 
peoples,  the  Fulah,  the  Mandingoes  {pi.  91,  Jig.  4),  in  Central  Africa 
among  the  Bornuese  {pi.  92,  fig.  6;  pi.  93,  Jig.  5),  in  Eastern  Africa 
among  the  Bari  Negroes  {pi.  88,  fig.  19;  //.  94,  fig.  4)  and  the  Akkas 
{pi.  97,  fig.  4).  Generally  both  bows  and  arrows  are  very  large,  and  the 
points  of  the  arrows,  which  differ  in  the  different  nations,  are  frequently 
poisoned.  The  quivers  are  variously  decorated  {pi.  93,  fig.  5,  to  the  right; 
P^-  94,  fig-  4,  to  the  left). 

Spears. — In  Kordofan  the  spears  are  poisoned.  The  points,  fastened 
to  very  long  handles,  also  show  a  great  variety  of  fonn,  sometimes  long 
(//.  92,  fig.  2),  sometimes  shorter,  spatula-  or  arrow-shaped,  barbed  (//. 
93>  fiS-  5).  or  straight  (//.  91,  figs.  7,  8;  pi.  93,  fig.  6;  pi.  94,  fig.  4;  //. 
96,  fig.  2;  pi.  97,  fig.  4,  5;  //.  99,  fig.  2). 

Clnbs  of  various  kinds  are  the  favorite  arm  of  the  Nuers,  Dinkas,  and 
Shilluks  (//.  96,  fig.  2;  pi.  97,  fig.  5;  comp.  //.  94,  fig.  4,  to  the  left), 
and  also  pointed  sticks  of  hard  wood  {pi.  93,  fig.  6,  with  standing  figure), 
such  as  we  found  among  the  Caflirs  and  Hottentots  (p.  313).  Besides, 
they  have  a  peculiar  bow-like  v>-eapon  with  which  they  protect  themselves 
from  the  blows  of  the  clubs. 


ETHXOGRAPIIY.  343 

The  shields,  mostly  with  rich  decorations  and  of  different  forms  (for 
instance,  pi.  93,  fig.  5),  constitute  another  weapon  of  defence.  Cuirasses, 
jackets  of  buffalo-skin,  or  long  war-coats  of  matting  are  used  in  Central 
Africa  (//.  91,  fig.  8;  pi.  92,  figs.  2,  5;  pi.  99,  fig.  2).  The  horses  are 
also  protected  with  armor.  The  cavalr>'  of  the  Fulah  is  equipped  in  this 
manner. 

Other  weapons  are  the  battlc-axc,  which  is  in  use  in  the  west  {pi.  91, 
fig.  5,  on  the  ground),  in  the  centre  (//.  92,  fig.  7),  and  in  the  east  of 
the  region;  the  szvord  {pi.  91,  fig.  4;  Darfur,  pi.  99,  fiig.  7,  and  in  the 
east  among  the  Niam-Niam,  pi.  95,  figs.  11,  12);  different  kinds  of 
daggers;  and  the  Bornuese  batilc-scythc  {pi.  ()2,fiig.  4),  which  is  fastened 
to  a  stick  by  means  of  two  eyes. 

The  trumbash  {pi.  99,  fig.  9)  originated  from  a  flat  wooden  sling, 
such  as  is  found  in  various  places  in  Soudan ;  it  is  generally  used  in  hunt- 
ing, and  is  much  like  the  famous  Australian  boomerang  (see  p.  61 ;  pi.  5, 
fig.  8*);  it  is  made  of  iron  and  supplied  with  points  and  teeth,  and 
is  a  dangerous  weapon.  It  is  mostly  in  use  in  the  east,  but  is  also  found 
in  Central  Africa.  It  is  carried  in  the  hand,  as  by  the  Musgu  chief  on 
Plate  105  {fig.  6),  while  Plate  99  {fig.  9)  shows  the  East-African  form  in 
use  among  the  Niam-Niam. 

Firearms  are  now  in  use  in  the  west  and  in  the  interior  (//.  91,  figs. 
3,  7;  //.  93,  fig.  2;  pi.  105,  fiig.  6),  and  are  also  being  introduced  in  the 
east:  awkward  as  the  Negroes  were  in  the  use  of  them  in  the  beginning, 
they  now  know  very  well  how  to  handle  them. 

Before  a  war,  which  is  always  preceded  by  magic  rites,  the}'  paint  and 
adorn  themselves  in  a  striking  manner  {pi,  91,  fiig.  3;  pi.  93,  fig.  2), 
question  the  gods,  perfonn  solemn  and  wild  dances,  often  at  night  {pi.  94, 
fig.  i),  and  utter  awful  threats  and  challenges.  War  is  formally  declared, 
and  fought  out  in  pitched  battles,  which  are  generally  not  \&r\  sanguinary, 
as  the  combatants  cover  themselves  so  that  most  of  the  shots  have  no 
effect;  they  also  pause  during  the  fight,  and  these  pauses  are  employed  in 
vilifying  the  enemy.  They  have  no  fixed  battle-array.  For  the  most 
part,  that  side  flees  whose  men  fall  first,  and  the  main  thing  is  to  follow 
the  fugitives.  The  cities  and  lauded  property  of  the  conquered  are  laid 
waste  in  order  to  gain  booty.  The  wars  arc  injurious  on  account  of  the 
plunderings  and  destructions  connected  with  them.  There  are  also  wars 
of  incursion  and  pillage,  which  are  not  announced  and  which  arc  gen- 
erally the  continuance  of  old  quarrels  between  tribes.  \\'ar  in  general  is 
conducted  by  the  Fulah  exactly  as  by  the  other  Negroes. 

Captives. — Captives  are  seldom  tortured  or  killed,  being  generally 
enslaved.  Only  when  the  passions  are  particularly  aroused  do  the  Negroes 
strive  to  capture  the  heads  of  the  enemy  as  trophies.  But  among  some 
tribes  it  is  the  usual  practice;  in  Dahomey,  for  instance,  heads  arc  col- 
lected, and  among  the  Niam-Niam  they  are  hung  up  in  public  places. 

Militarv  Spirit. — The  Negroes  have  a  warlike  spirit  who.sc  expression 
must  be  judged  according  to  the  customs  of  the  country.     Where  they 


344  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

have  been  led  by  Europeans  or  other  trained  leaders  they  have  proved 
valiant  and  persevering,  and  they  readily  learn  to  withstand  the  arts  of 
their  enemies.  In  their  own  wars  there  is  no  lack  of  examples  of  fool- 
hardy daring,  although  this  is  more  the  result  of  carelessness  or  unchecked 
passion  than  of  valor.  A  cause  for  war  is  often  found  in  trivial  things, 
some  individual  robber}'  or  private  quarrel;  also  in  covetousness,  a  love 
of  booty,  or  a  national  pleasure  in  combat.  Peace  is  negotiated  without 
much  ceremony. 

Armies. — The  annies  of  the  different  states  are  not  important.  The 
Daliomans  are  said  to  be  able  to  send  twelve  thousand  men  to  war,  and 
Schweinfurth  saw  an  equally  large  army  on  the  White  Nile.  The  strength 
of  the  states  of  Central  Africa,  whose  main  force  consists  of  their  cavalr}-, 
is  much  greater,  but  the  power  of  each  state  changes  rapidly  on  account 
of  ever-continiiing  wars. 

Cannibalism  prevails  in  but  few  countries  of  the  west;  for  instance,  it 
is  practised  in  Dahomey,  and  the  Ashantees  eat  the  hearts  of  the  slain 
enemy;  but  formerly  it  must  have  been  more  common.  Schweinfurth 
found  it  extensively  among  the  Niam-Niam  and  the  Monbuttus.  The 
name  Xiani-Niam  is  an  appellative  derived  from  the  root  nya,  "eat," 
and  means  devourer  or  man-eater  among  the  Dinkas  as  well  as  among 
the  nations  of  Central  Africa,  who  assert  that  at  different  places  in  their 
vicinity  there  are  such  Niam-Niam;  from  which  it  may  be  concluded  that 
cannibalism  is  more  practised  in  that  tribe.  The  decrepit  old  people  are 
killed  by  some  tribes  (Kordofan),  and  others  (Gold  Coast)  are  said  even  to 
devour  the  corpses.  There  is  no  doubt  that  these  customs,  here  as  well  as 
elsewhere,  originated  in  a  belief  in  animism.  The  enemy  can  be  banned 
even  after  his  death;  his  soul  can  be  forced  into  servitude;  and  magical 
powers  are  attributed  to  the  consumption  of  human  flesh,  and  especially 
to  the  use  of  human  fat.  This  leads  us  to  the  religious  belief  of  the 
Negroes,  which  must  be  treated  with  great  care,  as  erroneous  ideas  gen- 
erally prevail  about  it. 

Religion. — Throughout  the  entire  Negro  territor}-,  wherever  Islamism 
has  not  been  introduced,  the  religions  are  strikingly  similar.  There  is 
one  supreme  and  beneficent  being,  who  has  created  all  things  and  sustains 
them.  He  bears  different  names:  I\Iawu  among  the  nations  of  the  Slave 
Coast,  Olorung  among  the  Yonibas,  Tshuku  among  the  Ibos,  N}aledit 
among  the  Nuers,  Lonia  among  the  Bongos,  Gumba  among  the  Niam- 
Niam,  etc.  But  he  is  considered  rem.ote.  According  to  Bosmann,  the 
Widas  say,  "God  is  too  great  to  concern  himself  about  such  insignificant 
things  as  the  world  and  mankind,  and  he  has  therefore  given  the  govern- 
ment over  them  into  the  hands  of  inferior  gods." 

Some  tribes,  however,  address  their  prayers  to  the  supreme  being  as 
to  a  protector  in  misfortune,  the  giver  of  all  good,  the  omnipresent,  all- 
seeing,  and  all-hearing  one,  who  embodies  himself  in  lightning  and 
thunder,  as  the  Niam-Niam,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Gold  Coast,  and  other 
nations  believe.     The  seat  of  this  deity  is  in  heaven;  formerly  he  was 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  345 

nearer  to  earth,  but  mankind  have  driven  him  to  remoter  heights  (legend 
01  the  Ashantees). 

The  Negroes  avoid  speaking  about  him,  as  he  is  believed  to  be  too 
august  for  the  knowledge  of  men.  But  he  has  sent  his  messengers, 
inferior  gods,  who  are  mediators  between  him  and  man,  and  who  are  fre- 
quently (for  instance,  among  th.e  Niam-Niam  and  on  the  Slave  Coast) 
called  simply  messengers,  ambassadors.  These  are  countless,  according 
to  the  belief  of  the  western  Negroes,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Slave  and 
Gold  Coasts,  the  Mandingoes,  and  the  Yolofs.  Tliese  spirits  constitute 
the  fetiches.  They  are  not  all  alike:  some  are  more,  some  less  powerful, 
and  all  are  united  under  one  superior. 

A  large  portion  of  the  Mandingoes,  all  the  Fulah,  and  most  of  the 
tribes  of  the  interior  have  been  converted  to  Mohammedanism,  but  much 
paganism  has  been  retained,  and  the  Mohammedans  are  scarcely  less 
superstitious  than  the  Negroes.  Christianity  has  advanced  with  good 
results. 

Elementary  Deities. — The  clementar}'  deities,  the  gods  of  the  ocean, 
the  rivers,  and  the  lakes,  are  powerful ;  also  those  of  the  woods,  of  sacred 
groves,  and  of  certain  trees.  In  Dahomey  the  snakes  are  powerful,  having 
their  own  cult,  temples,  and  priests,  and  to  them  in  former  times  (before 
1700)  the  kings  themselves  made  pilgrimages.  Other  animals  are  also 
incarnations  of  gods:  the  hyenas,  elephants,  lions,  crocodiles,  the  apes — 
which  at  some  places  are  believed  to  be  bewitched  persons — and,  above 
all,  the  birds.  The  Negroes  of  the  Slave  and  Gold  Coasts  often  imagine 
the  highest  god  in  the  guise  of  a  bird. 

Fetichis)!!. — The  inferior  gods  are  more  numerous  than  all  birds,  ani- 
mals, and  plants  together:  whatever  happens  to  the  Negro  is  their  doing; 
whether  he  succeeds  or  fails  in  an  enterprise,  the  cau.se  is  some  god  wlio 
may  have  his  seat  anywhere,  perhaps  in  a  stone  against  which  he  stnick 
in  going  out.  Thus,  stones,  claws  of  animals,  pots,  etc.  are  deemed  the 
domicile  of  some  deity;  and  this  leads  to  the  worship  of  inanimate  objects. 
Such  is  the  explanation  of  Negro  fetichism. 

Other  traits  besides  the  belief  in  fetiches  belong  to  the  religion  of  the 
Negroes.  The)-  venerate  the  heavenly  bodies,  especially  the  moon,  and 
among  the  Atlantic  and  central  tribes  the  sun  also.  Time  is  calculated 
according  to  the  moon,  the  different  phases  of  which  are  celebrated  with 
prayers,  and  oftentimes  with  festivals  and  festive  dances  {pi.  94,  y?;'.  6). 
The  god  of  fire  is  also  venerated,  and  so  is  the  earth  (Atlantic  tribes). 
All  these  must  be  distinguished  from  the  fetich  spirits,  from  which  orig- 
inally the  spirits  of  the  ocean  were  probably  also  distinct. 

Guardian  Spirits. — The  frequently-recurring  belief  in  a  dc\il  is  rather 
indistinct,  and  seems  to  refer  to  the  collective  power  of  tlic  inferior 
evil  spirits.  There  are  guardian  spirits,  and  each  person  during  his  entire 
life  has  one  or  even  two,  which,  as  he  constantly  receives  good  from 
them,  he  must  continually  worship.  From  this  originated  the  various 
prohibitions  of  food  which  pertain  to  individuals  or  e\-cn  to  entire  tribes, 


346  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

which  also  have  each  its  guardian  spirit.  He  whose  guardian  spirit  has 
assumed  the  figure  of  a  chicken  must  eat  no  chicken,  for  in  that  case 
he  would  drive  away  or  offend  the  spirit.  He  must  also  honor  him  in 
other  respects:  one  day  of  each  week  is  sacred  to  him,  and  on  this  day 
the  celebrant  adorns  himself  in  festive  garments  and  lives  abstemiously. 
This  is  the  so-called  birthda\'  festival  of  the  Atlantic  Negroes.  Whoever 
can  afford  to  have  several  wives  chooses  one  among  them  to  be  his  guar- 
dian spirit :  she  occupies  the  next  rank  after  the  principal  wife,  and 
always  receives  the  conjugal  visits  of  her  husband  on  the  day  dedicated 
to  his  guardian  god. 

Iminortah'ly  of  Ike  Soicl. — The  belief  in  a  future  life  is  universal; 
the  souls  appear  sometimes  as  animals,  at  other  times  as  human  beings; 
often  beneficent,  but  generally  malicious  and  hostile,  and  therefore  they 
are  much  feared.  In  the  west  this  has  to  a  great  extent  become  mixed 
up  with  fetichisra  or  quite  overshadowed  by  it. 

Superstitions. — The  belief  in  amulets  and  in  favorable  and  unfavorable 
omens  and  countless  other  superstitions  prevail.  The  Negroes  fear  the 
evil  spirits  of  the  caves  and  mountains;  they  also  fear  the  evil  spirits  of 
the  forest,  which  frequently  appear  as  animals;  they  fear  magicians  and 
witches;  and  here  as  everj-where  they  believe  in  persons  who  during  the 
night  go  about  as  vicious  animals  (in  the  west  this  characteristic  is  chiefly 
attributed  to  the  caste  of  the  smiths);  and  they  fear  the  souls  of  the 
deceased.  This  is  more  distinct  in  the  east  than  in  the  west,  where 
these  various  fonns  of  African  pandemonism  have  been  changed  into 
fetichism.  The  Negroes  hold  certain  days  to  be  lucky  and  others  to  be 
unlucky,  and  will  not  undertake  anything  of  importance  on  the  latter; 
and  they  have  numberless  other  superstitions  which  we  omit. 

One  trait  is  exhibited  in  the  east  which  is  entirely  absent  in  the  v^^est, 
but  which  we  found  (p.  321)  widely  spread  in  South  Africa — the  humaniz- 
ing of  fonner  deities.  Thus  the  Shilluks  are  said  to  worship  the  protector 
of  their  tribe,  who  is  supposed  to  have  conducted  them  into  their  present 
country  (Schweinfurth),  and  by  whom  it  is  certain  they  originally  meant 
a  deity,  and  not  a  human  being. 

Theory  of  Creation. — In  the  west  the  creation  of  men  is  attributed  to 
the  supreme  god.  They  are  said  to  have  proceeded  either  from  caves  in 
the  earth  or  from  a  rock  in  the  ocean  (Akral) — z.  myth  which  bears  a  strik- 
ing resemblance  to  other  leijends  about  the  creation.  According  to  an- 
other  belief,  all  beings  originated  in  a  separate  city  of  the  heavens. 

Future  State. — The  dead  are  supposed  to  live  either  under  ground  or  to 
go  to  far-distant  regions,  across  the  ocean  or  a  large  river,  w'henever  an  evil 
spirit  endangers  them;  many  believe  that  they  again  return,  but  as  white 
people;  others,  that  they  always  remain  in  the  vicinity  of  the  living,  but 
invisible  to  them.  Among  the  Ashantees  the  good  spirits  ascend  to 
heaven  on  the  souls'  path,  the  INIilky  Way.  The  belief  in  a  recompense 
after  death  is  also  extensive;  and  while  the  slightest  trespass  against  the 
laws  of  religious  cult  is  considered  punishable  in  the  Hereafter,  it  is  not 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  347 

so  as  regards  murder  or  baseness.  Other  tribes — for  instance,  the  Man- 
dingoes — say  that  it  is  not  known  whence  man  came  or  whither  he  goes. 

Pitmsli))ic)its  for  Religious  Molalions. — The  severe  punishments  in- 
flicted by  the  gods  for  viokitions  of  religious  rites,  of  food  prohibitions, 
the  festival  days,  the  sacred  spots,  etc.,  remind  us  of  Polynesia,  and  the 
stringent  enforcement  of  the  laws  in  these  respects  is  similar  to  the  Poly- 
nesian taboo  (p.  200).  The  strict  ceremonial  toward  the  king  has  a  re- 
ligious basis,  as  also  have  many  other  customs,  such  as,  among  the  Daho- 
mans  and  Widas,  the  practice  of  women  and  children  approaching  the  father 
of  the  family  on  their  knees,  the  usage  of  women  eating  apart  from  the 
men,  the  secrecy  maintained  about  the  food  prepared  for  the  king,  absti- 
nence from  certain  articles  of  food  and  on  certain  days,  etc. ;  for  some  indi- 
viduals and  classes  are  considered  less  holy  than  others.  Their  oaths  and 
ordeals  are  mostly  invocations  to  some  fetich,  who  will  certainly  take 
revenge  if  called  upon  in  an  unjust  cause;  or  a  fetich  is  laid  upon  the 
accused,  and  if  he  is  guilty  he  at  once  confesses.  They  guard  themselves 
against  harm  from  sacred  animals  by  hanging  a  fetich  on  a  tree  or  fence. 

Offerings  and  Sacrifices. — The  deity  is  appeased  with  offerings  of  food 
— chickens,  palm  wine,  fruits — dej^osited  in  out-of-the-way  places;  some- 
times he  is  appeased  with  dress  materials  and  money.  At  the  erection  of 
buildings,  at  the  time  of  the  new  moon,  to  attain  fecundity,  etc.,  the 
Negroes  offer  human  sacrifices,  children  or  captives  taken  in  war. 

Priesthood. — The  priests  are  very  powerful;  they  question  the  god  as 
to  his  opinion,  speak  to  him,  designate  the  offerings,  manufacture  amulets 
and  fetiches,  foretell  events,  speak  oracles,  and  cure  diseases  by  conjuring 
the  ghosts  which  caused  the  malady,  for  all  diseases  (for  which  they  have 
some  medicaments  which  are  really  effective)  are  the  effects  of  hostile 
demons;  they  also  make  rain  and  ble.ss  the  marching  of  troops,  the  new- 
born children,  etc.  In  some  of  their  devotions  they  become  so  wrought 
up  that  they  fall  into  convulsions.  Their  office  is  often  hereditarj-.  The 
priests  generally  dwell  in  the  temple  when  there  is  one.  The  snakes  in 
Wida  have  a  large  house  with  a  nmucrous  priesthood,  and  such  fetich- 
houses  are  not  rare.  In  some  regions  magicians,  fortune-tellers,  and 
fetich-men  exist  in  addition  to  the  priests;  the  latter  then  occupy  a  higher 
rank;  they  only  are  known  in  the  east,  a  real  priesthood  .seeming  to  be 
absent.  On  the  Slave  Coast  there  are  also  priestesses,  who  enjoy  great 
respect. 

Idols. — The  Atlantic  tribes  ha\-e  idols,  generalh'  rudeh-car\-ed  human 
figures,  which  are  sometimes  erected  in  huts,  sometimes  in  the  open  air,  or 
under  roofs  to  protect  them  against  the  weather.  Smaller  idols  arc  kept 
in  the  house  or  worn  as  amulets  about  the  neck.  An  idol  of  the  Ibos  is 
shown  on  Plate  91  {fig.  2);  it  is  car\ed  in  a  bowl  in  which  it  receives 
the  offerings  of  food,  in  the  east,  among  the  Bongos,  the  image  of  a  dead 
person  is  formed  of  a  wooden  staff.  The  husband  prcscr\-es  the  image  of 
his  deceased  wife  in  his  house,  where  uo  doubt  it  takes  the  place  of  the 
guardian  spirit. 


348  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Secret  Societies. — In  the  east  fraternization  of  individnals  by  drinkins^ 
each  other's  blood  is  customary;  in  the  west,  among  the  Mandingoes,  the 
Purra  League  exists,  a  secret  society  divided  into  different  classes,  having 
its  own  tattoo-mark  and  regarded  with  sacred  awe  by  the  entire  people. 
It  exercises  a  strict  moral  police:  during  the  night  its  ambassador,  the 
Mumbo  Jumbo,  suddenly  raises  a  loud  howling  in  the  woods — spirits  and 
gods  also  howl — whereupon  the  whole  population  must  assemble  in  festive 
attire,  and  then,  with  the  assistance  of  the  people,  each  criminal  is  severely 
punished  by  strokes  with  a  rod  by  the  Mumbo  Jumbo,  who  appears  masked. 
Similar  leagues  exist  among  the  Susus  and  the  Ibos.  Women  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  society,  but,  as  Mungo  Park  says,  their  crimes  are  the 
special  object  of  the  Mumbo  Jumbo's  vengeance. 

Funeral  Ceremonies. — A  few  words  as  to  the  treatment  of  the  dead. 
After  loud  lamentations,  noisy  funeral  festivities,  and  various  marks  of 
mourning  (cutting  off  the  hair,  fasting,  putting  a  rope  around  the  neck, 
etc.),  they  are  buried  close  by  the  dwelling-house  (Mandingoes,  Susus, 
Dinkas)  or  in  burial-places,  in  some  of  which  each  dead  person  has  his 
separate  hut.  They  are  buried  either  in  a  sitting  (Atlantic  tribes,  Nuers, 
Niam-Niam)  or  a  lying  posture  (frequently  in  the  west,  Niam-Niam,  Bon- 
gos), but  the  faces  of  the  men  are  placed  in  a  direction  opposite  to  those 
of  the  women. 

In  the  east  the  dead  are  interred  in  a  side-niche  of  the  grave  proper,  in 
a  manner  very  similar  to  that  of  South  Africa;  and  stones  are  frequently 
heaped  over  the  grave,  either  formed  into  an  artistic  structure  or  gradually 
deposited  by  passers-by.  The  Bongos  and  their  neighbors  erect  over  the 
grave  a  roughly-car\'ed  pole  representing  the  image  of  the  deceased; 
among  the  nobles  the  women  and  children  are  portrayed  in  a  similar 
manner.  They  also  place  a  jug  of  water  on  the  grave;  other  Negro  tribes 
bring  offerings  of  food  and  put  valuables  into  the  grave  with  the  dead; 
even  slaves  and  women  are  slaughtered  at  tlie  graves. 

As  it  is  believed  that  death  is  generally  caused  by  magic,  the  nearest 
relatives,  and  especially  the  wives,  must  free  themselves  from  the  sus- 
picion of  murder,  otherwise  they  are  killed.  For  this  purpose  oaths  of 
purification  or  ordeals  are  employed. 

Character  and  Condition. — Having  now  passed  through  all  the  phases 
of  Negro  life,  we  may  form  a  not  unfavorable  judgment  relative  to  the 
Negroes  themselves.  We  find  some  able  tribes  whose  language,  religion, 
political  life,  and  mercantile  enterprise,  as  well  as  agricultural  industry, 
are  well  developed.  Let  it  be  considered  with  what  rapidity  useful  for- 
eign plants  have  spread  over  Africa.  In  psj'chical  constitution  the 
Negroes  are  emotional,  easily  yielding  to  every  impression,  with  a  vivid 
imagination,  often  attaining  the  fantastic,  and  much  addicted  to  sensual 
pleasure.  On  this  sensual  excitability  the  credulity  of  the  Negroes  is 
based,  Avliich,  however,  is  never  extended  to  practical  things.  Their 
laziness  is  also  often  mentioned;  but  the}-  are  not  really  lazy:  they  work 
when  it  is  necessary,  otherwise  they  see  no  reason  for  exertion.     Work, 


ETIINOCRAPIIY.  349 

as  a  rule,  gives  them  no  pleasure,  but  they  do  not  shun  it,  as  is  proved 
by  the  frequently  flourishing  condition  of  their  fields  and  herds. 

Valor  and  Jltiiiiaiiily. — We  have  spoken  (p.  344)  of  the  valor  of  the 
Negro,  which  easily  degenerates  into  frenzy.  Though  when  excited  he 
may  shed  blood  with  perfect  indifference,  and  though  he  may  act  regard- 
less of  the  weal  or  woe  of  others,  he  is  not  really  of  a  cruel  disposition. 
This  is  seen  in  his  considerate  treatment  of  strangers  and  captives,  in  his 
thoughtfulness  and  kindness  in  sending  to  the  sick  a  portion  of  the  birth- 
day feast  (Gold  Coast) — though  superstitious  motives  may  also  act  a  part 
here — and  among  the  Yolofs  in  giving  to  a  poor  person  the  meal  prepared 
for  one  just  deceased,  etc. ;  but,  above  all,  his  good-nature  is  shown  in 
his  treatment  of  relatives  and  slaves. 

Slavery. — The  entire  polity  of  the  Negroes  is  in  many  respects  based 
on  slavery,  which  is  indeed  widespread  among  them,  but  the  slaves  are 
generally  treated  with  clemency:  they  belong  to  the  family  and  can  marry 
into  it  (Bosmann),  and  their  children  are  often  liberated.  Consequenth^, 
the  fear  of  slavery  is  not  very  great,  which  may  somewhat  excuse  a 
father's  selling  his  family  into  .slavery  if  forced  to  do  .so  by  debts  (p.  340). 
The  Negro  is  also  attached  to  his  native  country:  homesickness  is  com- 
mon, and  nothing  seems  to  him  more  desirable  than  to  be  buried  in  his 
native  place  (Bosmann). 

Social  Manners. — Inclined  to  pleasure  as  the  Negroes  arc,  they  of 
course  have  many  games  and  amusements,  and  especially  noteworthy  are 
the  formality  and  politeness  which  characterize  their  social  life.  In  greet- 
ing, expressing  thanks,  obliging,  etc.  they  have  established  and  often 
really  fine  manners.  Some  of  these  customs,  now  meaningless,  must 
originally  have  had  a  good  signification.  Thus,  two  Tibbus  meeting 
after  a  long  separation  require  almost  an  hour  for  continually-repeated 
formalities — a  custom  reminding  one  of  Australia  and  Polynesia  (p.  205). 

Avarice. — The  various  good  traits  of  the  Negroes  are,  however,  often 
stifled  by  many  vices.  The  south-eastern  tribes  are  more  barbarous  and 
undeveloped  than  the  western,  though  in  the  west  one  trait  of  the  Negro 
character  is  more  offensive — namely,  the  unbounded  avarice  which  often 
nullifies  all  his  better  qualities.  The  Negro  is  not  naturally  dishonest, 
still  less  is  he  malicious.  In  order  to  become  acquainted  with  his  true  cha- 
racter we  must  not  study  it  where  he  has  become  demoralized  by  Arabians 
or  Europeans,  and  still  less  among  the  slaves  in  America.  Negroes  are 
numerous  in  the  latter  country:  all  the  heads  on  Plate  83  {Jigs.  4,  5), 
Plate  86  {figs.  18,  19,  20),  Plate  89  {figs.  3,  5,  6),  and  Plate  90  {figs.  1-5,  8), 
are  of  slaves  from  Brazil;  but  it  is  clear  that  the  treatment  of  mo.st  Ameri- 
can slaves  in  capturing  and  transporting  them,  and  later  in  their  servitude, 
developed  only  the  evil  sides  of  their  character. 

Thus  the  Negroes  are  inferior  to  no  other  race,  either  in  character  or 
in  accomplishments.  Indeed,  they  surpass  many,  and  if  they  have  not 
attained  a  higher  elevation,  we  nnist  .seek  the  main  cause  of  this  in  their 
geographical  and  historical  conditions. 


350  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Influences  of  Climate,  etc. — If  we  consider  their  climate,  -wliich  renders 
care  about  clothing  and  shelter  unnecessary;  if  we  consider  how  easily 
the  African  soil  almost  everywhere  in  the  Negro  countries  furnishes 
abundant  nourishment,  and,  furthermore,  how  the  influx  of  peoples  from 
the  east  has  been  more  unceasing  than  elsewhere  in  the  world;  and  if  we 
also  consider  what  the  Negroes  have  suffered  and  still  suffer  from  the 
Arabians,  Nubians,  Berbers,  and  Europeans,  and  that  in  spite  of  this 
they  have  retained  their  peculiarities  such  as  we  have  found  them,  we 
sliall  conclude  that  the  assertion  that  Negroes  are  a  lower  race  of  little 
intellectual  ability,  which  "may  be  trained,  but  not  educated,"  is  entirely 
untrue  and  unscientific. 

4.  The  Semites. 

Location. — Under  the  name  of  Semites  we  include  all  the  nations 
living  in  Africa  north  and  east  of  the  Negroes — in  the  Desert,  the  Atlas 
Mountains,  Libya,  Egypt,  on  the  middle  course  of  the  Nile,  and  in  the 
regions  north  of  the  Equator  and  east  of  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea;  also 
the  inhabitants  of  Arabia,  Palestine,  and  Syria.  The  division  of  this  last 
great  branch  of  the  Arabic-African  Race  is  easily  made:  we  shall  consider 
first  the  African  Semites,  and  secondly  the  Asiatic  Semites. 

The  first  may  appropriately  be  called  Hamiles,  but  such  appellations 
as  Ethiopic  race,  Sub-Semitic  peoples,  etc.  are  unsuitable.  The  unity  of 
this  fourth  division  is  apparent  from  the  peculiarities  of  the  languages 
and  physical  structure  of  its  members. 

A.     AFRICAN    SEMITES. 

General  Consido'ation. — We  shall  begin  their  sur\'ey  in  the  west  and 
north.     The  African  Semites  include — 

(i)  T/ie  Berbers. — These  are  a  collection  of  tribes  whose  extreme  out- 
posts were  fonnerly  occupied  by  the  Giianches,  inhabitants  of  the  Canary 
Islands,  who  have  been  extirpated  by  the  Spaniards.  The  Guanches 
were  above  middle  stature,  dark  brown,  with  long,  straight  black  hair 
and  developed  hair  of  the  body;  of  peaceful  customs,  but  brave;  they 
lived  in  houses  and  carried  on  agriculture  and  stock-raising;  they  had 
fixed  judicial  rules,  solemn  marriage  ceremonies,  temples,  priests,  and 
various  gods;  they  embalmed  the  bodies  of  their  dead,  whose  mummies 
have  been  preserved  {pi.  100,  flg.  3,  head  of  mummy).  The  vocabulary 
of  their  language  coincided  largely  with  that  of  the  western  nations  of 
tlie  continent. 

These  are  —  the  ATazigs  {Amazigs  or  Amasirgs),  with  their  most 
western  tribe  the  Shuluh  or  SJieluh  (Shellochs);  farther  to  the  east  the 
Filleles,  and  in  Algeria  the  Kabyles.  The  Mazigs  are  widely  spread  in 
the  west  through  the  Desert  as  far  as  the  Senegal.  Here  the}'  are  called 
Afoors,  and  the  Trarsas  and  Braknas  belong  to  them,  but  they  are  so 
mixed  with  Negroes  that  they  constitute  a  true  mulatto  race  whose  attire 
and  physique  are  shown  on  Plate  105  {fig.  6).     East  of  the  Mazigs  of  the 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  351 

Desert  live  those  tribes  which  are  generally  called  Tnarick^  or,  as  they 
stjle  themselves,  luios/iags  (Iinohag).  They  seem  to  varj'  from  the 
western  tribes  in  some  respects,  but  the  ethnological  conditions  demand 
closer  study. 

It  is  not  worth  while  to  mention  all  the  larger  and  smaller  tribes 
belonging  here,  especially  as  many  of  the  names  are  only  local,  as 
when  the  southern  Tunisians  are  called  Djebali — that  is,  inhabitants  of 
the  mountains.  It  is  enough  to  know  that  closely-related  tribes  live  in 
Tripoli  as  far  as  Fezzan,  and  farther  on  in  the  oases  of  Awdjila  and  Siwah, 
and  extend  into  Egypt  and  Nubia.  In  the  west  they  extend  farther 
southward,  as  these  districts  are  scarcely  occupied  by  Negroes;  but  numer- 
ous wars  have  been  carried  on  at  the  boundaries  with  the  Negroes,  and 
Timbuctoo  has  been  a  bone  of  contention  for  the  two  parties.  Connec- 
tions of  a  peaceful  kind  are  also  found,  but  it  is  erroneous  to  call  the 
Berbers  of  the  Desert  a  mixed  people.  Neither  can  the  Tibbus,  who 
have  not  been  driven  away  by  the  Berbers,  be  called  mixed,  although  in 
Fezzan  the  two  nations  have  greatly  commingled.  We  have  mentioned 
(p.  324)  that  a  few  Negroes  are  found  dispersed  among  the  Berbers  in  the 
north-east  of  the  Desert  (Barca). 

(2)  The  Egyptians. — The  second  race  of  the  African  Semites  are  the 
Egyptians,  who  are  at  present  found  rather  pure  in  the  rural  population 
of  the  FcUalis  and  in  the  city  population  of  the  Copts  {pi.  103,  fg.  4), 
(Hartmann). 

(3)  The  Nubians. — We  enter  a  difficult  territon,-  in  approaching  the 
boundaries  of  Nubia,  for  it  is  not  easy  to  untangle  the  history  of  Eastern 
Africa.  In  attempting  to  find  our  way  in  this  labyrinth,  omitting  the 
smaller  tribes,  which  are  often  the  most  obscure,  we  must  mention  the 
Nubian  nation  as  the  third  branch  of  the  African  Semites.  To  it  belongs 
the  tribe  which  we  call  Nubians  (the  Arabians  name  them  Barabra, 
Bcrabra,  singular  Berber).  Closely  related  to  the  Dongohuci  are  the 
A'ul)a  and  other  tribes  of  Darfur.  It  is  undecided  where  the  Ennrts/ies, 
dwelling  in  Sennaar,  belong.  They  do  not  seem  to  be  a  Negro  people, 
like  the  Hammeg  tribes  living  to  the  south  of  them,  from  whom  they  are 
separated  in  language. 

(4)  T//e  Bis/ian's. — The  Bedshas  or  Bisharis,  who  live  between  Nubia 
and  the  Red  Sea,  constitute  the  fourth  branch. 

(5)  The  Abab^cs.— These  dwell  south  of  Kosseir.  They  certainly 
belong  to  this  division,  but  it  is  not  known  where  the  Hababs  and 
Hadendas,  east  of  the  river  Takazze,  and  other  smaller  tribes  of  that 
region,  belong. 

^  (6)  The  Abyssinians.—'^e  class  the  peoples  of  Abyssinia  together— the 
Ethiopians  ox  Abyssinians  proper,  the  nations  using  the  Tigri-  and  Amharic 
languages,  the  Agows  and  Bogos  (South  Abyssinia"),  the  Falashas  (Lake 
Tzanaj,  the  Sahos  (north-east  of  Tigrc'),  and  other  insignificant  and  doubt- 
ful tribes.  Shoa  and  probably  the  inhabitants  of  Kajfa  belong  entirely  to 
Abyssinia. 


352  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

(7)  The  Gallas. — The  Galla  nations,  to  which  the  SomaJis  and  the 
Danakil  (north-west  of  Bab-el-Mandeb)  are  related,  constitute  the  seventh 
branch.  The  Somalis  are  divided  into  two  large  classes — the  northern 
Ediir  and  the  southern  Darnid  tribes,  to  which  latter  belong  the  Mid- 
sherthains,  the  extreme  eastern  people,  living  as  far  east  as  Cape  Gardafui. 
The  extreme  western  Gallas  are  the  Limmous,  dwelling  in  Kaffa  ( Jomard). 
We  also  include  the  Yumales  (more  to  the  north),  and  in  the  extreme 
south,  on  the  second  degree  of  south  latitude,  the  Eloikobs  (Wakuafi  in 
Suaheli),  whose  language  belongs  to  the  Semitic  class,  though  to  its 
extreme  limits. 

We  have  now  finished  the  enumeration,  but  before  proceeding  some 
remarks  are  necessary.  The  old  and  now  extinct  language  of  the  Ethio- 
pians, the  Geez,  like  the  chief  living  Ethiopian  languages,  the  Tigr^ 
and  the  Amharic,  is  decidedly  a  Semitic  language  closely  related  to 
the  Himyaritic  language  of  the  South  Arabians,  and  its  introduction, 
although  not  ascertained,  must  have  taken  place  in  an  historically  calcu- 
lable time  before  Christ.  However,  we  must  class  the  Geez  people  among 
the  African  Semites  when  we  take  an  ethnologic  view  of  them. 

The  philological  difficulty  of  separating  the  Geez  from  the  surround- 
ing African  tribes  becomes  an  impossibility  when  their  physique,  their 
customs,  and  their  whole  manner  of  living  are  taken  into  view ;  all  of 
which,  to  use  Ritter's  words,  constitute  them  a  people  distinct  from  the 
Arabians.  Nor  do  we  hesitate  to  class  ethnologically  among  the  African 
Semites  the  different  Arabian  tribes  of  North  Africa,  which  have  been 
living  for  centuries  in  Nubia  and  south  of  Nubia,  as  well  as  in  the  Desert 
as  far  as  the  Niger  and  the  Senegal,  because  their  appearance  and  tlie 
entire  complexion  of  their  life  stamp  them  as  Africans.  But  it  is  diflScult 
to  draw  a  clear  boundary,  for  just  as  the  Negroes  and  Bantu  shade  into 
the  Semites,  so  do  the  African  Semites  pass  into  those  of  Asia. 

We  also  find  in  Arabia  tribes  which  belong,  according  to  language,  to 
the  inferior  African  Semites.  Such  are  the  Mahra  tribes  living  in  South 
Arabia,  speaking  the  Ehkili,  and  in  the  east  the  independent  dialect 
of  Dhafar,  as  also  many  despised  castes  of  the  countr}.-,  such  as  the 
Achdam,  the  Shiumtrs,  and  others,  whose  language,  while  not  Arabian, 
shows  but  little  affinity  to  the  Ethiopian  (Maltzan).  Hale\y,  a  French 
scientist,  has  discovered  that  the  Ehkili  is  very  like  the  Berber  and 
Eg}'ptian  idioms.  The  llahra  and  all  the  tribes  mentioned  cannot  be 
immigrants;  wherefore  it  follows  that  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Arabia 
— indeed,  probably  all  the  oldest  tribes  of  the  Semites,  the  aboriginal 
Semites — stood  on  that  linguistic  step  on  which  we  at  present  find  most 
of  the  African  Semites. 

Physically,  the  Achdam  and  Shuraurs  are  more  remote  from  the  type 
of  the  Arabians,  but  much  like  the  natives  of  North  Africa,  as  is  clearly 
seen  from  Maltzan' s  description:  skin  blackish;  nose  broad,  not  flat; 
mouth  large,  not  everted;  hair  frizzled,  long;  stature  average.  Still,  we 
do  not  class   them   among   the  African,  but  rather   among  the  Asiatic 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  353 

Semites,  of  wliom  they  constitute  tlie  most  ancient  form.  From  peoples 
like  them  the  present  Semites,  who  have  developed  so  high  above  them, 
have  descended.  At  present  their  whole  manner  of  living,  as  well  as 
their  surroundings,  is  entirely  Semitic. 

B.     ASIATIC    SEMITES. 

Divisions. — The  Asiatic  Semites  are  divided  into  two  great  branches — 
the  northern  and  the  soitlhcrn.  To  the  southern  belong  the  remnants  of 
the  ancient  people,  the  Mahra,  Achdam,  etc. ;  furthermore,  the  Himyaritcs, 
the  South  Arabians  or  Joktanides,  whose  language,  the  Himyaritic,  now 
extinct,  bears  the  closest  relation  to  the  Ethiopian.  It  is  more  distantly 
related  to  Arabic,  which  is  spoken  by  the  Coifral  Arabians  (Ishmaelites), 
and  is  divided  into  different  idioms  according  to  place  and  time.  In  the 
most  ancient  shape  in  which  it  has  come  down  to  us  it  exhibits  more 
original  forms  than  all  the  northern  languages  of  the  Asiatic  Semites; 
and  Eb.  Schrader  is  correct  in  seeing  in  these  South  Semites  the  original 
stock  of  the  Semites,  which  from  the  oldest  condition,  as  shown  in  the 
Mahra  tribes,  developed  first  to  Himjaritic,  and  later  on  to  Arabian,  cul- 
ture. The  Arabian  is  not  a  filial  language  of  the  Himyaritic;  both  are 
only  related. 

Among  the  northern  Semitic  nations  we  must  mention — 

(i)  The  Aramaic  stock,  to  which  belong  the  Old  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians.,  also  the  Chaldeans,  the  descendants  of  the  Old  Babylonians, 
and  the  Syrians. 

(2)  The  Hebrews,  with  all  their  tribes,  to  whom  belong  also  the 
Samarilans,  the  Phcenia'ans,  and  the  Carthaginians,  who  are  separated 
from  the  Phoenicians  only  by  idiom,  but  whon:  we  of  course  do  not  num- 
ber among  the  African  Semites,  as  they  always  remained  strangers  to  the 
African  character. 

We  shall  adopt  in  the  following  description  the  plan  pursued  hereto- 
fore; that  is,  w-e  shall  treat  of  both  divisions  together.  In  this  manner 
the  similarities  and  dissimilarities  of  both  become  more  apparent. 

Physical  Characteristics  of  the  African  Semites. — The  Berbers  arc  gener- 
allv  of  middle  though  slender  stature,  lean  yet  muscular.  Their  color  is 
a  light  brown,  but  also  varies  from  black  to  European  white:  throughout 
the  entire  Western  Sahara  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  are  of  a  light 
color— those  of  the  lowlands  dark  (Duvcyrier);  and  this  light  color  also 
belongs  to  the  Kabylcs  of  the  high  points  of  the  Atlas.  As  they  have 
also  light  hair,  it  has  been  supposed,  without  reason,  that  they  might  be 
of  Vandal  origin;  and  the  explanation  of  the  dark  complexion  by  inter- 
mixture with  Negroes  is  equally  unfounded.  These  interminglings  occur 
frequently  in  the  south,  perhaps  also  in  the  east:  in  other  parts  they  have 
been  attributed  to  imported  female  slaves,  but  certainly  their  influence 
could  not  affect  the  whole  tribe.  Otherwise,  the  hair  is  black,  mostly 
long  and  frizzy,  sometimes  short,  and  the  li.ur  of  the  bodv  and  beard  is 
scant. 

Vol.  I.— 23 


354  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

The  features  are  frequently  those  of  Negroes,  but  modified — lips  thick, 
the  mouth  large,  the  uose  broad  aud  rather  flat  (//.  105,7?"-.  §)•  ^  more 
European  or  Arabian  physique  is  also  found — oblong  faces,  aquiline  nose, 
thin  lips  {pi.  105,  Jig.  5);  which  type  jDriucipally  prevails  in  the  north 
(Morocco,  Tripoli). 

The  Tuarick  are  of  this  latter  type;  they  are  generally  of  a  bronze 
color,  and  are  distinguished  by  graceful  hands  and  feet.  Among  the  Ber- 
ber tribes  an  unpleasant  odor  (see  p.  44)  of  the  skin  is  perceptible,  said  to 
be  similar  to  the  exhalation  of  the  Negroes,  but  much  worse;  the  same  is 
stated  about  the  Fellahs  in  Egypt;  and  to  the  Jews  also  a  specific  unpleas- 
ant odor  of  the  skin  is  ascribed. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  varied  in  type  from  European  to  Negro  fea- 
tures. Their  build  was  slender,  of  middle  height;  the  color  generally  of 
alight  copper- red,  but  also  from  honey-yellow  to  blackish;  the  forehead 
lofty,  but  generally  retreating;  the  eyes  almond-shaped,  sometimes  a  little 
slanted;  the  nose  not  projecting  much,  with  broad  nostrils,  but  generally 
curved  and  aquiline;  the  lips  full  and  projecting;  beard  scant;  the  hair  of 
the  head  black,  long,  and  straight  (//.  103,  yf^.  %  fig.  5,  extreme  figure 
to  the  right).  That  this  tj'pe  bears  close  relation  to  the  Semitic  is  shown 
by  Figure  5  of  the  same  plate,  where  an  Egyptian  leader  conducts  a  party 
of  Jewish  prisoners:  the  captives  have  flatter  foreheads,  lower  vertexes, 
more  prominent  and  more  curved  noses,  and  the  men  have  a  more  abun- 
dant beard.  The  Copts  (//.  103,  fig.  3)  and  the  Fellahs  have  faithfully 
retained  the  old  Eg>"ptian  type  up  to  the  present  day. 

The  Nubas  are  often  smaller  than  the  Fellahs,  lean,  with  ugly  limbs, 
but  with  graceful  hands  and  feet.  The  color  varies  from  a  light  brown  to 
the  Negro  black;  the  hair  is  black,  long,  soft,  closely  curled;  the  beard 
scant;  the  features  are  similar  to  the  second  Berber  t}'pe  shown  on  Plate 
105  {fig.  5).  The  hair  of  the  Fundshes  is  similar;  the  color  is  dark 
brown  to  black;  the  nose  straight  or  slightly  aquiline,  the  lips,  although 
not  Negro-like,  full,  and  consequently  projecting  (//.  10^,  fig.  2).  The 
Bisharis  are  described  as  of  the  same  character,  only  their  hair  is  more 
abundant  and  is  often  artistically  arranged  (//.  98,  fig.  5).  Their  beards 
also  are  scant. 

The  Abyssinians  show  a  double  type:  the  one  with  oval  face,  cur\-ed, 
fine  nose,  somewhat  full  but  not  everted  mouth,  beautiful  eyes  {pi.  98, 
fig.  3);  the  other  more  Negro-like,  with  thick  lips,  broad  nose,  and 
e.Kpressionless  eyes  {pi.  98,  fig.  2).  The  color  varies  between  a  brown- 
ish-yellow and  black,  but  does  not  differ  according  to  the  shapes  of  the 
faces;  the  hair  is  sometimes  frizzy  or  even  wooll}'  {pi.  gS,  fig.  3),  sometimes 
straight  or  wavy  (//.  98,  fig.  2);  but  there  are  innumerable  intermediate 
forms.  The  hair  also  is  not  conditioned  by  the  t}pe  of  the  face,  for  with 
Caucasian  features  woolly  hair  is  found,  and  with  more  Negro-like  faces 
(but  in  that  case  always  oval)  straight  hair  {pi.  gS,figs.  2,  3);  the  stature 
is  medium,  and  the  bodily  construction  among  most  tribes  is  good  {pi.  98, 

fi^-  4)- 


ETUXOGRAPHY.  355 

The  Gallas  answer  the  same  description:  the  color  varies  from  a  wheat- 
yellow  to  black;  the  build  is  good  (//.  ()6,  fig.  i);  the  hair  black,  long, 
straight,  or  frizzy  to  wav}';  the  face  roundish;  the  nose  flat  and  broad, 
rarely  curved;  the  lips — especially  in  the  middle — thick  and  projecting, 
a  type  which  in  different  variations  may  be  obser\'ed  among  the  Danakil 
and  the  Sonialis;  and  among  the  latter  the  Edurs  as  well  as  the  Midshcr- 
thains,  who  belong  to  the  Darruds,  present  it.  An  almost  pure  Negro  type 
is  exhibited  by  the  woman  from  Magadoxo  (IMogedshu)  (//.  102,  fig.  i), 
also  by  the  inhabitant  of  Merka  or  Meurka  {pL  92,  Jig.  19),  which  city  is 
south  of  Magadoxo.  The  Wakuafi  (//.  86,  Jig.  17)  are  exactly  like  the 
Bantu  people  (comp.  with  the  illus.  of  them//.  88,  Jig.  2;  p/.  '^2,  Jig.  19). 
The  Edur  woman  (//.  ioi,Jig.  i)  exhibits  long,  straight  hair,  together 
with  a  broad  nose  and  thick  mouth,  while,  on  the  contrary.  Figure  3 
{pi.  loi)  (Gulf  of  Aden)  and  Figure  5  {pi.  102)  (south  of  Cape  Gardafui) 
show  a  Jewish  nose  with  thick  lips.  The  high,  somewhat  retreating,  and 
narrow  forehead  is  peculiar  to  all.  Figure  2  (//.  100)  illustrates  the  good 
stature,  the  various  construction  of  hair,  and  the  conical  form  of  the 
female  breast. 

Physical  Charnclcristics  of  the  Asiatic  Semites. — Passing  into  Asia,  we 
see  the  Arabians  \\\\.\\  oval  face,  vaulted  forehead,  straight  or  curved  nose, 
thin  not  projecting  lips,  retreating  chin;  the  hair,  where  it  is  not  shaved, 
straight,  wavy,  or  curly,  worn  in  various  manners  (//.  104,  Jigs.  4-7).  Their 
color  is  a  pale  yellow,  like  that  of  South  Europeans,  brown  and  black; 
their  figure  is  lean;  their  hands  and  feet  are  often  small  and  graceful;  tiieir 
beard  is  abundantly  developed  {pi.  10^,  Jigs,  i,  3,  8,  11,  12).  The  African 
Arabs  are  often  perfectly  black,  and  fleshier  than  the  Arabs  in  Asia,  and 
ever\-where  the  Arabians  (also  the  Berbers)  deem  fatness  a  necessary  requi- 
site of  female  beauty.  Of  course  there  are  numerous  variations  of  this  pre- 
vailing tvpe:  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  are  mostly  of  a  light  color; 
the  tribes  of  the  interior  of  Yemen  have  thick  lips,  etc.  It  is  a  fact  of 
great  importance  that  the  Aral)ian  tribes  which  have  preser^-ed  the  most 
ancient  type,  the  Achdam  and  vShumurs,  have  a  blackish  skin  (lighter 
than  the  Somalis);  a  very  large  mouth,  together  with  thin  lips;  a  broad, 
not  flat  nose;  and  frizzled  long  hair — thus  varying  not  inconsiderably  from 
the  type  of  the  Arabs. 

The  Assyrian  type,  as  it  has  come  down  to  us  on  old  representations 
in  Nineveh,  shows,  with  a  vigorously-developed  body,  great  similarity  to 
the  Jcwi.sh  features  (comp.  pi.  iot„  Jig.  5,  with//.  106,  Jig.  2),  only  the  hair 
is  more  developed;  it  falls  in  long  and  heavy  curls  to  the  neck  of  the  men, 
and  the  beard  reaches  to  the  breast  in  locks. 

The  original  type  of  the  Jews  has  been  remarkably  modified  in 
various  countries  by  climatic  and  other  influences,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  types  prevailing  in  the  regions  where  they  are  domiciled;  Imt 
in  Yemen  and  in  other  Asiatic  regions  the  original  type  has  been  largely 
retained  (Maltzan).  The  color  of  the  Jews  is  a  ver>-  light  brown,  always 
lighter  than   that  of  the  Arabs,  and  in  Syria  and  Arabia  a  faint,  sickly 


356  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

white.  The  mountain-inhabitants  of  Syria  are  also  of  a  very  light 
though  healthy  color,  with  gray  or  blue  eyes  (which  are  also  found 
among  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  of  Arabia  and  the  Kabyles  of  the 
Atlas),  and  frequently  with  a  reddish  beard. 

Skull. — The  skull-structure  of  the  Semites  shows  much  tiniformity:  it 
is  hypsistenocephalic  (according  to  Welcker)  among  the  Abyssinians,  Copts, 
and  Fellahs;  mesocephalic  among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  Arabs,  and 
Berbers.  The  skulls  of  the  latter  are  rounder  than  the  skulls  of  the 
Arabians  and  the  Guanches,  and  those  of  the  Jews  are  broader.  We 
have  illustrated  a  modern  Egyptian  skull  on  Plate  103  i^figs.  6-8),  which 
^fig.  8)  shows  a  slight  prognathism;  among  the  Gallas  some  individuals 
are  found  with  pronounced  prognathic  skulls,  and  indeed  this  struc- 
ture is  not  unfrequent  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Semitic  region. 
Some  Jewish  individuals  among  lis  exhibit  it.  The  skin  of  the  Se- 
mites is  thin  and  smooth,  and  nowhere  thick  and  velvety  like  that  of  the 
Negroes. 

Disfigurations. — The  women  of  the  Berbers  and  Arabs  frequently 
tattoo  their  faces  (//.  105,  fig.  5)  or  their  hands  and  arms.  This  is  rarely 
seen  with  the  men,  but  the  Danakil  scar  the  skin,  and  some  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Tigre  tattoo  in  the  same  manner  as  the  women,  and  in 
Amhara  all  over  their  bodies.  The  women  also  paint  the  eyebrows  with 
antimony,  and  the  finger-nails  (sometimes  also  the  toe-nails)  with  henna. 
In  some  places  (among  the  Bisharis,  the  Soraalis)  the  hair  is  dyed  red 
with  lime. 

In  ancient  times  the  Bisharis  extracted  two  incisor  teeth,  in  the  Negro 
style;  piercing  the  ear-lobes  is  practised  everywhere;  ornaments  are  rarely 
worn  in  the  nose  (//.  101^  fig.  i).  Circumcision  is  practised  almost  every- 
where, being  absent  only  among  a  few  pagan  tribes  and  among  the  Chris- 
tians. In  East  Africa  the  girls  are  circumcised,  and  the  disgusting  custom 
of  infibulation  prevails. 

Clothing. — We  need  to  make  but  few  remarks  about  the  dress  of  these 
peoples,  as  our  plates  sufficiently  exhibit  it.  The  ^Berbers  and  Tuarick 
wear  a  white  gown  and  pantaloons,  and  over  them  a  girded  and  often 
gayly-colored  overdress  with  sleeves;  the  head  is  covered  with  a  red  cap 
and  is  always  wrapped  with  a  cloth,  which  partly  covers  the  face  (//.  100, 
fig.  4).  They  carr}'  on  their  blue  belts  weapons,  a  bag  for  tobacco,  and 
all  kinds  of  utensils  {pi.  100,  fig.  4).  The  women  wear  several  long 
blouses  of  cotton,  which  they  fasten  with  a  red  belt;  often  a  large  wrap  is 
added,  in  which  they  can  completely  enfold  themselves  (//.  105,  figs. 
5,  6).  The  man  represented  in  the  latter  figure  wears  only  a  girded 
blouse  and  the  headkerchief     Shoes  of  leather  are  very  common. 

The  Arabians  wear  either  short  or  long  pantaloons;  over  these  a  long 
white  cotton  shirt  with  wide  sleeves  and  a  belt;  a  large  wrap  in  which  they 
can  completely  enfold  themselves;  and  on  the  head  generally  a  piece  of 
goods  hanging  down  the  back  of  the  neck  and  on  each  side,  with  which 
they  can  cover  their  mouths;  the  men  also  wear  turbans  (//.  104,  fiigs. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  357 

1-3,  8,  10;  comp.  //.  92,  fig.  i);  leather  shoes  are  frequent  (//.  104,  fig. 
10;  pi.  105,  fig.  7).  Many  Arabians  wear  an  entirely  Turkish  garb  (//. 
104,  fig.  12). 

The  dress  of  the  old  Assyrians,  whose  principal  colors  were  white  and 
blue,  consisted  of  lonj^  garments  with  shorter  overdresses,  which  often  had 
wide  sleeves,  and  of  high  pointed  caps.  The  king  wore  a  high  tiara;  war- 
riors were  attired  in  a  closely-fitting  girded  blouse  of  gay  material  fastened 
by  overlapping  (//.  106,  figs,  i,  2).  It  was  without  sleeves,  like  the  long 
"  coat  of  many  colors  "  of  the  captive  Jews  (//.  103,  fig.  5.  See  Assyrians 
and  illus. ,  \'ol.  II. ).  The  old  Egyptians  were  similarly  attired,  the  narrow 
garment  beginning  below  the  breasts  of  the  women  {p/.  103,  fig.  9);  and 
the  men,  esiDecially  in  working,  were  content  with  a  white  wrap  about 
the  hips  and  upper  legs  (//.  103,  fig.  5.  See  Egyptians  and  illus., 
Vol.  II.). 

The  costumes  of  the  Nubians  and  of  the  Copts  of  to-day  coincide  with 
those  of  the  Arabs  and  Berbers  {pi.  jot,,  figs,  i,  4);  and  so  do  those  of  the 
Abyssinians  (//.  98,7?^^.  i,  3,  4,  6;  pi.  99,  fig.  i;  pi.  100,  fig.  i;  //.  loi, 
fig.  i).  The  Gurage  woman,  from  a  tribe  dwelling  in  North-eastern 
Kaffa,  wears  a  veil-like  head-scarf  of  strange  shape  {pi.  9S,  fig.  i);  bright 
skins  constitute,  here  as  among  the  Berbers,  an  ornament  for  the  men, 
and  are  worn  as  wraps  (//.  98,  fig.  4,  the  rider  in  the  background;  also 
fig.  3);  the  rider  {fig.  4)  wears  a  diadem-like,  ribbon-ornamented  head- 
decoration  (comp.  pi.  96,  fig.  I,  the  crouching  figure  to  the  right),  but, 
with  the  exception  of  short  pantaloons,  he  is  otherwise  naked. 

Among  the  Gallas  we  find  a  union  of  several  costmnes.  The  two 
women  in  the  centre  {pi.  100,  fig.  2)  show  Abyssinian  attire,  while  the 
standing  female  figure  (/>/.  102,  fig.  3)  is  dressed  in  a  manner  which 
reminds  us  of  the  old  Semitic  garb  which  we  have  ju.st  described.  The 
man  standing  at  her  side  wears  the  long  shirt  of  the  Arab,  without  a  belt; 
but  otherwise  these  peoples,  as  well  as  the  less  civilized  Arabian  tribes 
{pi.  10^,  fig.  4),  are  satisfied  with  a  scarf,  to  which  the  nobles  add  a  cloak; 
leather  sandals  {pi.  99,  fig.  n;  pi-  iox,fig.  6)  are  much  in  use.  Children 
go  about  naked  {pi.  9S,  fig.  6;  //.  100,  fig.  2).  The  costumes  (//.  92,  fig. 
19 ;  //.  98,  fig.  2  ;  //.  loi,  figs.  2,  3 ;  //.  102,  figs,  i,  5,  6)  remind  us  of 
Negro  attire,  and  especially  the  tying  down  of  the +)reasts  (//.  98,  fig.  2; 
//.  102,  fig.  6).  There  is  no  lack  of  ornaments  ;  the  illustrations  give 
'various  examples:  we  call  attention  to  the  long  ear-pendants  on  Plate  100 

{fijr-  2). 

The  Bi.shari  {pi.  98,  fig.  5),  as  do  most  of  the  Nubians,  wears  in  his 
hair  a  wooden  needle  with  which  to  .^cratch  the  head  without  injuring  the 
arrangement  of  the  hair.  Such  scratching  may  often  be  desirable,  as 
these  nations  on  account  of  their  uncleanlincss  are  much  infested  with 
vermin.  The  Tuarick  and  the  Bcrl)ers  never  wash  othenvi.-^e  than  with 
sand;  they  wear  their  clothing  until  it  falls  from  their  bodies.  The  Tua- 
rick men  rub  their  entire  bodies  with  indigo- powder,  and  the  women  their 
faces  with  ochre,  while  the  Nubians  and  Gallas  anoint  themselves  all  over 


358  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

\vith  grease  in  the  Soutli-African  manner,  by  wliicli  processes  the  obnox- 
ious odor  of  the  skin  is  greatly  increased. 

Building. — In  their  style  of  building  the  Somalis  resemble  the  Negroes, 
as  is  proved  by  Plate  loi  {fig.  13),  but  they  prefer  to  lay  out  their  villages 
at  secure  spots  on  steep  banks  of  rivers,  etc. — a  precaution  rarely  taken 
by  the  Negroes.  The  sheds  on  Plate  102  {fig.  3)  remind  us  of  the  sun- 
roofs of  the  Negroes  and  Fulah  {pi.  <p^fiig.  7;  pi.  ^2,fiig.  20).  Magado.xo 
(Mogedshu)  is  built  in  the  Arabian  manner  (//.  102,  fig.  2)  with  flat  roofs, 
on  which  the  inhabitants  sleep  during  the  night.  The  Berbers  build  and 
live  in  a  similar  way.  The  African  hut  has  maintained  its  place  by  the 
side  of  the  house  (//.  102,  fig.   3,   background). 

The  houses  of  Abyssinia  {pi.  98,  figs.  4,  6;  //.  100,  fig.  i),  and  also 
those  of  Nubia  {pi.  100,  fig.  5;  pi.  103,  fig.  2),  repeat  the  model  of 
the  Negro  and  Bantu  houses  {pi.  8.\.,  fiig.  2\  pi.  S6,  fig.  2;  pi.  '^<^,fig.  2), 
carrying  it  out  more  in  detail:  the  building  is  more  comfortable  and 
beautiful  (//.  gS,fig.  6).  The  Monbuttus  on  the  upper  White  Nile  had 
halls  similar  to  the  great  one  of  the  king  of  Abyssinia  {pi.  g'^,fig-  1),  and 
the  arrangement  of  huts  in  courtyards  (//.  100,  fig.  i;  pi.  loi,  fig.  13), 
which  also  contain  receptacles  for  storage,  etc.  {pi.  103,  fig.  2,  back- 
ground), is  just  like  that  of  the  Negroes.  On  Plate  100  {fig.  1)  the 
master  of  the  house  occupies  his  accustomed  place  in  the  shade  of  the 
projecting  wall,  from  which  he  can  survey  the  entire  yard;  the  door- 
keeper sits  in  the  lookout  by  the  side  of  the  door:  it  is  accessible  by 
means  of  a  ladder. 

Miserable  huts  of  skins,  half-globular  like  the  Hottentots'  abodes,  are 
found  among  the  uncivilized  tribes  of  Arabia,  as  also  on  the  island  of 
Abd-el-Kuri  (//.  10^,  fig.  4),  which  is  situated  between  Socotra  and  Cape 
Gardafui.  The  nomadic  Arabs  and  Berbers  live  in  leather  tents  {pi  104, 
fig.  9).  It  is  well  known  how  splendid  was  the  building  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Assyrians  {pi  106,  fig.  i);  and  the  old 
tomb  of  Jewish  origin  {pi  106,  fig.  5)  is  also  an  interesting  specimen  of 
architecture. 

Domestic  Lifie:  Sfock-Raising,  Hnnfing,  and Agriciiltiirc. — The  Berbers 
and  many  Arabs  are  mostly  stock-raisers  and  earn.'  on  agriculture  to  a 
small  extent.  Their  domestic  animals  vary  in  the  different  districts.  At 
an  early  period  they  had  cattle,  goats,  sheep,  camels,  horses  (//.  106,  fig. 
2),  and  donkeN's  {pi.  103,  fig.  5) ;  bees  are  also  extensively  raised.  They 
take  great  pleasure  in  the  chase,  which  they  carr}'  on  with  their  weapons 
of  war;  crocodiles  and  hippopotami  are  captured  with  harpoons  (//.  99, 
fig.  12;  comp.  pi  86,  fig.  13)  in  the  same  manner  as  among  the  Bantu 
nations.  In  Africa  the  doura  is  the  principal  grain,  figuring  as  an  article 
of  exchange  among  some  Arabic  tribes  of  East  Africa;  there  are  also  rice, 
millet,  maize,  and  in  uj^per  Ab^'ssinia  wheat.  The  agricultural  imple- 
ments are  simple:  the  primitive  Abyssinian  plough  (//.  99,  fig.  16) 
consists  entirely  of  wood. 

Pood  and  Stimulants. — The  Berbers  eat  voraciousl}'  with  spoons,  and 


ETHNOGRAPHY. 


359 


likewise  the  African  Ara1)s  with  their  fingers.  Plate  99  {fis^.  i)  shows  an 
Abyssinian  banquet,  and  also  the  manner  of  crouching  around  the  table,  of 
serving,  and  of  eating  with  knife  and  hands.  There  are  many  spirituous 
drinks — palm  wine,  doura  beer,  etc.  Tobacco  is  a  favorite  .stimulant. 
They  smoke  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  East-African  Negroes 
(p.  336):  in  the  mouth-piece  of  the  Nubian  pipe  (//.  99,  fig.  5)  the  liquid 
containing  the  nicotine  is  accumulated  in  bast-fibre,  which  is  chewed. 
Other  kinds  of  pipes,  in  which  the  smoke  passes  through  water,  are  exhib- 
ited on  Plate  102  {fig.  3,  the  sitting  figure  to  the  left)  and  on  Plate  98 
{fig.  6,  to  the  right),  and  these  last-described  pipes  produce  the  effects 
of  the  Bantu  pipes  already  known  to  us  (p.  315;  pi.  90,  fig.  6).  Very 
different  and  much  finer  are  the  (Turkish)  pipes  of  the  Arabs  {pi.  104, 
fig.  II,  to  the  right). 

Utensils. — We  see  on  Plate  ioo{fig.  2)  Danakil  women  carrying  water 
in  bowls  made  of  ostrich  egg-shells:  a  similar  vessel,  like  the  one 
carried  by  the  naked  child,  is  seen  on  Plate  99  {fig.  14),  though  the 
Fundshes  do  not  use  egg-shells,  but  plait  all  their  vessels,  even  those  for 
liquids  {pi.  99,  figs.  13,  14);  as  do  also  the  Somalis  {pi.  loi,  figs.  5,  8). 
Earthen  vessels  of  various  shapes  used  by  the  Nubians  are  shown  on  Plate 
103  {figs.  I,  2);  by  the  Berbers,  on  Plate  105  {fig.  8);  by  the  Abjssinians, 
on  Plate  98  {fig.  6).  Horns  of  buffalo  or  other  cattle  are  used  as  drinking- 
cups  in  East  Africa;  one  of  them  hangs  on  the  wall  to  the  right  on  Plate 
98  {fig.  6).  The  same  illustration,  in  the  background  to  the  right,  shows 
a  woman  making  bread-cakes — for  here  bread  is  made  everywhere  in  the 
shape  of  Easter  cakes  or  Jewish  »/als<>s — while  on  Plate  102  {fig.  3)  the 
two  standing  figures  in  the  foreground  to  the  right  pound  grain  in  a 
wooden  mortar. 

Household  Goods. — We  also  exhibit  household  goods,  such  as  chairs 
and  stools  {pi.  102,  fig.  3);  others  are  .shown  on  Plate  98  {fig.  6);  clumsy 
tables  of  wood  (//.  99,  fig.  i)  and  a  sofa-like  frame  which  ser\-es  as  a  bed 
on  Plate  98  {fi<g.  6,  the  haq)-pla>er  sits  on  it;  conip.  //.  88,  fig.  10).  An 
axe  of  the  Somalis  for  domestic  use  is  exhibited  on  Plate  loi  {fig.  7).  A 
female  slave  spinning  with  a  distaff  kneels  to  the  left  on  Plate  98  {fig.  4, 
in  the  foreground),  and  other  more  awkward  spindles,  around  which  the 
thread  is  wound  by  turning  the  centre  stick,  are  shown  on  Plate  99  {fig. 
17,  tho.se  of  the  Fundshes,  andyff.  10,  of  the  Nubians).  The  arti.stic  spin- 
ning of  the  Gallas  is  illustrated  on  Plate  102  {fig.  3,  the  .sitting  figure  in 
the  background),  and  in  the  same  cut  the  weaving  of  this  people  is  shown 
(the  figure  sitting  outside  the  house,  to  the  left;  comp.  //.  90,  fig.  6),  which 
is  like  that  of  South  Africa.  Fine  leather  fabrications  of  the  Somalis 
are  shown  on  Plate  loi  {figs.  4,  9):  it  is  well  known  that  all  these  peoples 
have  extraordinary  skill  in  the  workmanship  of  leather.  Plate  105  {fig. 
i)  .shows  artistic  wood-carvings  of  the  Arabs. 

The  oil-mill  of  the  Gallas  (//.  102,  fig.  3)  is  rather  primitive,  as  is 
al.so  the  .shipbuilding  of  the  East  Africans,  although  it  is  difficult  to  build 
ships  on  the  upper  Nile  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  material.     The 


36o  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Nubians  often  hire  out  as  boatmen,  and  communication  in  these  regions 
depends  chiefly  on  the  Nile  navigation.  Plate  97  {Jig.  8)  shows  a  bark 
of  the  upper  Nile,  with  a  scaffolding  for  freight. 

Technical  and  Industrial  Arts. — Most  of  the  African  nations  of  whom 
we  now  treat  rank  no  higher  in  technical  and  industrial  ability  than  the 
better  Negro  tribes — a  fact  which  will  become  apparent  on  comparing  our 
different  plates.  But  the  Berbers  deserve  higher  praise:  they  have  in 
their  cities  many  mechanics — for  instance,  weavers,  goldsmiths,  shoe- 
makers, potters,  masons,  and  others;  and  the  Fezaneers,  although  their 
country  is  barren  in  raw  material,  are  a  very  enterprising  mercantile 
people  and  shrewd  in  the  pursuit  of  business.  All  these  nations  manifest 
eagerness  for  trade  and  for  the  acquisition  of  property.  !\Iany  of  the 
Berbers  can  read  and  write;  the  Tuarick  have  even  invented  a  peculiar 
alphabet,  and  the  same  is  said  of  the  Gallas.  Their  astronomical  know- 
ledge amounts  to  little,  and  is  generally  intermixed  with  ni}-thological 
notions. 

Fine  Arts  and  Architecture. — The  artistic  accomplishments  of  the 
modern  Semites,  both  in  Africa  and  in  Asia,  are  insignificant.  The  dec- 
orations of  the  great  Hall  of  Ankober  {pi.  99,  Jig.  i)  reveal  some  taste, 
especially  the  painted  animals  of  the  upper  frieze,  representing  elephants, 
etc.  The  buildings  on  Plate  100  {Jg.  i)  are  also  graceful.  But  this 
amounts  to  little  compared  with  old  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  architecture 
and  painting  (//.  103,  Jg.  5;  //.  106,  Jgs.  i,  2,  3,  4).  However  admirable 
these  old  Semitic  productions  were,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  these  arts 
soon  became  formal  and  torpid  among  the  Semites  themselves,  and  fur- 
thermore that  many  of  the  principal  tribes,  such  as  the  Arabians  and  the 
Aramaeans,  have  accomplished  almost  nothing  in  this  direction. 

Music. — It  is  the  same  with  music.  For  although  the  old  Hebrew 
music  occupies  a  high  rank,  considering  its  period,  and  although  it  had  an 
influence  by  no  means  unimportant  even  on  later  times,  still  it  remained 
unprogressive.  The  Arabians  also  show  themselves  to  be  void  of  artistic 
talents:  their  music  is  closely  related  to  the  old  Hebrew;  they  have  pretty, 
soft  national  songs,  but  no  more,  and  in  general  they  do  not  prize  music. 
In  North  Africa  there  are  short  solo  songs,  generally  of  a  plaintive 
though  not  unpleasant  melody,  such  as  are  sung,  for  instance,  by  the 
Nubian  boatmen  and  the  Gallas,  and  there  are  wild  war-songs  (Gallas, 
Tuarick),  which  are  sung  or  screamed  with  great  passion. 

Musical  Instruments. — The  instruments  are  numerous — flutes  of  vari- 
ous shapes,  curved  horns,  kettledrums,  cymbals  (//.  99,  Jig.  i,  to  the  left, 
in  the  foregroimd),  and  difTerent  kinds  of  stringed  instruments,  as  the 
harp  on  Plate  9S  {Jg.  6),  which  is  in  use  throughout  the  entire  valley  of 
the  Nile;  a  mandolin-like  instrument  which  is  played  with  a  bow  is  seen 
on  Plate  99  {Jg.  i,  to  the  extreme  left);  at  its  side  is  another  in  the  shape 
of  a  cittern,  and,  like  it,  played  with  the  fingers.  It,  or  an  instrument 
much  like  it,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  figure  sitting  opposite  to  the  harp- 
player  on  Plate  98  {Jg-  6).     But  the  Abyssinian  music  is  only  noise  with 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  361 

a  little  rhythm;  the  illustration  of  a  court  concert  on  Plate  99  {^f,g.  i)  is 
not  evidence  to  the  contrary. 

Poetry. — Of  all  the  forms  of  Semitic  poetry,  only  the  lyric  is  of  any 
importance.  The  Arabians,  and  especially  the  Hebrews,  have  accom- 
plished something  noteworthy  in  this  line,  but  it  has  not  been  de\eloped 
among  them.  The  little  songs  of  the  Arabians  are  to-day  just  wliat  they 
were  one  and  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  the  poetry  of  the  Nubians,  the 
Gallas,  Tuarick,  and  Berbers  is  similar  to  them,  being  short  lyric  out- 
bursts, such  as  the  moment  inspires. 

Weapons. — It  may  be  said  that  t!ie  life  of  some  of  these  nations, 
especially  of  the  Berber  and  Arab  tribes,  consists  of  war.  In  regard  to  the 
weapons,  we  meet  one  South-African  peculiarity  in  North  Africa — namely, 
a  short  dagger  carried  on  the  left  forearm  b}-  means  of  a  leather  strap,  as 
among  the  Tuarick  (//.  100,  fig.  4),  the  Nubians  (//.  98,^0-.  5;  p/.  99,7?^. 
8),  and  the  Galla  nations  (//.  101,  Jig.  10).  It  is  encased  in  a  leather  or 
copper  sheath.  In  addition,  the  Tuarick  from  the  time  of  manhood  carr>' 
on  the  right  arm  a  stone  ring,  which  they  never  take  off,  and  which  serves 
them  as  an  instrument  of  striking  when  in  close  combat.  Besides  the 
dagger,  the  three  principal  weapons  of  the  Semites  are  the  bow  and  arrow, 
the  spear,  and  the  broadsword,  like  those  made  in  Solingen,  Rhenish 
Prussia  (Duveyrier). 

We  find  all  these  species  of  weapons  in  the  ancient  paintings  of  Nin- 
eveh, which  show  how  the  bow  was  used  in  hunting  and  in  war,  how  it 
was  stretched,  and  how  carried  when  not  in  use  {pi.  106,  Jig.  2;  fg.  i,  the 
wall-paintings).  We  also  observe  quivers  filled  with  arrows  and  strapped 
to  the  back ;  feathered  arrows  are  seen  on  the  corpse  lying  on  the  ground, 
an  empty  quiver  at  its  side  (//.  106,  J/g.  2).  This  latter  varies  greatly 
from  the  modern  quivers  of  the  Somalis  {p/.  101,  Jig.  11),  whose  long 
arrows  are  also  feathered,  but  whose  points  have  numerous  barbs.  The 
Tuarick  sometimes  poison  their  arrows. 

The  broadswords  are  also  ancient;  they  were  carried  by  the  Assyrian 
warriors  in  their  belts  (p/.  106,  pig.  2),  as  they  are  at  present  by  the  Tuarick 
(//.  100,  pig.  4),  the  Nubians  (//.  98,  Jg.  5),  the  Gallas,  and  the  Arabs. 
The  two  last-named  nations  have  swords  with  curved  blades  (//.  96,  Jg. 
1;  p/.  10^,  Jig.  12),  as  also  have  the  Abyssinians  (//.  C)8,Jg.  6,  in  the  back- 
groimd  on  the  wall  behind  the  pillar);  but  the  straight  ones  are  also  in 
use  (p/.  99,  Jig.  i). 

The  spears  serve  for  piercing,  and  are  frequently  three  metres  (iiS 
inches)  in  length;  they  are  also  found  in  the  ancient  periods  (//.  loi,  Jigs. 
2,  12;  />/.  10^,  Jig.  5;  //.  iOi\,J/g.  i);  under  the  point  they  sometimes  have 
barbs  (/>/.  102,  Jig.  3,  the  third  figure  to  the  left).  Shorter  spears,  as  car- 
ried by  the  Tuarick  (/>/.  100,  Jig.  4)  and  the  Arabian  (//.  104,7?^.  10),  serve 
as  javelins.  Some  Nubian  tribes  have  clubs  (//.  99,7?^.  6),  and  the  trum- 
bash,  in  the  shape  already  known  to  us  (p.  343;  //.  99,  Jigs,  4,  9),  is  used 
by  the  Nubians,  who  have  probably  adopted  it  from  the  south. 

Long  or  circular  shields  serve  as  arms  of  protection,  the  former  among 


363  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

the  Berbers,  the  Tuarick,  the  Fundshes  (//.  \02,  fig.  4),  the  Nnbas  (//.  98, 
fig.  5),  and  the  Wakuafi,  and  of  ahnost  the  same  shape  as  the  Caffir  shields 
(comp.  pi.  <)^ifig.  5,  with//.  8^,  fig.  9),  except  that  those  of  the  Fundshes 
have  a  recess  in  the  centre  for  the  hand;  those  of  circular  shape,  for- 
merly used  by  the  Assyrians  (p/.  106,  figs,  i,  2,  below  to  the  right),  are  at 
present  iised  by  the  Gallas  (//.  g6,  fig.  i;  p/.  101,  fig.  2)  and  the  Abyssin- 
ians  {p/.  98,  fig.  6,  on  the  wall  behind  the  pillar).  Among  some  Arabic 
tribes  a  kind  of  helmet  of  matting  is  found  (p/.  <)g,fig.  15),  and  the 
pointed  caps  of  the  Ass\Tian  warriors  (p/.  106,  fig.  2)  are  probably  war- 
dresses. Among  the  Tuarick  (pi.  100,  fig.  4),  the  Bisharis  (//.  98,  fig.  5), 
the  Somalis  {p/.  loi,  fig.  2),  and  the  Arabians  (p/.  J04.,  fig.  8;  pi.  105,  fig. 
7)  we  see  fully-equipped  warriors.  The  latter  cuts  exhibit  the  frequent 
use  of  the  gun. 

Jl'arfiare. — In  North  Africa  the  wars,  which  are  generally  cruel,  are 
mostly  conducted  by  raids  and  for  booty.  The  Gallas  are  notoriously 
cruel,  and  the  Abyssinians  and  other  tribes  are  little  less  so.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Arabians,  and  perhaps  the  Gallas,  Berbers,  and  Tuarick, 
they  can  scarcely  be  called  brave,  as  is  evinced  by  their  manner  of  war- 
fare, by  their  surprises  (comp.  //.  105,  fig.  7),  and  by  their  speedy  flight 
in  open  battle.  When  in  passion  they  perform  incredible  deeds  of  valor 
and  foolhardiness,  as  the  histories  of  Carthage  and  Jerusalem  testify.  The 
great  wars  of  the  Arabians  and  the  brave  resistance  of  the  Kabj'les  are 
also  based  on  similar  passionate  excitements,  either  of  a  religious  or 
patriotic  character.  In  this  respect  their  similarity  to  the  Negroes  be- 
comes again  apparent. 

Family  Life. — On  the  whole,  the  women  occupy  a  high  rank.  How- 
ever, the  Berbers  (and  also  the  Syrian  sects)  believe  them  to  have  no  souls, 
and  polygam}'  prevails  everywhere;  yet  the  women  of  the  Tuarick,  who  go 
about  unveiled,  but  are  perfectly  moral,  are  well  treated  by  their  husbands. 
Adultery,  which  rarely  occurs,  is  punished  with  death.  It  is  considered  an 
honorable  thing  for  the  wife  to  have  several  male  friends  who  pay  her 
special  attentions,  who  act  as  much  as  possible  according  to  her  pleasure, 
and  who  are  always  at  her  side,  but  whose  intimacy  never  degenerates 
into  anything  improper.  Among  the  African  Arabs  also  woman  occupies 
a  high  position,  and  the  same  was  the  case  in  ancient  Egypt,  while,  on  the 
contrary',  the  modern  Egyptians  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities  of  Nubia 
are  said  to  be  exceedingly  immoral. 

The  Berabra  and  Bisharis  and  the  rural  inhabitants  of  Nubia  are  diflfer- 
ent:  among  them  the  women  are  free,  but  strictly  moral;  polygamy  is  rare, 
and  marriages  are  binding  and  durable.  The  Abyssinians  present  a  con- 
trar}-  picture.  Although  Christians,  and  as  such  obliged  to  practise  monog- 
amy, they  live  in  polygamy  through  extensive  and  public  concubinage. 
Polygamy  is  allowed  among  the  Gallas,  but  the  men  are  generally  satisfied 
with  one  wife,  while  the  Wakuafi  take  many  wives.  It  will  be  seen  from 
the  pictures  of  the  women  in  our  illustrations  that  they  are  not  badly  treated, 
in  spite  of  the  infibulation  there  practised.     Among  the  Gallas  the  girls  get 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  363 

a  dowry;  in  other  places  in  Africa  the  woman  is  purchased  from  tlie  parents, 
as  among  the  Asiatic  Semites;  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  and  at  present 
among  some  Negro  nations,  a  poor  man  might  earn  his  wife  by  his  labor. 

The  wedding  is  celebrated  by  a  festivity.  Generally  the  men  and 
women  live  and  eat  together,  although  among  some  tribes  the  women  are 
obliged  to  eat  alone.  Among  the  Tuarick  they  turn  their  backs  to  the 
men  while  speaking,  which  is  considered  a  mark  of  respect.  Much  work  is 
assigned  to  the  women,  but  in  this  respect  the  Tuarick  occupy  a  high  rank; 
among  the  Wakuafi  they  carry  the  burdens,  because  a  man  is  not  pennit- 
ted  to  carry  anything  on  his  head  or  back.  If  a  woman  becomes  a  widow, 
the  brother  of  the  deceased  husband  must  marry  her.  The  old  Egyptians 
permitted  marriage  between  brother  and  sister,  and  traces  of  this  custom 
are  found  elsewhere  in  Africa  and  Asia.  In  other  places  (South-Berber 
tribes,  tribes  of  the  Arabians)  some  remains  of  the  ancient  custom  of  car- 
rying off  the  bride  by  force  have  been  preserved. 

Parentage. — The  children  are  on  the  whole  treated  well,  and  among 
the  more  civilized  nations  are  educated  and  instructed.  The  mutual  love 
of  parents  and  children  is,  as  among  the  Negroes,  very  strong.  But  among 
some  Arabian  tribes  new-born  girls  are  frequently  killed.  The  Phoenicians 
often  sacrificed  their  children  to  the  gods,  and  traces  of  the  same  custom 
are  found  among  the  Hebrews  (Abraham  and  Isaac,  Gen.  xxii.).  The 
Gallas  sometimes  expose  their  children.  Circumcision,  which  is  prac- 
tised by  the  different  nations  at  different  times,  with  some  only  at  the 
time  of  manhood,  is  often  celebrated  with  a  festivity. 

Inlicritancc. — Among  the  Tuarick  and  some  Berber  tribes  in  the  south 
and  north  the  daughters  are  the  principal  heirs,  and  inheritance  passes 
through  the  female  line.  Among  the  Gallas,  on  the  contran-,  we  find  the 
same  conditions  regarding  inheritance  as  among  the  Hottentots:  the  oldest 
son  inherits  everything — even  during  the  lifetime  of  the  father  if  the  latter 
becomes  old  and  unfit  for  war.  The  heir  must  care  for  his  father  and  give 
a  dowry  to  the  sisters,  while  the  younger  brothers  get  nothing.  Among 
the  Asiatic  Semites  the  oldest  sons  are  the  principal  heirs,  but  the  younger 
sisters  and  brothers  receive  a  share.  Joint  responsibility  of  the  family 
and  blood-revenge  are  obligator}-,  and  the  obligation  of  the  latter  is 
inherited  from  generation  to  generation. 

Govern7nent. — The  polity  of  the  Semites  has  developed  from  the  fam- 
ily. The  Tuarick  and  the  Berbers  have  three  castes— the  nobility,  the 
priests  (marabout.s),  and  the  serfs;  and  besides  these  there  are  slaves,  who 
are  generally  war-captives.  The  serfs  are  composed  partly  of  members  of 
the  nobility  who  sought  the  protection  of  more  powerful  families,  of  .sub- 
jugated tribes  of  the  .same  race — the  same  class  is  found  among  the  Wakuafi, 
who  have  no  slaves — and  finally  of  liberated  slaves;  for  here,  as  among 
the  Arabians,  it  is  customary  to  free  the  slaves  at  the  death  of  their  master. 

The  priests  are  closely  connected  with  the  nobility.  From  the  latter 
one  or  other  family  may  have  risen  to  royal  power,  but  it  did  nut  main- 
tain itself  for  any  length  of  time;  the  other  families  displaced  the  mon- 


354  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

arch  and  again  assu'.necl  their  old  power.  The  nobles  alone  constitute  the 
public  assemblies  iu  which  iniportaut  affairs  of  the  people  are  discussed; 
and  in  each  noble  family,  in  each  clan  (Duveyrier  calls  them  tribus),  the 
oldest  has  the  supremacy.  The  northern  Tuarick  consist  of  two  tribes, 
the  Azdjer  and  the  Ahaggar,  no  marabout  families  belonging  to  the  latter. 

Constilulion. — The  separate  households  (families  in  the  strict  sense) 
constitute  the  family  (tribus);  the  different  families,  who  are  originally 
related  to  each  other,  the  tribe,  but  the  different  tribes  have  no  other 
connection.  This  was  essentially  the  constitution  of  the  ancient  Egj'ptians, 
whose  division  of  castes  was  based  entirely  on  the  family,  and  whose 
warriors  and  priests  corresponded  to  the  nobility;  it  was  also  that  of  the 
ancient  Hebrews,  and  remains  among  the  Arabs,  the  Gallas,  the  Wakuafi, 
and  the  Nubians,  only  that  among  some  of  these  nations  a  kingdom  has 
appeared,  either  merely  temporarily,  as  among  the  Jews  and  many  Arabic 
tribes  who  are  now  entirely  free,  or  permanently,  as  in  Egypt,  Abyssinia, 
and  among  the  Gallas. 

Chieftainship. — Among  the  AVakuafi  the  dignity  of  the  chief  is  not 
hereditar}^;  it  is  awarded  to  the  ablest  man.  But  this  king  was  originally 
only  the  head  of  the  family  or  of  the  tribe,  as  is  shown  in  the  fact  that 
a  stranger  is  perfectly  secure  among  the  Gallas  if  the  chief  declares 
himself  to  be  his  father — that  is,  if  he  accepts  him  among  his  children 
or  tribe.  The  stranger  has  by  this  act  become  a  Galla.  The  original 
sanctity  of  the  king,  such  as  we  have  found  it  in  Assyria  (comp.  pi.  io6, 
Jig.  i),  in  Eg}'pt,  and  among  the  Gallas,  favors  the  idea  that  the  king  was 
considered  the  supreme  head  of  the  family,  and  everywhere  had  charge 
of  the  family  sanctuaries. 

Among  the  Abyssinians  the  king  is  not  allowed  to  eat  with  his  hands: 
certain  officials,  the  only  persons  who  are  allowed  to  see  him  eat,  put  the 
meat  into  his  mouth:  consequently,  whenever  he  arranges  a  festivity  he 
does  not  eat  with  the  others,  but  looks  on  from  an  adjoining  room,  his 
table  being  screened  by  a  curtain  (/>/.  99,  fig.  i).  We  have  already  learned 
the  meaning  of  this  custom  in  Polynesia  (p.  194):  the  king  was  sacred,  and 
whatever  he  touched  became  sacred  and  was  removed  from  ordinary  use, 
and  hence  all  food  was  put  into  his  mouth.  For  the  same  reason  he 
could  not  be  in  the  same  place  with  the  others,  and  therefore  he  had  a 
separate  cabinet  in  the  banquet-hall  of  Ankober,  and  a  separate  house 
from  which  he  pronounced  judgment  {pi.  \oo^  fig.  i). 

The  servile  veneration  due  to  kings  ever>-where  in  the  Orient,  the 
crawling  up  to  him,  kissing  the  ground  before  him  {pi.  <^%fig-  i;  pi-  100, 
fig.  i),  etc.,  have  their  origin  in  this  notion.  vSuch  rulers  could  attain 
perfectly  unlimited  power,  but,  the  separate  families  of  the  tribe  having 
equal  power,  an  aristocratic  constitution  (Tuarick,  Berbers,  Hebrews)  was 
the  necessar}'  consequence,  or  the  nations  dissolved  into  separate  tribes, 
as  was  the  case  with  the  Berbers,  the  Tuarick  (Azdjer,  Ahaggar),  the 
Arabians,  and  the  Gallas. 

Judiciary. — The  administration  of  justice  belonged  among  the  Egj'p- 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  365 

tians,  and  still  belongs  among  the  Berbers  and  Tuarick,  to  the  priests; 
among  other  nations,  as  the  Arabians,  it  has  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
nobility  or  of  the  king.  Thns,  among  the  Abyssinians  we  see  the  latter 
addressing  the  people  {pi.  100,  fii^.  i)  from  liis  liouse  of  judgment,  while  in 
the  foregronnd  to  the  left  two  condemned  criminals  are  led  awav.  The 
punishments  are  generally  barbarous,  but  fines  are  accci^tcd  for  many 
crimes. 

Rcligio7is. — Most  Semites  now  profess  a  mont)thcistic  religion,  being 
either  Mohammedans,  Jews,  or  Christians.  Christianity  among  the  Abys- 
sinians is  rude  and  vague,  the  Islamism  of  the  Berbers  and  Tuarick  is  no 
better,  and  among  both  an  infinite  number  of  pagan  ideas  have  been 
retained.  The  original  religion  of  all  Semites  consisted  in  a  veneration 
of  the  heavens  and  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  but  the  worship  of  the.se  soon 
changed  to  that  of  inferior  deities,  especiallj'  of  the  guardian  spirits  and 
local  divinities.  Thus,  the  Wakuafi  (Krapf )  venerate  the  heavens,  Eiigai; 
but  even  in  the  ancient  period  there  dwelt  on  the  "White  Mountain"  a 
supernatural  being  called  Ncilerkob  or  Neiterukob^  who  gave  children  to 
the  first  couple  of  mankind  and  promulgated  necessary  rules  of  life.  To 
him  the  Wakuafi  pray;  he  presents  their  prayer  to  the  Engai;  and,  as 
among  the  neighboring  Wanika,  who  belong  to  the  Bantu,  the  souls  of 
the  dead  act  as  mediators  with  heaven,  so  we  see  in  Neiterkob  the  guard- 
ian spirit  of  the  Wakuafi. 

The  religion  of  the  Gallas  is  similar  (Waitz):  'l^\tk,  heaven,  created 
man  of  clay;  to  him  men  pray;  but  between  man  and  heaven  there  are 
two  deities,  one  male,  the  other  female  (the  latter  the  symbol  of  fecund- 
ity), who  bring  all  blessings — ^just  as,  in  Egypt,  Osiris  and  Isis  were 
sometimes  supposed  to  stand  between  the  heavenly  god  Ra  and  man. 
There  are  also  inferior  spirits,  believed  to  be  either  good  or  evil;  and  the 
men,  women,  and  children  each  have  a  separate  god,  no  doubt  a  guardian 
god.  The  Tuarick  are  now  converted  to  IMohammedanism,  but  only 
superficially,  as  they  yet  profess  their  old  pagan  religion:  they  have  a  god 
in  heaven,  a  devil  in  hell,  and  innumerable  ghosts  in  human  shape  who 
dwell  in  rocky  regions  and  are  mncli  feared. 

The  oldest  Arabian  religion,  as  it  can  be  reconstructed  from  pre- 
Mohammedan  times,  coincides  very  closely  with  this.  The  fundamental 
religious  view  of  the  Arabs  was  monotheistic,  and  it  seems  as  thougli  the 
veneration  of  heaven  was  the  basis  of  their  monotheism.  But  the  dcily 
had  mediators— either  the  sun,  who  was  thought  to  be  masculine  and  im- 
pregnating, or  the  moon,  who  was  feminine  and  receiving:  the  stars  also 
served  as  mediators.  The  different  tribes  had  different  objects  of  ven- 
eration. Trees  and  sacred  stones  were  worshipped,  and  offerings  were 
brought  and  pilgrimages  made  to  them;  they  were  girded  with  swords 
and  anointed  with  oil,  but  they  were  never  considered  as  being  them.selvcs 
gods;  for  the  Arabians  frequently  declared  that  the  stones  and  the  stars 
are  not  sacred,  but  only  God,  who  is  enthroned  on  them  and  whose  power 
is  partly  infused  into  them.     As  each  lril)c  had  its  special  mediator  besides 


366  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

the  sun  and  moon,  we  find  guardian  spirits  prominent  here,  like  those 
among  the  Gallas,  who  have  the  same  veneration  of  stones  and  trees. 
On  these  old  monotheistic  views  Mohammedanism  was  erected;  and  they 
still  prevail  among  the  Arabians  of  the  Southern  Desert. 

Among  some  Arabic  tribes  the  souls  of  the  deceased  are  considered  as 
mediating  spirits  or  deities;  nay,  even  a  humanizing  of  the  ancient  gods 
is  found  among  them,  as  among  the  Hottentots.  There  is  no  scarcity  of 
haunting  spirits,  genii,  etc. ;  the  soul  is  believed  to  be  winged  and  to 
abide  near  the  grave.  That  the  old  Hebrew  religion  coincided  in  its 
main  traits  with  these  ideas  is  shown  by  some  passages  of  the  Bible,  nar- 
ratives, prohibitions  of  pagan  usages,  etc. ;  also  by  the  religion  of  the 
most  closely-related  nations,  among  which  the  cult  of  the  sun  and  moon 
was  predominant.  We  know  less  about  the  ancient  character  of  this 
religion  because  it  was  early  converted  into  a  monotheism,  and  the  wor- 
shippers of  Jehovah  destroyed  even,-thing  pagan. 

Idols  were  frequent  among  the  old  pagan  nations,  the  Aramaeans,  the 
A.ssyrians  (//.  106,  Jig.  i,  the  man-lions  and  the  winged  hawk-headed 
beings  at  their  side);  among  the  Gallas  and  the  Arabians  holy  stones  and 
trees  take  their  place. 

What  the  Arabs  and  the  Jews  have  accomplished  both  as  nations  and 
as  individuals  by  their  religious  enthusiasm,  or  rather  passion,  is  well 
known,  and  its  undiminished  vigor  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  thousands 
of  Arabian  pilgrims  (//.  10^,  Jig.  3)  annually  visit  Mecca.  True  religious 
sense  cannot  be  denied  the  Asiatic  Semites,  although  sometimes,  when 
their  prayers  are  unanswered,  they  punish  and  curse  their  idols,  and 
although  some  horrible  abuses,  such  as  the  l^Joloch  cult,  have  existed; 
and  the  African  Semites  have  been  proved  to  possess  the  same  sense. 
We  have  found  it  also  among  the  Negroes,  and  the  fundamental  traits  of 
all  African  religions  bear  a  striking  similarity  to  the  Semitic  belief. 

Anitnism  and  Superstition. — Veneration  of  animals  is  also  found 
among  the  vSemites.  To  this  belong  the  various  prohiljitions  of  food 
among  the  Gallas,  Egyptians,  Tuarick,  Arabians,  and  Hebrews.  When 
they  kill  large  animals,  such  as  hippopotami,  elephants,  etc.,  the}'  under- 
go various  religious  consecrations;  dancing  around  a  buffalo  head  (//.  96, 
fig.  I,  performed  by  the  Gallas)  is  such  a  ceremony  of  appeasement,  the 
slain  buffalo  being  honored  by  the  dauce,  and,  as  it  were,  implored  to 
forgive  his  slayers. 

Birds  are  often  deemed  to  be  the  incarnation  of  gods,  of  guardian 
spirits  (//.  106,  Jig.  2,  to  the  left  above),  and  of  souls.  Snakes  are  sacred 
either  as  good  or  evil  spirits.  Among  the  Gallas  a  snake  is  believed  to  be 
tlie  ancestor  of  the  human  race,  while  the  Wakuafi,  and  the  Arabians  in 
some  of  their  legends,  represent  man  as  created  by  gods  from  the  soil  of 
the  earth  on  a  sacred  mountain.  Everj-where  there  are  werewolf  ghosts; 
in  East  Africa  the  ability  to  change  themselves  into  animals  is  ascribed 
to  the  smiths. 

Superstitions  are  innumerable :  among  the  Arabian  tribes  of  Africa  the 


ETIIXOGRAI'IIY.  367 

faith  is  stifled  by  niajjic,  evil  eye,  amulets,  good  and  bad  days,  and  other 
superstitions  which  the  priests  expounded.  Victims  are  slain,  and  in  ancient 
times  even  human  beings  were  sacrificed — a  practice  still  retained  among 
the  Gallas.  The  priests  of  the  latter  entwine  in  their  hair  the  entrails  of 
the  sacrificed  animals,  and  wear  them  until  the\-  fall  off.  They  make  rain, 
heal  the  sick — for  sickness  is  possession  by  evil  spirits — foretell  from  the 
ofTerings  the  omens,  lots,  etc.  However,  they  are  nowhere  really  respected, 
not  even  the  marabouts  of  the  Islamites. 

Sorcery  and  Magic. — Sometimes  sorcerers  and  sorceresses  are  distinct 
from  the  priests;  sometimes  the  priests  are  magicians.  These  nations 
have  religious  societies,  such  as  those  of  the  Mumbo  Jumbo  among  the 
Negroes,  and  the  Wato  among  the  Gallas.  Something  similar  is  found 
among  the  north-western  Berbers  and  most  of  the  Mohammedans,  but  it 
is  difficult  to  decide  what  is  an  old  institution  and  what  a  transitory  sect. 

Escliatology. — The  Semites  believe  in  a  life  after  death,  either  as  a 
shadow}'  existence  or  similar  to  the  earthly'  life.  From  this  originates 
their  care  in  preserving  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  the  "embalming"  among 
the  Egyptians,  Berbers,  Guanches,  etc.  The  belief  in  future  reward  and 
punishment  is  also  widespread.  The  Tuarick,  although  Mohammedans, 
leave  the  place  where  some  one  has  died,  and  avoid  pronouncing  the  name 
of  a  deceased  person  for  fear  of  recalling  him;  the  Abyssinians,  although 
Christians,  shave  their  hair  (the  entire  nation  does  so  at  the  death  of  the 
king),  scar  their  faces,  and  inflict  wounds  on  their  temples  by  burning. 

Ceremonies  at  Death. — In  the  house  of  the  dead  and  on  the  way  to  the 
burial-place  loud  lamentations  are  uttered,  and  the)-  are  repeated  every 
eight  days  during  the  course  of  one  year,  on  which  occasions  they  renew 
the  burning  and  scratching.  The  mourners  are  impure  for  a  certain  time; 
for  three  days  after  a  funeral  they  are  allowed  to  eat  only  in  the  house  of 
mourning.  The  Galla  nations  have  similar  mourning  ceremonies:  to 
touch  the  dead,  to  have  anything  to  do  with  them,  renders  one  unclean, 
even  in  Arabia  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  because  the  deceased  already 
belong  to  the  gods.  Among  the  Semites  we  also  find  taboo  laws,  as  we 
have  called  them  according  to  the  Polynesian  expression  (p.  200);  that  is, 
the  laws  of  religious  interdiction.  Everything  belonging  to  the  gods  or 
bearing  any  relation  to  them  is  withdrawn  from  ordinary  use;  ablutions 
and  fixed  ceremonies  secularize — /.  e.  annul  the  religious  interdict;  and,  as 
in  ancient  times  trespasses  against  this  interdict  were  the  only  ofienccs 
that  could  be  committed  by  man,  ablutions  are  numerous  in  the  cult  of 
these  nations. 

The  practice  of  washing  the  hands  before  meals  is  derived  from  the 
same  source;  and  for  this  reason  ever)-  one  who  has  touched  a  dead  person 
must  withdraw  from  human  society,  becau.se  he  is  impure— that  is,  origin- 
ally, taboo,  interdicted,  sacred— and  can  return  only  after  a  specified  time 
and  after  certain  ablutions.  Therefore  such  classes  as  are  occupied  with 
dead  animals,  as  btitchcrs,  tanners,  etc.,  are  impure  and  despised — at  first 
merely  separated  from  human  society,  and  later,  as  the  separation  became 


36S  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

permanent  on  account  of  the  daily  renewal  of  their  occupation  with  the 
slaughtered,  despised  on  account  of  the  separation.  That  barbers  and 
leeches  belong  to  these  "impure"  castes  is  not  because  they  have  an 
unclean  profession,  but  because,  on  account  of  being  continually  occu- 
pied with  the  hair  (the  leeches  dressed  the  body),  they  became  "taboo;" 
for  everywhere  among  these  tribes  the  hair  is  sacred,  for  which  reason  it 
is  given  to  the  dead  as  an  offering:  many  tribes  of  the  Arabs  sacrifice  the 
hair  of  the  forehead  to  the  gods.  Similar  uses  existed  among  the  Jews; 
e.g.  the  Nazarites  wore  during  the  term  of  their  vow  unshorn  locks,  which 
at  its  expiration  were  cut  off  and  burned  on  the  altar  (Num.  vi.  5,  13; 
Judg.  xiii.  5).  The  ceremonial  washing  of  the  hands  which  the  Pharisees 
practised,  and  which  Christ  strongly  rebuked  (]\Iark  vii.  5-16),  arose  from 
similar  ideas  of  defilement  by  touching  unclean  things  and  of  seculariza- 
tion by  ablution. 

Offerings  and  Burials. — The  Semites  buried  their  dead  in  vaults  and 
frequently  made  offerings  at  the  tombs.  The  offerings,  as  well  as  much 
that  was  placed  in  the  graves  (for  instance,  among  the  Egyptians),  were 
destined  for  use  in  the  Hereafter.  When  the  Gallas  burn  a  pile  of  wood 
on  the  grave,  it  is  to  provide  for  the  soul  an  easy  path  into  eternity  either 
on  the  flames  or  the  smoke.  Burial-chambers  are  erected  on  the  suppo- 
sition that  the  deceased  lives  on  in  the  vicinity  of  his  body.  Both  man- 
ners of  erecting  burial-chambers  among  the  Egyptians  exist  among  the 
Semites;  burial-vaults  hewn  in  the  rock  were  in  use  among  the  Guanches, 
and  also  among  the  ancient  Jews,  as  the  narratives  about  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  prove  (Gen.  xxiii.  9,  17,  19;  xlix.  29-32).  The  grave  of  Laza- 
rus was  also,  according  to  the  history-  of  his  resuscitation,  a  subterranean 
and  rather  spacious  chamber  (John  xi.  38).  Plate  106  {fig.  5)  .shows  an 
old  Jewish  tomb  at  Tibneh,  south-west  of  Lake  Gennesareth.  Each  arch 
leads  to  a  separate  burial-place;  the  sculptures  no  doubt  have  a  religious 
meaning;  the  whole  may  have  been  erected  during  one  of  the  last  cen- 
turies before  Christ.  The  Arabs  of  Hauran  erect  the  burial-chambers  on 
the  summits  of  mountains,  as  these  are  sacred  to  the  gods. 

The  graves  of  the  Gallas,  as  well  as  of  the  Somalis,  are  built  of 
masonry  on  level  ground,  and  are  decorated  with  mosaics  and  surrounded 
with  thorn-hedges  or  stones;  the  dead  are  interred  in  a  crouching  posture. 
This  manner  of  constructing  graves  forms  the  transition  to  the  other  man- 
ner of  building  them,  which  we  see  artistically  complete  in  the  pyramids 
of  the  Egyptians.  It  is  done  by  heaping  together  stones  so  that  they  may 
enclose  a  hollow  space  in  which  the  corpse  is  placed.  Plate  106  {fig.  6) 
shows  such  a  stone  tomb  of  Syria;  in  the  country  of  the  Midsherthains 
these  heaps  of  stone  are  seven  or  eight  feet  high  and  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  feet  broad,  attaining  among  the  Danakil  a  height  of  one  hun- 
dred feet  in  a  pyramidal  shape.  Waitz,  from  whom  we  take  this  infor- 
mation, reminds  us  of  the  custom  of  the  Hottentots,  which  is  also  mucli 
practised  in  the  Orient,  of  throwing  a  stone  on  the  grave  of  a  famous  man, 
and  thus  gradually  erecting  a  monument  (p.  302). 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  369 

Punislinient  by  stoninef,  as  also  by  buning  alive,  both  of  which  were 
inflicted  only  in  case  of  blasphemy — that  is,  violation  of  taboo — is  nothiny^ 
more  than  the  erection  of  a  bnrial-vault  in  which  to  isolate  the  criminal, 
so  that  he  may  do  no  harm;  personally,  they  dare  not  touch  him,  as,  on 
account  of  his  connection  with  the  taboo,  he  pertains  to  the  gods. 

Intellectual  Faciillies. — With  regard  to  the  mental  faculties  of  this  peo- 
ple, a  lack  of  imagination  is  first  perceptible,  of  which  we  have  spoken  (p. 
360);  and  this  lack  of  imagination,  together  with  great  mental  power,  pro- 
duces a  susceptibility  to  exterior  impressions  and  a  developed  inner  life 
often  associated  with  great  sensuousness.  This  has  led  the  vSemite  to  that 
enthusiasm  through  which  he  has  become  the  creator  of  the  most  important 
religions  of  the  universe. 

Warm  piety  is  everywhere  exhibited,  and  great  hospitality  and  a  cer- 
tain sense  of  chivalrj'  cannot  be  denied  the  Berbers  and  Arabians.  Often 
a  pure  love  of  honor  is  shown  in  their  love  of  truth,  which,  however,  has 
remained  imsullied  among  very  few  tribes.  Furthennore,  the  great  per- 
severance exhibited  everywhere  by  the  Semites  deser\'es  a  special  note, 
whether  it  be  in  the  carrying  out  of  vast  labors  (Egypt,  Babylon,  Nineveh) 
or  in  the  endurance  of  physical  hardships.  This  quality  has  led  to  admira- 
ble deeds  and  acts,  but  n:ay  degenerate  into  apathetic  endurance  of  bad 
treatment.  To  this  is  added  a  marked  passion  for  pro2)erty  and  gain 
which  often  disfigures  their  character. 

That  the  natural  surroundings  of  the  Semites  (the  Desert)  have  done 
much  toward  developing  these  traits  of  character  is  an  opinion  often 
advanced,  and  perfectly  correct.  But  it  follows  that  the  Semitic  race 
must  for  a  long  time  have  dwelt  in  the  Desert,  or  rather  nnist  have  been 
developed  there. 

Lanqiins^e. — The  language  of  the  Semites  coincides  with  their  cha- 
racter. With  the  least  possible  means  it  accomplishes  ver>*  much,  and. 
does  it  by  giving  in  distinct  forms  accidental  qualities  of  things,  such 
as  singular  and  plural  number,  masculine  and  feminine  gender.  It  is 
able  to  express  distinctly  the  logical  relations  of  ideas  to  one  another,  by 
having  the  forms  of  words  agree  in  number  and  person;  while  by  prefix- 
ing or  suffixing  co-ordinate  pronouns  it  can  give  clear  expression  to  such 
relations.  The  more  developed  languages  exhibit  more  variety  and  force 
in  this,  and  they  also  reflect  the  tendency  of  the  Semitic  mind  to  sym- 
boli.sm  and  abstraction.  Thus  these  idioms  .show  the  relations  of  single 
ideas  to  other  thoughts  by  changing  the  round  sound  of  the  words  in  an 
unmistakable  attempt  at  .symbolizing. 

Ellnwloo;ical  Relation. — The  Negroes  and  the  Bantu  bear  a  close  rela- 
tion to  the  Semites,  for  their  languages  occupy  the  paths  on  which  those 
of  the  Semites  had  proceeded  until  they  reached  the  height  they  now 
maintain. 

In  looking  back  on  our  course  through  .\frca,  we  cannot  avoid  recog- 
nizing the  fact  that  the  African  nations,  the  Koi-Koin,  the  Bantu,  and 
the  Negro  tribes,  have  so  much  in  common  with  the  two  great  divisions 

Vol.  I.—  24 


370  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

of  the  Semites  tliat  we  are  authorized  in   placing  them  in  one  great 
ethnologic  class. 

In  the  beginning  of  our  ethnologic  treatise  on  Africa  we  intentionally 
did  not  advance  this  important  statement:  the  evidence  of  it  is  given  in 
our  description  of  the  African  nations,  which  kept  back  nothing  and 
added  nothing,  but  simply  stated  the  facts.  We  now  collect  the  most 
important  points: 

1.  These  nations  belong  together  geographically;  it  is  evident  that 
they  spread  from  Western  Asia  over  Africa. 

2.  The  physical  peculiarities  of  all  these  nations  shade  into  one  another; 
they  nowhere  show  sharp  contrasts.  Even  the  tj'pical  fonns  of  one  nation 
are  not  unfrequently  found  among  other  tribes  where  an  intermixture  is 
not  to  be  thought  of,  and  where  only  slight  exterior  influences  have  been 
at  work. 

3.  The  psychical  life  and  character  of  all  these  nations  show  close 
relationship  in  their  fundamental  traits:  let  the  Bantu  be  compared  with 
the  Negro  of  Soudan,  and  both  with  the  African  anti  Asiatic  Semite,  and 
also  compare  our  descriptions  of  their  characters.  We  need  hardly  say 
that  those  descriptions  are  not  formed  from  theorj-,  but  that  the  theory 
is  fonned  from  the  facts. 

4.  We  find  minute  uniformity  in  customs  and  usages.  Of  special 
importance  is  that  of  the  fundamental  traits  of  religious  life  and  thought. 

5.  The  languages  also  exhibit  homogeneous  principles  of  construction. 
It  is  curious  to  obser\^e  how  one  tribe  has  developed  one  peculiarity,  and 
another  a  different  one;  how  both  peculiarities  are  fully  developed  only 
in  the  Semitic  languages;  and  furthermore  how  the  different  principles 
of  construction  have  been  gradually  evolved. 

From  all  these  facts  we  are  forced  to  look  upon  the  Arabic-Africans  as 
one  ethnologic  race,  as  one  race  of  mankind. 


AR  A  BIC- A  V  R  I C  A  X  S. 


Pl.ATK  82. 


KoiKoiN.— I.  Hottentot  woman.  2.  J.  Iloltcntuls  (men).  4.  liii>h«onian.  5.  Iliishtii.in.  o.  ^.•,„■^;  liu>hnKin. 
7.  llolicntul  woman  (full  face  anil  prolilc) ;  •'  lluttcmol  Venus,"  showing  the  jK-cnUar  "bu>lk"  uf  the  lloltcntol  and  Hush- 
wiimcn.     S-ll.   llotltntut  >Uull. 


ARAHIC-Al'klCAXS. 


Pi.ATK  83. 


I  'h     iiJ       A^^"^- 


liiK  Hantu  Peoples.— I.  Musicians  and  women  carrying  water,  of  the  Zulus.  2.  Part  of  a  village  of  ihc  Kclchuanas, 
seen  from  alwve.  3.  Helclmana  skull.  4.  5  Mnlallocs.  6.  Slave  lrans|X)nation.  7.  Young  Negro  in  the  costume  of  the 
"  feast  of  circumcision." 


ARAI'.IC- AFRICANS. 


Plate  84. 


The  Banti.  Pe..i.i.i-:s.-I.  3.  Uasutos  (men).  2.  Interior  of  .1  R-usuto  <UvMin^.  4-  H.x^uU.  wuncn.  5.  t  l.aflam  of 
the  Itasutos.  6.  Warrior  of  the  Basutos.  7.  Rasutos  fanning.  8.  Nec.tles  an.l  nce.lleboxo,  of  ll.c  Ua=.uto>.  9,  10.  l1|-o, 
II.  ToLacco  receptacle;  12,  13.  Lcbckos  (spdcs);  14.  Spoon— all  of  the  Basulos. 


AKAIIIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  85. 


'"-1^^- 

1 

4 

' 

^■b^^'^ 

^ 

'^iiii 

0 

.J^gt 

l\ 

r'-^i^^^^^^^H 

L^jK^" 

r 

8 

M. 

Tim;  liANTi' I'K<>i'Li:s. — i-j.  Koraiias.     4,  5.  Cafl'ir  skull.     0.  /.ulu  \v.ii-::or.     7.  Zulus.     S.  Zulu  grave.     9.  Wardancc 
of  the  Zulus. 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  86. 


TirK  Bantu  Peoim.hs. — i.  li.xskels  ami  wooden  vessels  of  llio  Unsulos.  2.  Interior  of  the  ilwelliiin  of  the  ILimlonj;. 
3.  ( Irain  mortar.  4.  Calabash.  5.  Fish-hasket.  6.  Hoc.  7.  Musical  inslniment.  8.  Ucllows.  9.  How,  of  the  Maravcs. 
10.  Ilandncl.  II.  Violin  and  bow.  12.  .Slave-yoke.  13.  llip|X)|)otaini  s|M;.ir — all  irom  Central  Africa.  14.  Knife  and 
case;  15.  I loc,  of  the  liasutos.     16.  .\ssagais.     17.  M.akua  woman  and  child.     iS-2<j.  Negroes  of  MoKimbiquc. 


ARABIC- AFRICANS. 


Plate  87. 


Tirr.  I'antc  I'ron.F.s. — i.  Hair  arraiifjemenls  and  phvsiojjnoinics  of  llic  \»'amam«c/i.  2.  Simlicli  of  Ain/il>ar. 
3.  Siialiili  family.  4.  Siialioli  woman  (in  prolilc).  5.  SualiL-li  villaj;e.  6.  Aral)iai.  Mililicr.  in  tlie  scnicc  of  the  sultan  of 
Zanziliar. 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  88. 


Ihi  liwTi'  PF.on.Es. — I.  Arabian  of  Zanzibar.  2.  Tshaga  girl  (Zanzibir).  3.  nagRcr;  4.  Bow;  5.  Airow-osc; 
6,  7.  I  ).iggcrlikc  swords — amis  of  ihc  Iribcs  west  of  Zanzibar.  8,  9.  .Ships,  fn)i.i  the  rcRion  of  Zan/iKir.  10.  Kilani,  or  .1 
sinicture  serving  both  as  a  table  and  a  lied,  in  use  along  the  whole  coast.  II.  Wooden  |x>l,  of  the  T^h.•^p«s.  12.  Suahcli 
s|)ear.  13.  Wooden  bowl,  of  the  Tshagas.  14.  Chair,  in  use  along  the  entire  coast.  15.  An  ini|ilcmcnt  for  cni.shing 
grain;  used  for  the  preparation  of  food  ;  16.  Moe;  17.  (lirafte  tail,  a  war  decoration,  from  the  coa.sf  of  Zanziliar.  iS.  Wooden 
ix>t,  with  li<l,  of  the  Tsliaga.s.     19.  Wandering  smiths  and  Negroes  tilling  the  soil. 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  89. 


TlIK  Kanti'  Peoi'i.i-:s.— I.  Mangnnya  woman,  willi  l.ill.«>c.l  U»ly.  i.  Manynny.i  w,.ni.in  iir.imc..  «.ih  lip  pluK. 
3.  (aiiob.  4.  Arrow  of  the  Aya«a.saiulMan.i;anyas.  5.  Mina  Ni-^ress.  6.  Monjola.  7.  I'hair,  of  West  Africa.  8.  Kaiiv 
lia  womiii  (Lake  Nyassa).  9.  Youii;;  Mukamanga  aiul  yumig  MNya.v.a.  10-I2.  Negro  skull.  13.  Ma-boiigu  woman 
111(1  chilli  (Lake  Nyxssa). 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  90. 


The  Bantu  Peoples. — 1-3.  Conijo  Negroes.  4,5.  l!Lnj;ui.l.i  .Negroes.  6.  WcaWng  of  the  Macgiuh.  7.  \  1;:.,^,  ,.1 
l-ernando  I'o  (island).  8.  Cabinda  Negro.  9.  Uwelling  of  the  chieftain;  10.  Corngranan-;  II.  SIcepingteiil,— from  the 
Niger  district. 


ARABIC- AFRICANS. 


Plate  91. 


TliK  Pk()Pi.i-:s  OF  Si)itr>AN. — I.  Negro  of  the  Cold  Const.  2.  Idol  of  ihc  Ibos.  3.  A  Sarakiilc:  4.  Unnitmrra  warrior; 
5.  li:imlun;i  dancer, — from  ihe  wesicrii  plateau.  6.  IVul  (I'ulali)  Xegre.'i.s.  7.  I'eul  warrior.  S.  SfK-ar  rider  (IhxIv  guard) 
of  the  sullun  of  liagirini  (CciUral  Soudan).     9.  Bagirmi  Negro.     10.  Fulali  girl.     II.  Fulah  woman  and  child. 


ARABIC-. \FRICAXS. 


Plate  92. 


Till  I'FoiM.i-.s  ol-  SoiiiAN.— I.  The  ^hoik  of  Ilxrmi  (Central  Somlaii).  2 
latah  (I'lilah)  anil  Itoriui  Ncsjroes.  4.  Haltle-M.-ylhc;  5.  Coat-ofmnil ;  6.  B<™- 
lo.  Anu.kl:   II.  l-an.  of  the  K.liyal,-  ( licniii,  (.uilf  of  Guinea).     12.   Himbia  linr|>  (IpiKr  C.uinea 


lt.Ml\  j;uanl  uf  the  sheik  i^l   liinui.     J.  Icl 
7.  Hatlleaxe — all  of  llornu.     8,  9.  Swords; 


13.  Mules.     14.  Chin 


ornament  of  the  Mar-hi  women.     15.   I'lute.     16.   Ibo  harp.      17.  Man.  uf  the  Kn.  Negroes.     l!>.  tarthcn-vc^eU  of  the 
Negroes.     19.  Inhabitant  of  Merka  (Zanzibar).     30.  Negro  village  (Kutobia). 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  93. 


TiiK  rEOPi-KS  OF  SoiDAN.— 1.  Vouiig  Yolof.     2.  Volof  wairior.      3.  Ncrfu  of  Darfur.  4.  Wnndalo  (Mandaras) 

Negroes,  musicians.     5.  Mungu  warriors.     6.  Ellial)  (Kitsch)  Ncymcs  ami  ihcir  f-  ' -'  •  -      "       - "  '  -•"■-' 

9.  Earthen  oil -jar;   lo.  Stool;   II.   Bench  (a  wooden  frame,  wilh  nmi  sini  1 ;   •• 
huttus  (Lake  Albert  Nyanza). 


fishing  skiffs.     7.  Halchet ;  S.  Coojicr's  t€x>l ; 
I.;.   Ii;i.skcl;   13.   IJ^r^;e  hut — all  of  the  Mon- 


ARABIC- AFRICANS. 


Plate  94. 


region). 
(Kitsch) 


;  TEoi'iJis  OK  SoriUN.— 1.  Nocliirnal  wartlancc  of  llie  Hari  (1'pin.T  Niloi.  .'.  lUvilliiit;  . 
3.  Clay  pipe-head  of  the  Golos  (Dar  I'<-rt't)-  4.  Bar'  N<;Broes.  5.  Dnim  of  the  Diiikas.  6. 
Negroes.     7.  Water-pitcher  of  the  Dinkas. 


I  >ancc  of  the 


I  Nile 
Klliah 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  95. 


Till-  PFon  FS  vv  Soii.AN.-i.  Woman  of  the  NiamNiam  (Upiw  Nile).  2.  DagRcr  and  sheath;  3.  Wooden  tureen; 
4.  Stri»t;c<l  instrument  (p.itar) ;  5-  K--^t,en  bcer-pitchcr :  6.  l?ox :  7-  Karthen  flask ;  8.  Haskel :  g.  Sh^M  (armor); 
.0.  Knife  or  .larger,  with  groove  for  bloo<l ;  II.  12.  S«onls-all  of  the  Ni.amNiam.  13.  Haskct.  wth  cover,  of  the 
Baswa.     14.  Tohacco-pipe ;  15.  Stringed  instrument  of  the  Mittu  (V[<\xi  Nile). 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  96. 


The  Peoples  of  Soudan.— i.  Buffalo-dance  of  the  Galla-s  (  Hamilic  branch).  2.  Nucr  Negroes  (Nile  region). 
3.  Lance-points  (heads),  of  the  Bongos  (Nile  region).  4.  Elevation;  5.  Man;  6.  Cross-section  of  a  funmcc  or  smcltiiiB 
oven,  uf  the  Ujurs  (Nile  region). 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  97. 


!]f-^  1^:4, 


Thk  Pkopi,i«ofSoii)AN.-i.  (.rnnary;  2.  Iklluws;  3.  Carvol  yriM- n-ii.i.  ..I  ihc  Hongos  (Nile  region).  4.  Akka 
(Upper  Nile).  5.  Nuer  Negroes  (Nile  region).  6.  Shovel ;  7.  Ivoo  bracelet,  of  the  Ujurs  (Nile  region).  S.  Bark  of  ihc 
Upper  Nile. 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  98. 


AlKRAN  Si.MHi_s. —  I.  (luratju  woman  (Aliyssinia).     2.  Amliara  Hinnan  (Al>\>-iiii.i  i      j    inn.u  ii.im  ii    ligrt  (Abys- 
sinia).     4.  Costumes  of  the  Slioa  (Ahyssinia).     5.  Uishari  warrior.     6.  Interior  of  a  dwelling  of  the  Shoa. 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


ri.ATi:  99. 


African  Semitk. — i.  Easter  banquel,  of  the  kin;;  of  Abyssinia,  at  Ankolnir  (Shoa).  S.  Musgu  chieftain  and  his 
habitation  (Aliyssinia).  3.  Sworil  of  Darfur.  4.  Javilin.  5.  1''i\k;  6.  t'lul>,  of  Oic  Dcnga.  7.  Swonl.  8.  Daojcr, 
carricil  on  the  arm,  of  the  I-uiulshcs  (Nubians),  g.  Javehn.  lo.  .Spiiiille  of  the  I!.iralira  (Nubians).  II.  Samlal  of  the 
I'uiulshes.     12.  HariKiim,  for  catching  cnicoililes.     13.  Milkbxsket ;    14.  Ha-skct,  of  the  Furnishes.     15.  War  hat  of  the 

Ileni^a.     16.  Alnssiiiian  ploiigli.     17.  Spinille  of  the  Kundshes. 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Pl.ATI':    lOO. 


AruiCAN  Skmiti'.s. — l.  Judicial   proceedings  M  Ankolxr,  Aliyssinin  (Slioa).     2.  I'aii.ikil  wumeii  (Galln>).     3.  tiuanclic 
nnimmy  (Canary  Island).     4.  Tuarick  (Berbers).     5.  Section  of  a  liou.se  in  Sennaar  (Nubia). 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  lor. 


^.^4.^^^>^^f 


Ai-RUAN'  Skmiii-:.s. — I.  Nortliwcslcrn  Somali  woman  (Kilur,  Gallas).  2.  S>niali  warrior.  3.  Somali  of  CeMi 
(Kasl  Afiicn).  4-  '-^ailille:  5.  Plaited  \x)l:  6.  Samlal ;  7.  Small  IliIcIicI;  8.  riailcd  l>askcl ;  9.  IJai;:  10.  Dagger:  II.  (luivcr; 
1:!.  S|icnr— all  uf  ilic  .Somalis.  13.  Somali  village,  Uelcdi. 


ARABIC-ArRICAXS. 


Pl.ATF.    I02. 


\1RK\N  SiMiTl-.s.-l.   Maiia.ioxo  woman  (Moec.UchuV     2.  View  uf  M.-.(;a.loxo.     .?.  Oil  iinll;  .l..,ncMic  occui«ti. 
at  Mat;a.loxo.     4.  Shiel.l  ..f  Uu-  I'luulshcs  (Nubians).     5-   Miil>l>crtliain  ,i..an);  6.  Mid-hcrtliain  «oman  ((lallos). 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


I'l.ATK    103. 


African  Skmitk.s.— I.  Nubians  (Ibral.ra).  2.  Vanl  ..f  a  li.-iml.ia  lul.ilalioii.  3.  KCT^i-"' » ■"''»"■  4  ^'"l>»*  (Keyi>- 
tiaiis)  and  a  Mohammedan  grave,  in  Ihc  vicinity  of  Cairo.  5.  Koi^ian  wall  lainling.  6-8.  t:g)i)Jian  skull.  9.  IHcturc  of 
Hatlior,  Egyptian  goddess. 


ARABIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  104. 


Asiatic  SkmiiI-s. — l.  Talianiirali  Arab.  2,  3.  Llirisliaii  Aral)s  of  Kcnik.  4-7.  Aniliiaii  liair  arniii(;cim-m>.  S.  iKhu- 
mail  Arali  uf  the  lril>c  Kl  lla>see.  9.  Camp  of  the  Hciii-Sakhar.  lo.  Anibian  sheik  in  iravelliiiy  eoslume.  II.  North 
.\rabic  cllil.r^.      I-V   .\U.d  .Vya,  .\rabian  chief  on  the  Jordan. 


ARAHIC-AFRICAXS. 


I'l.ATK    105. 


f     I^i^ 


miH?^.^ 


AsiAiic  Skmitrs.— I.  TaklKiMwan  ^stilanj  of  noble  Aralis.  2.  Kiinilshc  Arab.  3.  Arabian  pilgrims.  4.  HiiLs  on 
ihe  i->l.-in(l  Alid-cl-Kuri.  5.  Woman  of  Sockna  (■IniK)li).  6.  Mours  of  the  Senegal  (Wesl  Africa).  7.  TonU  Bc<louins  of 
the  peninsula  of  Sinai  (Arabia).     8.  Inhabitants  of  Triiioli. 


ARABIC-AFRICAXS. 


Platk  io6. 


Asiatic  Semites.— l.  Hall  of  an  Assyrian  palace  (Meso(iolmnia).  2.  I'ainlinK :  Assyrian  wamirs.  3.  Relief  from 
Nimrud.  4.  Representation  from  an  obelisk  of  Ninmitl.  5.  Old  Jewish  -r-v.-  .<.ir  TIImuI.  (soutliwesl  of  Ukc  Ccn- 
nesareth).     6.  Cromlech  (stone  grave)  of  Syria. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  371 


VI.  THE   INDO-EUROPEAN   RACE. 
A.   THE    BASQUES. 

We  class  the  Basques  among  the  Indo-European  race,  because,  as  we 
see  thena  to-day  and  as  far  as  we  can  trace  them,  they  coincide  in  physical 
structure  and  in  manner  of  living  with  the  other  nations  of  Central  and 
Southern  Europe,  though  in  language  they  seem  to  be  entirely  distinct. 

Classification. — The  Basques — who  in  the  Pyrenees  call  themselves 
Euskalduns  (Esqualdunac,  Euskaldunac) — are  the  descendants  of  the  Vas- 
cons,  a  tribe  of  old  Iberians,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  vSpain.  Per- 
haps they  are  also  related  to  the  Ligurians.  At  present  they  live  in  the 
northern  part  of  Spain  and  in  the  south-western  part  of  France,  and  are 
divided  according  to  their  locations  into  six  tribes  with  different  dialects. 
Three  of  the  tribes  live  in  France:  the  tribe  of  Soule  along  the  coast, 
next  the  tribe  of  Lower  Navarre,  and  finally  the  Labortanian  or  tribe 
of  Labourd.  In  former  times  Labourd  and  Soule  were  small  independent 
provinces.  In  Spain  there  are  the  tribes  of  Upper  Navarre,  of  Guipuzcoa, 
and,  farthest  to  the  west,  of  Biscay.  The  Basques  number  altogether 
about  eight  hundred  thousand,  and  the  educated  classes  generally  speak 
French  or  Spanish  besides  their  native  tongue.  Their  finest  cities  are 
Bayonne  and  Pamplona. 

General  Characteristics  ajid  Social  Life. — The  Basques  are  of  middle 
size,  of  graceful,  .slender  stature,  with  dark  hair  and  eyes  and  South- 
European  complexion.  Much  superstition  has  been  retained  among  their 
ancient  customs;  excessive  lamentation  and  self-inflicted  torture  in  mem- 
ory' of  the  dead  have  only  recenth'  been  abolished.  Blood-revenge  still 
exists  among  them,  although  of  course  not  legally,  and  in  this  as  well  as 
in  other  things  they  exhibit  great  passion.  They  are  honest,  ver)'  hospi- 
table, and  of  a  cheerful  disposition. 

Dramatic  performances  and  lyric  poems  are  numerous  and  highly 
prized;  their  songs  are  also  many  and  beautiful  (Sallaberry).  A  strange 
custom  exists  in  Biscay:  at  the  birth  of  a  child  the  husband  goes  to  bed 
with  the  infant  and  receives  the  calls  of  congratulation,  while  the  wife  as 
soon  as  possible  goes  about  her  business — a  custom  which  was  observed 
by  Strabo  and  Diodorus  among  the  ancient  Iberians  and  Corsicans 
(Francisquc  Michel).  It  is  probable  that  both  these  nations  were  of  like 
origin,  as  in  ancient  times  the  Balearic  Islands  had  "Iberian  inhabitants. 

Language. — The  Basque  language  (or  the  Euskara,  Eskuara,  or  Es- 
kara,  as  they  themselves  call  it)  is  said  to  be  an  incorporative  language, 
and  is  therefore  to  be  classed  with  the  American  idioms.  The  ICuskara 
contains,  indeed,  much  that  is  peculiar.  The  roots  are  all  monosyllabic, 
those  of  two  syllables  having  been  formed  either  by  prefix  or  by  combina- 


373  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

tion.  The  noun  is  the  dominating  part  of  speech,  and  there  are  few  verbs 
capable  of  inflection:  Father  RI.  de  Larramendi  and  Abbe  Darrigol,  both 
Basques  by  birth,  give  only  about  eighteen  in  their  grammars.  On  these, 
especially  on  two  of  them,  the  whole  verbal  conjugation  is  based.  The 
language  makes  a  precise  distinction  between  verbal  and  nominal  roots, 
for  all  roots  do  not  have  both  a  verbal  and  a  nominal  meaning;  thus, 
handi^  ' '  great, ' '  cannot  at  the  same  time  mean  to  make  great  and  the 
state  of  being  great.  Nouns  and  adjectives  are  declined  alike,  and  nouns 
may  even  be  compared  like  adjectives  and  with  the  same  endings:  iiicndj\ 
"mountain;"  mendiaga,  "higher  mountain;"  mendiena,  "very  high, 
highest  mountain." 

There  is  no  grammatical  gender,  but  there  is  an  extensive  system  of 
declension,  with  singular  and  plural  numbers  and  many  cases,  among 
which  the  nominative  and  accusative  are  not  distinctly  separated.  All 
these  forms  are  attained  by  certain  suffixes  which  no  longer  occur  inde- 
pendently and  have  lost  their  original  meaning.  There  is  a  definite 
article,  which  is  joined,  as  in  the  Swedish  language,  to  the  end  of  the 
word:  gizon^  "man;"  gizona^  "the  man;"  but  if  two  nouns  or  a  noun 
and  an  adjective  are  united,  the  article  and  the  declensional  ending  are 
attached  to  only  one  of  them:  ^itr  ^garbi,  "Afresh  'water;"  ^itr  'garbi- 
^^, "^the  Afresh  'water;"  "?/;-  'garbi-rcn^'''' oi  fresh  water"  {)'cn  is  the  suffix 
of  the  genitive,  and  consequently  corresponds  to  our  of)\  and  ^nr'^garbi- 
^  a-  *  roi,  "  '  of  ^  the  "  fresh  '  water. ' ' 

The  pronouns  are  declined  almost  like  the  nouns,  but  they  seem  to 
have  retained  (according  to  Abbe  Darrigol)  some  fuller  and  older  forms. 
In  fact,  the  variety  of  their  forms  is  their  most  peculiar  feature.  There 
are  various  though  perhaps  only  dialectic  forms  of  one  and  the  same 
pronoun:  the  regular  pronoun  of  the  second  person,  thoit,  has  also  a  polite 
form  in  the  singular  {hi,  Mc,  ai,  euc,  "thou;"  zu,  zuc,  "thoii,  you,"  polite 
form;  znek,  ziek,  "you,"  plural);  and  in  the  verb  itself,  in  which  it  is  an 
important  element,  it  appears  in  numerous  forms. 

Thus,  t  as  well  as  7ii  means  "I;"  d,  da,  occurs  as  the  pronoun  of  the 
third  person,  but  not  otherwise;  and  a  trace  of  forming  the  feminine 
is  found,  as  with  the  ///r, "thou,"  which  is  used  in  addressing  a  masculine 
person,  an  n  appears  when  applied  to  a  feminine  subject.  The  inflexion 
of  the  verb  is  entirely  dependent  on  the  pronoun;  and  in  the  declension 
also  many  endings  of  pronominal  origin  are  found.  From  all  this  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  pronoun  of  this  language  has  an  especial  sig- 
nificance. 

The  verbal  inflexion  of  the  Euskara  is  not  easily  explained,  but  it 
appears  more  difficult  than  it  really  is.  It  is  based  almost  entirely  on 
two  auxiliaries — on  the  root  iz,  esse,  "to  be,"  and  the  root  cii,  avoir,  "to 
have,"  to  which  verbal  substantives  are  added.  The  fonner  of  these 
auxiliaries,  iz,  forms  neuter  verbs,  verbs  signifying  a  state;  the  sec- 
ond, eu,  active  verbs,  which  signify  an  influence  on  an  object  (Dar- 
rigol). 


ETHXOCRAPIIY.  373 

The  following  is  the  form  of  the  present  tense: 

"'-)  I  am;  gi>'c.,  we  are; 

hi=,  thou  art;  zirete,  you  are; 

«''?,  he  is.  dire,  they  are. 

It  is  apparent  that  in  ;//>,  Itiz,  we  have  the  pronoun  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond persons— that  ni-z  means  "  I  am,"  and  //-/-  "  thou  art;"  but  what  is 
da  ?  It  is  the  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  but  without  the  verbal  root. 
The  verbal  root  is  also  absent  in  the  plural:  gi-rc  is  "we"  {gu\  with 
the  pronominal  emphatic  addition;  di'-re  can  be  traced  back  to  da ;  and 
zi-rc-tc,  ixoivi  zi-ck,  "you,"  has,  besides  the  emphatic,  also  a  plural  end- 
ing (/t').  Ethortzcn  niz  is,  "I  come,"  or,  literally,  "In  the  coming  I  am  " 
{en  is  the  ending  of  the  case  meaning  "in");  cthorri-co  da,  "he  will 
come,"  literally,  "for  the  coming  he  "  {co  is  the  ending  of  the  case  mean- 
ing "  for  ");  the  sentences  are  to  be  completed  by  the  addition  of  true  ver- 
bal ideas.  A  governed  pronoun  is  inseparably  united  to  this  auxiliary 
verb,  from  whicli  new  difficulties  arise. 

Thus,  ethortzcn  mizu  (Abbadie)  means  "I  come  for  you,"  where  nuzti 
consists  of ;/,  "I,"  u  (-),  the  root  whose  vowel  is  changed  and  whose  z  is 
dropped  before  the  following  z,  and  zii,  the  polite  pronoun  of  the  second 
person.  Also,  cthortzen  nttk,  "I  come  to  you  man,"  ctJwrlzcn  nun,  "I 
come  to  }'ou  woman,"  where  in  niik,  nun,  the  z  of  the  root  iz  has  been 
omitted  before  /•  and  w,  the  characteristic  letters  of  the  masculine  and 
feminine  second  person  of  the  verbal  object.  There  are  also  emphatic 
forms;  for  example:  ct/iortzcji  n-itz-ai-zu,  "I  am  for  you  man  in  the  com- 
ing," also  n-jtz-ai-n,  "for  you  woman,"  where  the  emphatic  sjllable  is 
probably  of  pronominal  origin. 

The  root  c?/,  ?/,  "  to  have,"  is  used  differently.  It  is  always  connected 
with  an  antecedent  pronomiiial  clause  signifying  the  object:  d-u-(,  "it 
have  I" — that  is,  "I  have  (it);"  consequently,  the  language  does  not 
further  designate  the  accusative,  the  case  of  the  object,  but  leaves  it 
indefinite.  Therefore,  V;///o.'"--/  "en  V/  ^/  V,"  I  beg  you"— literally, "'beg- 
ging ^  in  ■'you  Miave ''I,"  I  address  my  request  to  you,  I  beg  you;  also, 
^othaizt^cn  ^dUi^gu,  "  we  beg  it  "—literally,  "  in  begging  Miave 'we 'it," 
or  ^n^n  V,  "'me  Miave  'you,"  you  beg  me.  There  are  some  more  artistic 
forms,  liuL  tlicir  construction  is  the  same. 

Where  is  there  any  incorporation  in  this  process?  There  is  but  one 
subordinating,  sufTixing  method,  which  is  not  es.sentially  distinct  from  the 
manner  of  our  language:  what  we  group  together  the  Euskara  welds  into 
cue  word.  ]\Iahn  has  very  correctly  compared  Italian  forms,  such  as 
uwiar-tc-Jo  for  inviar-ti-h,  "send  you  it,  send  it  to  )ou."  The  abbre- 
viations in  the  pronunciation  of  compound  words  are  different  from  the 
elisions  of  the  American  languages,  for  the  Basque  abbreviations  are 
principally  euplionic  and  consist  in  the  accordance  of  the  .sound.s. 

The  temptation  is  far  greater  to  find  a  similarity  to  the  construction  of 
Semitic  languages  in  this,  that  the  root  iz,  the  formative  element  of  the 
neuter  verb,  prefixes  the  subject  and  sufTixcs  the  object,  while,  on  the 


374  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

contran-,  tlie  transitive  en  prefixes  the  object  and  suffixes  tlie  subject. 
But  this  similarity  is  merely  external,  and  is  based  on  the  rule  governing 
the  syntax  of  Basque  words — namely,  that  the  more  important  precede  the 
less  important.  For  instance,  in  describing  a  condition,  the  subject  or 
the  bearer  of  the  condition  is  of  greater  importance  than  the  object,  the 
pers6n  or  thing  having  part  in  the  condition,  and  therefore  precedes  it; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  transitive  verb  the  object  precedes,  as  it  is 
of  greater  importance  than  the  subject,  because  it  completes  the  action. 

As  the  reader  may  be  impatient  with  these  linguistic  investigations, 
we  will  point  out  how  much  has  been  gained  by  them.  We  expected  from 
the  assertion  that  the  structure  of  the  Basque  language  was  like  the  Ameri- 
can to  find  a  real  incorporative  process  in  it;  but  on  an  unprejudiced 
investigation  we  have  found  that  in  structure  it  is  not  distinct  from 
the  Indo-Germanic  languages,  or  at  least  that  it  is  more  closely  related 
to  them  than  to  any  other,  and  also  that  it  is  not  separated  from  them  by 
sound. 

The  following  are  the  fundamental  traits  of  the  Indo-Germanic  lan- 
guages: The  monosyllabic  roots  may  have  at  the  same  time  both  nominal 
and  verbal  significations,  but  the  pronominal  roots  are  entirely  distinct, 
and  have  had,  since  the  most  ancient  times,  only  a  pronominal  significa- 
tion and  hardly  any  other  than  pronominal  development.  The  noun  and 
the  verb  are  of  distinct  formation,  even  in  the  earliest  derivatives  of  the 
root;  the  verbal  stems  are  strictly  distinguished,  according  as  they  are 
nouns  or  verbs,  by  the  manner  of  their  inflexion;  declension,  or  the  inflex- 
ion of  the  noun,  is  attained  by  fonnative  syllables  derived  from  the  demon- 
strative pronouns,  while  conjugation,  or  the  inflexion  of  the  verb,  is  formed 
only  by  suffixes  derived  from  the  personal  pronouns. 

The  distinction  of  genders  is  perfectly  developed  in  the  noun  and  pro- 
noun, but  is  almost  entirely  absent  in  the  verb.  The  individual  parts  of 
speech  agree  perfectly  in  gender,  person,  number,  and  case,  while  in  the 
Basque  of  course  they  can  agree  only  in  number  and  case.  All  words  are 
independently  developed,  and  the  annexing  of  a  determining  suffix  to  the 
last  word,  such  as  we  have  seen  in  the  Basque  ur  garbia^  occurs  only  in 
rare  cases  (for  example,  Goethe  says:  In  dcr gross  iind  klciiicti  IVclt). 

The  development  of  the  nominal  relative  form  is  limited:  there  are 
about  seven  cases,  and  the  accusative  often  (for  instance,  in  the  neuter) 
agrees  with  the  nominative.  The  development  of  the  verb  is  remarkable: 
it  is  almost  always  attained  by  suffixes,  rarely  by  inserted  formative  ele- 
ments or  infixes,  and  still  more  rarely  by  prefixes;  but  in  the  Basque 
infixes  sometimes  form  the  tenses  and  moods,  and  a  prefix  determines 
the  case.  In  the  Indo-Germanic  the  designation  of  the  personal  pronoun 
is  always  at  the  end  of  these  suffixes,  or,  as  in  the  modern  languages  (for 
example,  "I  go"),  at  the  beginning. 

The  verb  has  different  forms  of  time  (tenses),  different  moods,  and 
different  voices  (active,  middle,  passive),  and  hence  an  extraordinarily 
rich  and  consistent  syntax  has  been  attained  in  the  most  highly  developed 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  375 

Indo-Germanic  idioms;  which  sij^nifics  that  the  liiicjuistic  fonn  most 
accurately  expresses  the  logical  relation  of  the  individual  thoughts  and 
their  parts,  and  that  the  construction  of  sentences  is  first  really  developed 
to  true  artistic  proportion. 

We  of^ourse  do  not  claim  any  authentic  connection  between  the 
Euskara  and  the  Indo-Germanic  languages;  still  less  do  we  think  of  any 
uniformity  of  vocabulary;  but  we  do  assert  that  even  linguistically  noth- 
ing hinders  our  classing  the  Basques  with  the  Indo-European  race.  We 
believe  that  in  very  remote  ages,  when  the  Indo-Germauic  language  had 
just  begun  to  develop  its  characteristic  peculiarities,  the  forefathers  of 
the  Basques  separated  from  the  original  stock  of  the  Indo-Gennans,  and 
that  consequently  they  are  ethnologically  most  closely  related  to  that  race; 
that  is,  they  separated  from  them  later  than  from  the  original  stock  of 
jnankind.  The  similarity  in  the  structure  of  the  language  which  we 
have  pointed  out  indicates  such  an  ethnological  relationship. 

Where  the  Etruscans  belong  is  as  yet  an  open  question;  we  merely 
mention  them  without  attempting  to  classify  them. 

B.   THE    INDO-GERMANIC    FAMILY. 

The  Indo-Germaus  are  the  most  widely  diffused  race  of  mankind,  and 
they  still  continue  to  spread.  They  are  the  true  standard-bearers  of  civil- 
ization, and  they  have  not  only  absorbed  whatever  of  its  elements  the 
Semites  had  created  and  de\-elopcd,  but  have  so  fostered  them  that  now 
Semitic  culture  has  no  place  by  the  side  of  the  Indo-Gennanic. 

In  language  they  occupy  the  highest  rank.  This  is  not  so  much 
due  to  the  fact  that  their  tongues  are  the  highest  in  logical  precision 
and  in  emotional  depth,  for  that  is  disputed;  and,  besides,  the  Finni.sh, 
Japanese,  Chinese,  and  many  Semitic  tongues  are  not  inferior  to  the 
Indo-Germanic  in  practical  value.  We  therefore  will  not  insist  upou 
this  superiority,  although  it  can  hardly  be  denied.  But  it  is  a  most 
important  fact  that  those  ludo-Gcrmanic  nations  which  have  no  historical 
importance  occupy  the  same  high  rank  in  linguistic  development  which 
is  held  by  the  most  prominent. 

This  proves  that  the  entire  race  is  more  highly  developed  than  any 
other;  for  among  others  we  find  but  one  or  a  few  languages  and  peoples 
who  have  developed  into  a  civilization  similar  to,  or  even  comparable 
with,  the  Indo-Germanic,  while  the  great  majority  of  the  remainder  con- 
tinue undeveloped. 

It  was  not  the  events  of  history  or  favorable  natural  environment 
which  thus  highly  developed  the  Indo-Gennans.  We  are  obliged  to 
believe  that  they  remained  longest  in  the  original  home  of  mankind, 
and  that  by  this  quiet  stay  they  became  more  developed  than  the  otlicrs, 
who  had  migrated  earlier.  Consequently,  they  were  able  to  subdue  the 
wild  and  inhospitable  regions  which  then  constituted' Europe.  These 
earliest  migrations  from  the  aboriginal  centre  of  humanity  mu.st  be  cor- 
rectly considered.      The  word  "migration,"  which  wc,   yielding  to  the 


376  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

common  use  of  language,  employ,  means  something  entirely  diiTerent 
from  what  actually  occurred.  The  dispersion  of  mankind  took  place  by 
a  very  gradual,  unintentional  pushing  forward  as  the  stock  became  more 
numerous;  and  gradually,  as  this  extension  occurred  in  different  direc- 
tions, a  separation  took  place,  which  was  all  the  more  positive  the  more 
graduallv  it  had  been  performed.  The  races  spread  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  original  stock;  those  more  quickly  whose  new  home  was  not  in- 
viting, as  was  the  case  in  Northern  Asia;  but  those  slowly  who  early 
found  a  rich  and  comfortable  region. 

Thus  it  was  with  the  Indo-Germans  who  spread  over  Persia,  Armenia, 
and  Asia  Minor,  and  gradually  into  Europe.  They  seem  to  have  moved 
along  the  southern  edge  of  the  Caucasus  to  the  Crimea,  and  from  Asia 
]Minor  across  the  sea,  and  perhaps  also  north  of  the  Caucasus  along  the 
western  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  as  is  shown  by  two  facts — that  the  Ossetes, 
an  independent  Indo-Geruianic  nation,  dv/ell  in  the  Caucasus,  and  that 
the  southern  Scythians,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Crimea  and  of  Southern 
Russia,  have  been  pronounced  Indo-Germans  (Miillenhoff). 

The  advance  into  Europe  was  in  the  beginning  very  gradual,  but  in 
tlieir  new  homes  and  in  their  entirely  different  environment  the  European 
Indo-Germans  became  distinct  from  their  Asiatic  relatives.  Thus  the 
original  single  race  became  divided  into  two  great  divisions — the  European 
and  the  Asiatic  Indo-Germans.  These  two  experienced  the  same  fate  as  the 
whole  race,  and  were  again  subdivided  into  distinct  divisions — the  Asiatic 
into  the  Indian  and  Iranian,  the  European  Indo-Germans  into  North  and 
South  European  nations.  But  the  common  language  had  been  so  much 
developed,  and  had  become  so  firmly  established,  that,  though  it  indeed 
might  separate  into  numerous  idioms,  it  could  nowhere  exhibit  such  pro- 
nounced dissimilarities,  either  in  vocabulary  or  form,  as  we  have  found  in 
the  languages  of  other  races. 

Passing  to  a  brief  view  of  the  individual  nations,  we  may  begin  with 
the  eastern  half  of  the  Asiatic  Indo-Germans. 

I.  The  Indians. 
Classification  and  General  Considerations. — The  Indians  include, 
according  to  Lassen  (see  Map),  the  Daradas  or  Dards  in  the  north-west 
on  the  south-eastern  slopes  of  the  Hindoo-Kush,  and,  west  of  them,  the 
Kafirs  (infidels — that  is,  not  Mohammedans)  or  Sijah-Posh  (that  is, "black 
coats,"  because  they  wear  garments  of  black  hides),  who  foniierly  lived  in 
Candahar,  and  are  said  to  have  migrated  thence  in  four  tribes.  Their 
languages,  which  are  divided  into  different  dialects,  as  they  themselves  are 
divided  into  different  tribes,  belong  entirely  to  the  Indian  family;  but  in 
physique  they  are  separated  from  the  Indians  as  well  as  from  their  east- 
ern neighbors  the  Afghans,  for  they  are  large,  of  fine  build,  with  straight 
noses,  often  light  skin,  blue  e)'es,  and  blond  hair.  They  have  remained 
on  their  original  grade  of  civilization.  Their  grain  consists  of  wheat  and 
barley,  which  the  women,  who  live  separate  from  the  men,  cultivate;  and 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  yj-j 

they  have  neither  horses  nor  fowls.  Their  weapons  are  the  dagger,  the 
knife,  and  the  bow  and  arrow,  the  bow  serving  as  a  jnniping-stick  in 
flight.  They  are  a  brave  people,  but  their  wars  generally  consist  of  raids 
and  excursions  for  booty. 

They  bitterly  hate  the  Mohammedans,  who  frequently  abduct  them 
into  slavery.  He  only  is  considered  a  man  who  has  slain  a  IMohammedan, 
and  in  testimony  of  his  feat  he  wears  a  special  feather  and  allows  his  hair 
to  grow.  Some  tribes  have  quite  a  contrar>-  custom,  for  they  cut  oflF  a 
lock  of  hair  for  each  slain  enemy.  Notwithstanding  this  bitter  animosity, 
some  of  the  tribes  have  been  converted  to  Mohammedanism.  The  relig- 
ion of  the  others  is  very  simple,  and  appears  to  be  like  the  ancient  Indian 
religion  in  its  main  traits:  they  have  priests,  sacrifices  of  cows  and  goats, 
various  ceremonies  and  feasts,  and  male  and  female  idols  of  stone  and 
wood.  They  also  venerate  the  souls  of  their  ancestors.  Thev  are  of  a 
harmless,  frank,  cheerful  disposition,  fond  of  music  and  dancing;  they 
sing  much,  and  have  drums  and  a  stringed  instalment  of  one  string. 

The  Gypsies  also  belong  to  the  Indians,  probably  to  a  wandering  Pa- 
riah caste  of  Western  India.  They  first  appeared  in  South-eastern  Europe 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  They  usually  call  them- 
selves Rom  or  Romany,  but  .sometimes  Sinte,  which  latter  is  supposed  to 
be  a  corruption  of  the  Indian  SindJi.  Their  various  dialects  retain  marked 
Hindustani  elements,  although  much  influenced  by  the  languages  of  the 
various  countries  in  which  their  scattered  bands  find  their  homes.  Plate 
io8  {fig.  7)  represents  a  Gypsy  woman  from  Wallachia,  and  may  be  taken 
as  presenting  a  favorable  type  of  these  wandering  outcasts. 

In  India  proper  the  Casfuneriaiis,  who  speak  a  distinct  and  rather 
peculiar  language,  form  the  most  northern  di\ision.  Next  follow  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Punjab,  also  wi'-h  a  distinct  language,  which,  however, 
is  more  closely  related  to  the  main  tongue,  the  Hindi.  This  latter  is 
divided  into  many  dialects;  and  from  it,  since  the  spread  of  Mohannned- 
anism  into  India,  the  I/indns/ani,  a  form  of  the  Hindi  interspersed  with 
Arabic  elements,  has  developed.  In  the  west  of  India  we  have  as  inde- 
pendent languages  the  Sindhi  on  the  lower  Indus,  the  Gnjcralci'  on  the 
peninsula  of  Gujerat  and  in  the  neighboring  regions,  and  the  Ma/irallrc, 
which  is  widely  spread  even  beyond  the  fifteenth  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude; in  the  east,  on  the  lower  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra,  the  Bcugakc ; 
and  finally  south  of  these  the  Oriya  and  some  subordinate  idioms  which 
we  omit.  Of  course  these  various  languages  correspond  to  the  different 
tribes  of  the  Indian  population. 

Physical  Charactcrislics. — The  descriptions  of  ancient  writers  still 
apply  to  the  present  Hindoos,  who — especially  tlie  Brahmans— in  their 
phj'sical  construction  are  exactly  like  the  representations  on  old  Indian 
sculpture.  The  Indians  are  of  middle  size,  the  average  height  being  163 
centimetres  (64  inches).  The  limbs  are  often  delicate  and  slender  (comp. 
//.  \o%,fig.  i),  but  there  are  also  very  vigorous  tribes;  as,  for  example,  the 
Rajpoots  in  Rajpootana  (North-eastern  Punjab  and  AravulH  :Mountains). 


378  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Color. — The  color  of  the  skin  ranges  from  a  dark  yellow  to  a  bronze 
or  soot-black.  Some  have  attempted  to  acconnt  for  the  latter  color  by- 
supposing  an  intermixture  of  the  Indians  with  the  Dravidians;  but, 
though  this  explanation  may  be  correct  for  single  individuals  and  regions, 
it  does  not  explain  all  cases.  We  saw  that  all  the  Dravidian  nations  are 
by  no  means  black;  only  exposed  tribes  and  individuals  are  dark;  the 
more  protected  ones,  especially  the  women,  are  lighter  than  the  others, 
and  dark  individuals  are  seen  among  classes  where  there  can  scarcely  be 
suspicion  of  intermixture.  It  will  therefore  probably  be  more  correct  to 
attribute  the  dark  color  to  spontaneous  and  climatic  influences.  The 
latter  explanation  is  partly  confirmed  by  the  existence  of  perfectly  light 
Hindoo  tribes  among  the  low  hills  of  the  Himalayas. 

Hair. — The  hair  of  the  head  is  of  a  glossy  black — not  frizzy,  but  often 
wavy  and  curly;  the  beard  grows  abundantly  {pi.  loj.Jigs.  2,  3,  8);  it  is 
often  shaved,  except  on  the  upper  lip,  as  is  also  the  hair  on  the  head  of  the 
men,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  curls  at  the  vertex  and  on  the  temples 
{pi.  107,  Jigs.  4,  6,  8). 

Skull. — The  shape  of  the  skull  is  generally  mesocephalic,  with  a  tend- 
ency to  dolichocephalism  (Welcker).  The  face  forms  an  oval;  the  fore- 
head is  free;  the  eyes  are  dark,  black  or  brown,  and  large;  the  eyebrows 
generally  curved  and  finely  formed;  the  nose  frequently  with  the  Roman 
curve,  as  is  shown  in  our  illustrations  {pi.  107,  Jigs.  1-7).  This  type  is 
best  developed  among  the  Brahmans,  but  it  is  by  no  means  absent  among 
the  Pariahs  {pi.  loj,  Jig.  6). 

Dress  and  Ornaments. — The  dress,  of  which  we  present  several  illus- 
trations, is  of  linen,  cotton,  and  silk  (//.  xoj^figs.  1-7,  8,  9;  pi.  108,  Jig. 
1).  The  hair  and  beard  are  often  dyed.  The  finger-  and  toe-nails  of  the 
women,  as  also  their  nipples,  which  are  exposed  {pi.  loj,  Jigs.  5,  9),  are 
always  painted  red;  their  eyelashes  and  eyebrows  are  dyed  black  with 
antimony.  The  Indians  have  various  fans  (//.  107,  Jigs.  8,  9) ;  diverse 
ornaments,  as  necklaces,  bracelets,  and  ear-rings  {pi.  107,  Jigs.  4,  7;  pi. 
108,  Jigs.  I,  5);  pearls  and  flowers  in  the  hair,  nay  even  in  the  pierced 
nostrils  {pi.  107,  Jg.  5);  and  veils  {pi.  107,  Jig.  7;  pi.  108,  Jg.  4),  etc. 
The  painted  marks  and  stripes  over  or  between  the  eyes  or  on  the  neck 
(//.  107,  _fig.  6)  are  signs  of  the  diflferent  castes  {pi.  107,  Jigs.  1-7,  8,  9; 
pi.  108,  Jigs.  I,  5),  but  a  light  kind  of  tattooing  is  frequently  used. 

Dwellings. — The  elaborate  buildings  of  the  Indians  and  the  extrava- 
gant taste  exhibited  in  their  plastic  art  are  well  known.  The  houses  in 
the  large  cities  are  comfortably  built  in  Oriental  style,  with  flat  roofs  and 
projecting  balconies  and  platforms  or  verandas  {pi  107,  Jig.  8),  for  we 
have  adopted  into  our  civilization  both  the  word  and  the  object  to  which 
it  belongs.  Gardens,  which  are  popular  (//.  107,  Jig.  9),  are  cultivated 
with  great  art.  In  that  hot  climate  the  people  live  mostly  in  the  open 
air;  many  are  satisfied  with  plain  structures  {pi  108,  Jig.  5)  which  suffice 
for  shelter;  and  the  Brahmans  especially  are  wont  to  live  in  a  simple  style 
(//.  io8,A--3)- 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  379 

Character.— '^\\&  people  are  valiant  enough,  but  they  have  no  enter- 
prise. They  are  fond  of  repose,  but  are  also  industrious,  persevering,  and 
patient  at  their  labor.  Their  chief  endeavor  is  to  calm  the  passions  of  this 
earthly  life  and  to  gain  eternal  peace  in  God;  and  therefore  they  rarely 
exhibit  passion.  They  have  great  abilities,  and  are  an.xious  to  learn,  but 
they  have  a  decided  tendency  to  speculative  meditations.  Their  penitents 
and  saints  are  extremely  ascetic. 

Government.— 'X:\\ii  government  has  always  been  an  absolute  monarchy, 
hereditary  by  primogeniture,  and  the  king  may  in  time  of  need  demand 
from  one-twelfth  to  one-fourth  of  all  private  property  (except  that  of  the 
Brahmans)  as  a  tax.  War-services  are  recompensed  by  investiture  with 
land.  In  former  times  military  duty  was  confined  to  the  Kshattri\a,  or  the 
caste  of  warriors,  and  the  other  castes  were  able  to  pursue  quietly  their 
work  even  in  times  of  war.  The  king  (//.  107,/.^.  8)  and  his  principal 
wife  (//.  wj,fg.  9)  are  objects  of  the  highest  veneration.  The  weapons 
of  the  Indians  in  ancient  and  mediaeval  times  were  bows  and  arrows, 
clubs,  discuses,  spears,  swords,  shields,  and  war-chariots;  at  present  only 
firearms  are  used. 

Family  Life. — Marriage  is  contracted  at  a  ven-  early  age,  and  its  cere- 
monies vary  according  to  the  different  religions.  In  ancient  times  the 
man  took  the  hand  of  the  woman  and  walked  around  the  altar  with 
her.  The  woman  remains  dependent,  but  not  secluded  in  the  house,  and 
is  treated  respectfully.  The  husband  gives  presents  to  his  wife's  parents. 
Poh-gamy  is  frequent,  although  of  late  origin,  and  there  are  evidences  that 
polyandry  was  practised  in  ancient  times.  Sutteeism  is  now  abolished. 
Among  people  of  rank  the  wife  often  desired  to  accompany  her  husband 
into  the  other  life;  but  self-immolation  was  never  universal,  and  was  always 
voluntary.  It  was  believed  that  every  woman  thus  immolated  would  live 
in  joy  with  her  husband  35,000,000  years,  while  otherwise  she  would  have 
no  place  in  paradise. 

Language  and  Literature. — There  are  two  principal  steps  of  Indian 
civilization:  (i)  the  older  or  Vedic  period,  and  (2)  the  Brahmanic  period. 
Buddhism  was  developed  from  the  latter  as  a  third  step.  The  language 
also  bears  a  different  character  according  to  this  twofold  or  threefold 
division.  The  Vedic  language  was  spoken  by  the  ancient  Indians  who 
migrated  about  2000  B.  c.  from  the  West  into  India;  the  ancient  sacred 
hymns  of  the  Indians  are  composed  in  it,  and  it  is  the  mother  of  all  the 
other  Indian  idioms. 

The  second  stage,  that  of  Brahmanism,  gradually  developed  from  the 
Vedic  period  after  the  people  had  become  established,  soon  after  their 
migration,  and  principally  in  Western  India,  extending  as  far  as  the  Pun- 
jab, which  remained  true  to  the  Vedic  civilization.  Sanskrit  was  never 
spoken  by  the  people,  for,  as  its  name  implies,  it  was  an  artificial  tongue 
which  the  educated  Brahmans  had  formed  from  the  vernacular.  It  was 
divided  into  several  dialects,  only  the  latter  form  of  which  (the  Prakrit) 
has  been  retained.     Sanskrit  literature  proper  begins  about  250  n.  c.  or  a 


38o  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

little  later,  shortly  after  Alexander's  invasion,  and  when  Buddhism  was 
gaining  ground. 

These  two  important  events  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  Indian 
literature.  Indeed,  it  seems  as  though  the  construction  of  the  two  great 
epics,  the  Maliabliarata  and  the  Raiiiayaaa,  must  be  ascribed  to  direct 
Greek  influence.  Buddhism  also  strongly  influenced  Indian  literature 
by  its  deeds  and  ideas.  The  northern  Buddhists  wrote  in  Sanskrit, 
but  the  works  of  the  southern  Buddhists  were  later  on  (about  420  A.  D. , 
according  to  Weber)  translated  into  Pali,  the  now  extinct  dialect  of  the 
Magadha  country.  The  Pali  thus  became  the  sacred  language  of  all 
Buddhism,  which  spread  especially  from  Southern  India. 

Another  cause  of  its  influence  was  the  fact  that  the  new  religion, 
according  to  the  principles  of  its  founder,  generally  made  use  of  the 
idioms  of  the  people  both  orally  and  in  writing,  thereby  giving  new  life 
to  them.  All  these  languages,  the  Pali  not  excepted,  are  organic  devel- 
opments of  the' old  Indian  tongue.  That  modern  Indian  idioms  are  only 
deteriorated  dialects  as  compared  with  the  old  regularly-developed  ones, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  present  Romance  tongues  in  contrast  with  the 
Latin,  is  due  to  the  invasions  of  the  Mongolians  and  the  Mohammedans. 

Caste. — The  development  of  the  caste  spirit  belongs  to  the  Brahmanic 
period,  although  its  foundations  are  far  older  and  are  rooted  in  the 
ancient  religious  ideas  which  prevail  in  patriarchal  states.  But  it  was 
strengthened  by  the  special  doctrines  of  the  Indian  religion.  The 
Brahmans,  or  priests,  constitute  the  first  caste;  the  Kshattriyas,  or 
warriors,  the  second;  next  follow  the  Vaisyas,  or  agriculturists;  fourth, 
the  Sudras,  or  mechanics;  and  finally,  the  Pariahs  and  others  not  in- 
cluded in  the  preceding  castes,  such  as  those  who  had  charge  of  the 
dead.  The  ancient  caste  S}'stem  still  survives,  but  it  has  undergone 
various  changes. 

In  Cashmere  the  Brahmans  are  numerous  and  influential,  but  in  other 
regions  the  caste  no  longer  exists;  in  the  north-west  the  Kshattriyas  have 
been  transformed  into  a  mercantile  class;  the  Kaiths  or  Kayasthas,  origin- 
ally a  lower  caste  of  the  Hindoos,  rose  by  connection  with  the  victorious 
Mohammedans,  and  are  now  active  in  Central  and  Eastern  India  as  scien- 
tists or  scribes.  The  Baniyas  (that  is,  "business-men"),  who  seem  to 
have  been  developed  from  a  lower  caste,  are  at  present  very  influential 
not  only  in  India,  but  in  Africa,  Arabia,  and  elsewhere. 

There  are  some  barbarous  tribes  of  Indian  origin  among  whom  the 
caste  spirit  had  not  been  developed,  who  settled  at  a  later  period  in  the 
civilized  region,  such  as  the  Jats  in  the  north-west  and  the  Rajpoots;  and 
as  they  have  remained  distinct  from  the  Indians,  they  constitute  inde- 
pendent classes.  By  all  these  transitions  the  original  caste  spirit  has  been 
much  modified.  It  is  difficult  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  all  the  classes  and 
of  their  condition.  The  distinction  of  castes  has  lost  its  old  severity  in 
the  north,  but  the  Indian  type  is  particularly  pure  in  the  Brahmans, 
because  they  have  faithfully  preserved  the  caste  traditions. 


ETHXOGRAPHY.  381 

Religion:  Brahmanism. — Tlie  threefold  clevelopinciit  is  also  inarkeil 
by  different  forms  of  religion.  In  the  Vcdic  period  the  Indian  religion 
was  a  cult  of  the  deified  powers  of  natnre,  especially  of  the  gleaming 
vault  of  the  heavens,  with  its  magnificence  by  day  and  its  infinite  vast- 
ness  at  night;  of  fire,  which  serves  as  a  sacrificial  flame  to  call  forth  the 
gods  and  to  intercede  for  man;  of  the  winds,  and  of  several  other  deities. 
In  those  times  the  gods  were  not  represented  by  images.  Soma-liqnor, 
the  pressed  juice  of  an  Asclcpias,  was  the  chief  offering,  and  animal 
sacrifices  were  rare.  The  Vedas  themselves  are  collections  of  hymi;s 
sung  to  the  glory  of  the  individual  gods,  the  most  powerful  of  whom 
was  Indra. 

The  Indian  tendency  to  religious  speculation  developed  a  second  relig- 
ious system  from  this  pure  naturalism.  During  the  Vedic  period  the 
virtues  had  also  been  venerated  as  deities,  and  now  abstract  divinities 
were  established  by  the  side  of  the  old  natural  gods,  whose  significance 
was  no  longer  understood.  The  supreme  deity  was  conceived  to  be 
the  universal,  the  Brahma  (that  is,  "the  great"),  which,  existing  by 
itself,  generated  in  itself  by  self-contemplation  a  creative  desire:  thus 
Kama  (love)  came  into  existence,  and  through  it  all  that  is  was  called 
to  life. 

Besides  this  universal  being,  which  could  never  become  popular,  there 
were  deities  of  the  people.  Some  of  them,  as  Vishnu,  are  mentioned 
incidentally  in  the  Vedas,  while  others,  as  Siva,  are  not  spoken  of.  The 
old  gods  remained,  but  without  their  old  significance.  In  a  later  form  of 
Brahmanism  the  deity  appears  as  7;-/w//r//^that  is,  "triple  being" — 
consisting  of  Brahma  the  creator,  Vishnu  the  preserver,  and  Siva  the 
destroyer.  Some  sects  confined  their  worship  to  the  latter  two  (//.  107, 
Jig.  2).  All  gods,  however,  are  deemed  mortal,  for  Kala,  the  god  of 
time,  annihilates  them,  and  finally  himself,  and  all  again  return  to 
Brahma. 

In  order  that  man  may  as  soon  as  possible  reach  this  highest  point, 
this  identification  with  Brahma,  he  must  practise  the  strictest  holiness; 
which,  however,  is  not  meritorious  unle.^s  it  is  in  exact  confonnity  with 
the  ritual;  consequently,  a  multitude  of  external  postures,  washings,  pil- 
grimages, etc.  are  obligatory,  especially  for  the  Brahmans  (/»/.  108,  Jig. 
1).  Sin  hinders  union  with  God,  but  it  can  be  overcome  by  devotion  and 
mortification;  and  by  conquering  sensuality,  human  affections,  and  all 
earthly  thoughts  the  devotee  is  absorbed  directly  into  the  deity.  From 
such  views  has  grown  the  asceticism  of  the  Indian  sages,  which  has  often 
reached  incredible  degrees. 

Jhuid/iisi>i.—V,wV\h\i^m  (founded  by  Prince  Gautama,  called  Buddha— 
that  is,  "the  enlightened  one")  developed  from  Brahmanism  in  the  .sixth 
century  B.C.,  and  was  made  the  state  religion  about  the  year  250  B.C. 
Buddha  claimed  to  be  no  more  than  human.  He  prized  virtue,  and 
disputed  the  value  of  works  and  ceremonies;  he  rejected  the  theor>-  of 
one  religion  for  the  people  and  another  fur  the  sages;  and,  as  he  preached 


382  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

the  equality  of  all  men,  lie  wished  to  abolish  the  system  of  castes.  Buddh- 
ism recognizes  no  personal  gods,  but  only  an  Absolute  Existence,  tlie 
cause  of  the  established  order  of  the  universe,  to  which  all  things  will 
eventually  return.  Still,  the  veneration  of  numerous  spirits  and  saints 
prevails  among  the  people  in  opposition  to  this  nihilism.  It  also  holds 
the  view  that  by  doing  penance  and  by  meditation  one  will  reach  the 
greatest  bliss — that  is,  become  one  with  the  fundamental  principle  of 
existence.     The  Buddhist  ascetics  frequently  live  together  in  cloisters. 

Buddhism  could  not  retain  its  place  in  India:  it  disappeared  thence  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  but,  as  we  have  already  seen,  it  has  spread  widely 
in  Eastern  Asia.  It  unquestionably  has  great  merits:  above  all,  it  teaches 
that  true  morality  rests  on  a  kind  feeling  toward  our  fellow-men.  Its 
abstract  character  sufficed  for  the  sober  East  Asiatics,  but  not  for  the 
Indians;  consequently,  ancient  pagan  views  were  retained  among  both 
Buddhists  and  Brahmans,  such  as  the  veneration  of  different  animals  (apes, 
snakes,  etc.),  or  of  trees  (as  the  banyan,  Ficus  religiosa\  or  of  mountains, 
which  were  believed  to  be  incarnations  or  companions  or  seats  of  the 
deity. 

Superstitions. — Prohibitions  of  food  prevail,  also  countless  supersti- 
tions— ordeals  (oaths  were  seldom  taken)  and  amulets  (generally  worn 
about  the  neck;  for  example,//.  io-j,Jigs.  6,  8).  The  latter  frequently 
consist  of  the  image  of  an  ancestor,  for  the  belief  in  guardian  spirits  and 
in  the  protecting  power  of  the  dead  is  common.  The  souls  are  also  feared, 
and  during  the  night  no  Indian  can  be  easily  prevailed  upon  to  go  to  a 
place  whence  corpses  have  been  brought  or  where  the  dead  have  been 
cremated,  or  to  the  small  buildings  in  which  their  ashes  are  stored  {pi. 
io8,  y?f.  2). 

The  Indians  believe  in  a  Hereafter,  in  reward  or  punishment  for  deeds 
committed  on  earth,  and  that  each  person's  condition  in  this  world  is 
determined  by  deeds  done  in  fonner  states  through  which  he  has  passed. 
Dead-offerings  are  deemed  helpful  to  the  departed,  that  they  max  become 
blessed,  and  consequently  all  are  anxious  to  raise  children  who  may  per- 
form the  pious  duty  of  making  these  offerings  for  them.  Some  tribes  erect 
for  the  deceased  small  houses  like  temples,  and  place  within  them  boards 
or  pieces  of  wood  on  which  are  rudely-carved  pictures  of  the  departed  or 
scenes  from  their  lives  {pi.  io8.  Jig.  4). 

The  religious  activity  of  the  Indians  has  given  rise  to  a  number  of 
other  sects,  such  as  the  Jains,  who  endeavored  to  reform  Brahmanism,  and 
the  Sikhs,  deists  without  any  caste  distinctions,  who  recognize  only  prayer 
and  purification  as  a  worship  of  God.  Even  at  present  their  religious  life 
is  not  dormant.  A  sect  has  lately  arisen  called  the  Brahmo-Samaj,  or 
"  Church  of  Brahma,"  which  endeavors  to  give  a  new  form  and  a  new  life 
to  the  old  Brahmanic  religion.  The  marked  Christian  tendency  of  this 
latest  form  is  an  important  phenomenon  of  modern  India. 

We  must  content  ourselves  with  this  short  description  of  the  varieties 
of  Indian  life.     India  created  Buddhism:  at  an  early  period  it  developed 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  383 

a  solid  civilization,  which  has  had  an  important  influence  in  history;  and 
it  has  produced  in  the  field  of  imagination  results  wliich  are  the  greatest 
triumph  of  the  Indian  intellect  and  which  have  widely  influenced  tlie 
civilization  of  mankind.  We  do  not  refer  to  extant  Indian  poems,  which, 
though  they  are  often  prolix  and  insipid,  contain  much  that  is  most  beau- 
tiful; almost  all  the  fables  and  fain--tales  and  many  of  the  novels  which 
for  thousands  of  years  have  been  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  whole  world 
— to  the  Koi-Koin  and  the  Chinese  as  well  as  to  us — arc  of  Indian  origin. 
Other  nations  rank  infinitely  higher  in  the  forms  of  poetry,  but  the  poetical 
invention  of  the  Indians  remains  unsurpassed,  and  cannot  be  too  highly 
appreciated.  In  this  regard  they  may  be  .said  to  have  laid  the  foundation 
of  all  poetry.     (See  Ixdi.\ns  and  illus.  Vol.  II.) 

2.  The  Iranian  Peoples. 

In  the  histor}-  of  India  frequent  mention  is  made  of  the  Citcbcrs,  who, 
though  great  numbers  of  them  were  destroyed  in  the  struggles  with  for- 
eign conquerors,  are  dispersed  throughout  the  country,  but  are  found  espe- 
cially in  Gujerat.  They  are  Pcrsinns  who  fled  before  the  approaching 
Mohammedans,  and  consequently  they  unite  India  and  Persia  only  super- 
ficially. 

Classijicalioti. — The  ethnologic  transition  between  the  two  countries  is 
formed  by  that  Iranian  people  bordering  on  India,  the  Afghans,  or,  as  they 
call  themselves,  the  Pukhtaneh  (in  the  west  Pashtaneh),  whose  language, 
the  Pukhtu  (Pushtu),  occupies  a  position  similarly  intermediate  between 
the  languages  of  the  two  countries.  Their  most  eastern  division,  the 
Lohanis,  live  in  India  east  of  the  Suleiman  Mountains,  and  are  separated 
into  many  tribes,  the  J'criris,  S/iirniiis,  and  others.  Next  come  the  Hcr- 
(///rnnis,  or  the  Eastern  Afghans,  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  Afghanistan, 
who  are  also  divided  into  many  tribes;  and,  finally,  the  West  AJgfiaus^  one 
of  whose  principal  tribes,  the  G/ii/:ais,  dwells  to  the  south  of  Kabul,  and 
another,  the  Duranis^  occupies  the  more  level  but  less  fertile  South-west 
Afghanistan. 

South  of  these,  next  to  the  Brahuis — of  whom  we  have  spoken  (p.  282) 
— dwell  the  BcloorJiccs  {pi.  108,  y?^^  6),  who  are  Mohammedans,  and  to 
whom  the  nomadic  tribe  of  the  A^asirs  in  Afghanistan  probably  belongs. 
Their  language  is  closely  related  to  the  New  Persian,  and  they  seem  to 
have  come  at  a  late  period  from  the  west  to  their  present  seats.  They  are 
divided  into  three  tribes,  and  are  brave  and  predator)-.  Their  weajwns 
are  the  gun,  dagger,  sword,  and  shield  (//.  108, /ig.  6),  often  also  the  spear. 

We  now  mention  the  Tajiks  {pi.  wo,  figs,  i,  2),  living  in  Kabul,  to 
the  north  in  Badakshan,  and  to  the  table-land  of  Pameer,  and  also  in 
Bokhara,  Balkh,  Herat,  and  Seistan,  where  they  have  intermingled  much 
with  the  Afghans  and  Beloochces,  and  also  in  Khiva;  they  are  esix^cially 
numerous  in  Western  Iran,  where  they  are  called  Parsivan,  Persians. 
They  speak  only  Persian,  are  agriculturists  and  tradesmen,  and  as  such  are 
dispersed  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of  their  own  country.     They  are  uot 


384  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

deficient  in  valor,  and  they  make  excellent  soldiers.     They  were  formerly 
fire-worshippers,  but  now  profess  Mohammedanism. 

Tlie  Lures  in  Luristan  (middle-sized,  strong,  of  brown  color)  are  lin- 
guistically closely  related  to  the  extremely  thievish  Kurds  {pi.  TZifigs.  6, 
9),  who  live  to  the  north  of  them  as  far  as  the  upper  Tigris  and  Lake  Van. 
To  them  belong  the  Dushik  Kurds,  dwelling  south-west  of  Erzeroum, 
who  have  preserved  many  ancient  customs,  although  they,  like  the  other 
Kurds,  are  Mohammedans.  The  Gurancs  live  among  them  like  a  peas- 
ant caste  by  the  side  of  a  warrior  caste  (Spiegel).  To  the  independent 
Iranian  tribes  belong  also  the  Tats,  near  Baku  on  the  western  coast  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  aud  the  inhabitants  of  ]\Iazanderan,  on  the  south- 
ern coast. 

Next  follow  the  Armenians,  or  Haiks,  whose  unmixed  tribe,  according 
to  Khanikof  and  Spiegel,  lives  in  Astrakhan.  In  their  native  country  they 
have  been  exposed  to  various  intermixtures  with  Semites,  Turks,  etc. 
Their  language,  sometimes  called  the  Haikanic,  is  an  entirely  independ- 
ent branch  of  the  Iranian  family.  The  Osseles,  or  Iron  (that  is,  Iran- 
ians), as  they  call  themselves,  have  reached  a  still  more  western  point: 
they  dwell  in  the  Caucasus,  where  they  inhabit  the  central  passes.  Their 
language  and  customs  are  evidence  that  they  belong  to  the  Iranians,  and 
perhaps  to  the  Armenians. 

We  can  do  no  more  than  simply  mention  here  the  Armenian  colonies 
which  have  spread  as  far  as  Hungary  and  Poland.  In  ancient  times  all 
Iran  was  united  under  the  sceptre  of  the  Persian  kings;  at  present  Armenia 
belongs  to  Turkey,  while  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Beloochistan  constitute 
three  independent  states. 

Physical  Characteristics. — Referring  briefly  to  the  physique  of  the  Iran- 
ians, we  may  mention  the  dolichocephalic  but  rather  high  skull,  whose 
vertex  and  occiput  are  flat.  However,  the  form  varies:  in  the  east — East 
Iran  is  the  true  home  of  the  Iranians — it  is  more  pronounced  than  in  the 
west.  The  stature  in  the  east  is  inferior  to  that  in  Persia  proper  and 
Armenia,  where  it  is  often  distinguished  by  slenderness  together  with 
perfect  vigor.  The  uncommon  size  and  clumsiness  of  the  feet  must  not 
be  overlooked. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  going  eastward  the  skin  of  this  race  will  be 
found  to  grow  more  dark  and  rough,  while  the  Kurds  and  Armenians 
often  have  a  perfectly  South-European  complexion.  The  hair  is  always 
— except  in  a  few  mountain-tribes  like  the  Ossetes — black  and  straight  or 
curly;  it  grows  abundantly  on  the  body.  The  forehead  is  low,  the  shape 
of  the  face  oval;  the  eyes  are  finely  formed,  but  generally  do  not  lie  deep; 
the  lips  of  the  Armenians  are  thick,  like  those  of  the  Afghans,  and  their 
features  exhibit  some  similarity  to  those  of  the  Hindoos  and  the  Asiatic 
Semites. 

The  Afghans  are  of  good  stature,  but  the  head  lies  too  low  between  the 
shoulders;  their  skin  is  of  a  blackish  color,  feels  velvety,  and  is  glossy; 
the  nose  is  large  and  flat,  the  eyes  straight,  the  lower  lip  thick. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  385 

The  Ecloocliees  are  of  a  tall  and  imiscular  figure,  and,  especially 
those  living  in  the  hot  plain,  of  a  rather  dark  color.  The  nose  is  broad, 
the  forehead  low,  the  hair,  growing  abundantly  like  the  beard,  is  coarse. 
They  have  remarkably  large  feet. 

The  Tajiks  are  generally  small,  but  thickset;  the  feet  are  large,  the 
face  broad,  their  features  good,  except  that  the  mouth  is  too  large. 

The  Kurds  are  often  large  and  handsome,  with  less  broad  noses,  but 
otherwise  like  the  Afghans;  but  among  them  there  are  many  individuals 
of  clumsy  build,  of  poor  proportions,  with  coarse  faces,  large  heads,  and 
large  noses  (M.  Wagner). 

The  Ossetes  are  physically  of  a  peculiar  development.  Scarcely  mid- 
dle-sized, they  are  thickset  and  vigorous,  and  their  hair  is  either  red  or 
blond.  The  old  Scythians  of  the  Crimea  and  Southern  Russia  may  be 
called  the  extreme  advanced  posts  of  the  Iranians. 

Language. — We  have  remains  of  two  Iranian  languages  of  antiquity — 
the  Old  Bactrian,  the  so-called  Zend  or  the  language  of  East  Iran,  in  which 
the  Zend  Avesta  was  written ;  and  the  ancient  Persian  or  earliest  West  Iran- 
ian tongue,  which  was  the  language  of  the  Aclucmenidean  dynasty  and 
their  cuneiform  writing.  The  Pehlevi  was  the  language  of  the  Sassanian 
period:  it  was  developed  from  the  Old  Persian,  and  is  identical  with  the 
Huzvaresh,  as  the  language  of  some  of  the  commentaries  upon  the  Avesta 
is  called.  The  Parsi  of  the  Middle  Ages  has  been  developed  from  and  by 
the  side  of  the  Pehlevi,  and  from  it  the  New  Persian,  which  is  much 
mixed  with  the  Arabic,  has  descended. 

Dress. — Our  illustrations  show  various  Persian  costumes  and  castes  (//. 
log,  Jigs.  1-4,  6),  which  require  no  explanation,  and  which  are  at  present 
the  same  as  about  the  year  1700,  when  the  famous  Dutch  painter  De 
Bruyns  painted  them.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  old  tiara,  the  high  cap 
worn  by  the  contemporaries  of  Cyrus,  is  still  a  universal  article  of  dress 
(//.  no,  Jgs.  3,  5;  //.  in,  _^g.  2;  comp.  p/.  73,  Jig.  6).  In  Figures  5 
(/>/.  109)  and  3  (p/.  no)  we  see  warriors — Figure  5  {p/.  109)  in  mediaeval 
equipment — Figure  3  (//.  1 10)  with  a  kind  of  culverin  fastened  to  the 
saddle  of  a  trained  camel,  but  this  arrangement  is  now  out  of  use.  The 
Bcloochees  live  in  villages  of  black  felt  tents,  each  village  forming  a  clan. 
They  wear  wide  pantaloons,  a  gown-like  girdled  overdress  (mostly  blue), 
and  for  ordinary  use  a  peculiar  cap  (//.  loS,  fig.  6);  the  turban  is  worn 
only  on  festival  days. 

Architecture. — An  idea  of  the  sjilcndor  of  ancient  Ispahan,  which  was 
destroyed  soon  after  the  year  1700  by  the  Afghans,  as  also  of  its  active 
business-life,  is  given  by  Plate  109  (fig.  7).  The  Annenian  houses— at 
least  in  .some  villages  and  small  towns — are  wholly  or  partly  imbedded 
in  the  ground,  and  the  walls  are  of  clay  or  stone.  On  Plate  ni  {Jig.  2) 
wc  present  the  interior  of  such  a  house,  with  its  strange  roof-construction, 
its  benches  scn-ing  both  as  seats  and  as  beds,  the  household  utensils,  the 
large  Oriental  water-pipe  of  its  smoking  inhabitants  (comp.  pi.  lo-j^jig.  8), 
the  connecting  .stables  (left),  and  the  entrance-door  (right). 

Vol.  I.— 2S 


386  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Civilisation. — The  Iranians  are  a  higlily-gifted  people;  they  have  had 
the  ability  to  form  great  states;  they  have  developed  a  rich  literature  of 
high  poetical  value  and  of  historical  importance;  they  have  shown  them- 
selves subtle,  active,  and  skilful  in  business,  and  indeed  the  Armenians 
may  be  numbered  among  the  shrewdest  business-men  of  the  world;  on 
occasion  they  have  always  shown  a  capacity  for  accepting  new  ideas  and 
for  developing  them;  they  are  brave,  and  even  heroic;  and  their  ancient 
laws  are  distinguished  by  lofty  morality  and  clemency. 

If  we  find  the  present  Iranian  peoples  less  elevated  in  their  morals — 
untruth  and  avarice  are  common — if  we  find  no  independent  intellectual 
achievements  among  them,  some  excuse  can  be  made  for  them  in  the 
unfavorable  geographical  conditions  in  which  they  live  and  in  the  terrible 
fate  to  which  they  were  condemned  by  the  invasions  of  various  nations. 
We  are,  however,  far  from  overestimating  the  achievements  and  abilities 
of  the  Iranians.     They  stand  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  Indians. 

As  the  regions  east  and  west  of  the  Indus  are  decidedly  distinct  in 
flora,  fauna,  and  climate,  so  also  are  the  people.  Among  the  nations  of 
the  west  a  spirit  of  independence  and  a  love  of  liberty  are  the  main 
motives  of  action,  and  valor  is  the  chief  virtue;  civilization  and  the  occu- 
pation of  the  land  are  only  sporadically  distributed  according  to  the  cha- 
racter of  the  country.  Social  institutions  and  fixed  civilization  are  found 
only  in  the  principal  cities,  while  vigorous  shepherd-tribes  with  patriarchal 
customs  and  clad  in  leather  cloaks  and  sheepskins,  not  in  muslin  dresses 
or  silk  caftans,  roam  about  in  the  cooler  climate  of  the  mountains  and  the 
hot,  changeable  climate  of  the  plateaus  as  far  as  they  are  habitable. 

The  individual,  the  separate  tribe,  predominates  in  public  life;  restless- 
ness instead  of  refinement  in  social  life,  elasticity  of  body  and  mind,  sober 
intelligence  instead  of  calm,  quiet  industry,  and  a  voluptuous  imagination 
prevail,  and,  in  spite  of  relationship,  the  Iranians  are  a  pronounced  con- 
trast to  the  Hindoos.  This  is  also  seen  in  religion.  Proceeding  from 
common  Indo-Germanic  fundamental  views,  what  different  ends  have  the 
Indians  and  the  Iranians  attained! 

Religion. — We  know  the  Iranian  religion  onh'  in  the  form  which  was 
given  to  it  by  Zarathustra  (Zoroaster — that  is,  "Golden  Star;"  not  a  name, 
but  probably  only  a  title)  about  1200  B.  c.  (?)  In  ancient  Aryan  times 
there  were  man}'  Asuras — that  is,  gods — of  equal  power,  who  have  been 
preserved  in  the  Vedic-Indian  religion.  The  Iranians  retained  the  vener- 
ation of  but  one  Asura,  Ahiiro  Masdao  (Auramazda,  Onnuzd),  who  created 
the  other  deities  and  mankind.  All  good  gods  are  gods  of  purit}',  of  light, 
as  the  gods  of  fire,  Haoma  (Soma),  "the  sun,"  Mitra,  "the  moon,"  and  the 
deities  of  the  water;  but  they  are  all  dependent  on  Ahuro  IMazdao.  Op- 
posed to  him  are  hostile  demons,  gods  of  darkness,  who,  though  originally 
created  by  him,  now  battle  under  the  command  of  Ahriman  {Agromain- 
yus)  against  the  light,  but  who  will  eventually  be  overcome. 

Man,  involved  in  a  constant  struggle  against  sin,  must  take  part  in  this 
battle  in  favor  of  the  pure  light.     The  seat  of  evil  is  in  the  north,  in  the 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  387 

darkness,  in  the  mist.  But  eventually  Ahuro  Mazdao  will  conquer  his 
enemies  and  erect  a  universal  united  kingdom  of  light.  The  souls  of 
men,  who  are  rewarded  or  punished  immediately  after  death,  will  have  a 
place  in  this  kingdom,  but  the  wicked  must  first  endure  severe  punish- 
ments. 

There  were  no  temples  in  ancient  times,  for  it  was  deemed  unworthy 
of  an  infinite  God  to  worship  him  within  a  limited  space;  but  the  summits 
of  mountains  and  other  elevated  places  were  considered  sacred.  The 
Magi,  or  priests,  who  constituted  a  numerous  and  influential  caste,  sacri- 
ficed animals  as  an  offering  to  the  gods. 

Death  and  Burial  Ceremonies. — According  to  the  teaching  of  Zara- 
thustra,  the  dead  should  neither  be  cremated  nor  buried,  in  order  to  avoid 
polluting  the  fire  or  the  earth;  for  here,  as  elsewhere,  all  that  is  dead 
defiles.  Consequently,  they  were  placed  on  high  buildings  or  in  open 
places,  so  that  birds  of  prey  or  wild  animals  might  devour  them;  and  he 
was  deemed  especially  blessed  whose  body  was  devoured.  The  remains 
■were  collected  in  a  waxed  cloth  or  in  earthen  vessels  and  interred  in 
burial-chambers,  which  were  generally  erected  on  the  mountain-sides. 
At  present  the  Iranians,  being  either  Moslems  or  Christians,  bury  the 
dead  in  either  the  Mohammedan  or  the  Christian  manner. 

The  Persians  lay  out  the  dead  on  a  bed  of  state  and  indulge  in  loud 
lamentations  and  other  signs  of  sorrow ;  the  horse  and  the  weapons  of  the 
deceased  are  placed  beside  the  corpse  (//.  wo,  fig.  5).  Tlie  Annenians 
celebrate  in  October  a  great  Feast  of  the  Dead,  at  which  they  place  burn- 
ing tapers  on  the  graves  and  light  fires  in  other  parts  of  the  cemeter)-,  and 
the  women  especially  give  utterance  to  expressions  of  their  .sorrow  (/>/. 
Ill,  fig.  i).  The  Armenian  tombstones  (//.  iii,figs.  5,  6),  representing 
rams,  horses,  lions,  etc.,  are  remarkable.  Just  as  traces  of  the  old  religion 
of  light  have  been  retained  in  the  feast  of  the  dead,  so  we  have  in  these 
tombs  the  remains  of  a  belief  which  is  much  older  than  the  doctrines  of 
Ormuzd. 

We  have  found  ever>-where  the  veneration  of  certain  animals  which 
bore  some  relation  to  the  gods:  such  sacred  animals  were  also  known  to 
the  most  ancient  Indo-Gcrmauic  religion,  and  consequently  the  belief  in 
them  has  adhered  to  all  Indo-Germanic  peoples.  These  animals  could 
intercede  with  the  gods,  and  were  sometimes  believed  to  be  the  incarna- 
tion of  a  guardian  spirit.  Formerly  the  souls  of  the  dead  were  converted 
into  guardian  spirits,  and  often  into  hostile  ghosts.  The  ram  was  consid- 
ered by  the  Greeks  and  Romaiis,  among  whom  the  supplicator  wore  in 
some  rites  the  skin  of  a  ram,  to  be  a  mediator  between  the  gods  and  man; 
and  here  also  the  ram  conducts  the  soul  to  God.  Obser\-e  the  strange 
sculptures  having  a  mythological  meaning  on  Plate  in  (fig.  6). 

The  lion  also  is  a  widely-known  and  ancient  symbol:  as  sucli  he  was 
placed  on  the  tombstones  of  men  who  fell  in  battle  in  the  prime  of  life. 
He  was  probably  a  sacred  animal  and  an  incarnation  of  the  souls  of  pow- 
erful ancestors,  and  in  this  mauncT  the  emblems  of  tlic  Persian  flag  (.//. 


3SS  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

iio^fig.  4)  may  be  understood.  The  sun  represents  the  ser\-ant  or  the 
eye  of  Ahuro  Mazdao,  or  the  god  himself,  and  the  lion  in  front  is  a  power- 
ful guardian  spirit  recommending  the  warriors  and  all  humau  kind  to  the 
god.     (See  Persians  and  illns.  Vol.  II.) 

After  this  short  sketch  of  the  Iranians  we  pass  to  the  second  main 
branch  of  the  Indo-Germanic  stock. 

C.   THE    EUROPEAN    INDO-GERMANIC   PEOPLES. 

Like  Fick,  we  include  the  ancient  Phrygians  of  Asia  Minor  among 
the  European  Indo-Germans,  while  the  Cappadocians  seem  rather  to 
belong  to  the  Iranians. 

The  European  Indo-Germanic  nations,  who  had  been,  as  Fick  has 
proved  by  their  language,  for  a  long  time  united,  separated  later  into 
diverse  tribes,   probably  by  a  very  gradual  progression  and  diffusion. 

Deterioration  of  Type  and  Language. — In  a  survey  of  the  European 
nations  one  phenomenon  is  especially  remarkable:  the  farther  west  we 
go,  the  more  remote  from  the  original  type  and  the  more  deteriorated  do 
we  find  the  languages.  The  Gothic  is  poor  and  sterile  in  comparison  with 
the  Sanskrit,  and  the  Old  Irish  is  still  poorer,  while  the  Old  Greek  and  the 
Latin,  both  in  the  number  and  the  richness  of  forms,  are  far  more  closely 
related  to  the  original  type. 

This  relation  becomes  apparent  also  in  their  civilization.  How  bar- 
barous were  the  conditions  of  ancient  Germanic  life  in  comparison  with 
those  of  the  ancient  Greek!  How  much  more  barbarous  still  those  of  the 
old  Celts,  and  especially,  in  the  extreme  north-west,  of  the  Scotch!  This 
applies  not  merely  to  the  coarseness  of  life,  but  to  a  barbarity  and  wild- 
ness  in  customs  such  as  neither  the  Asiatics  nor  the  South  Europeans 
exhibited.  Compare  the  Scotch  buildings  (/>/.  111,  fig.  4),  the  so-called 
beehive  houses,  rudely-constructed  embankments  of  clay  with  an  opening 
at  the  top  for  the  smoke,  some  of  which  have  been  in  use  even  as  late  as 
this  century,  with  the  houses  described  by  Homer.  The  Armenian  house 
{pi.  Ill,  Jig.  2),  with  its  artistic  and  well-divided  inner  construction, 
is  rich  in  comparison;  and  yet  such  buildings  date  from  times  of  repres- 
sion, while  we  have  a  number  of  imposing  Armenian  edifices  from  more 
ancient  times. 

Influence  of  Migrations. — How  can  we  explain  this  phenomenon?  But 
one  explanation  is  possible,  and  that  is  that  these  north-western  people, 
by  their  migration  into  a  part  of  the  world  so  inhospitable  as  Europe  then 
was,  and  by  their  struggle  with  hostile  nature,  had  deteriorated  from  a 
former  civilization.  The  intellect,  directed  only  to  the  needs  of  life  and 
to  the  dangers  of  the  moment,  necessarily  retrograded  under  this  con- 
straint: it  had  to  exert  all  its  force  in  order  to  sustain  mere  existence. 
Neither  power  nor  time  remained  for  it  to  retain  the  old  fulness  of  sound, 
the  old  sharply-divided  copiousness  of  language. 

We  termed  the  Europe  of  that  day  wild  and  inhospitable;  and  cer- 
tainly this  is  correct.     It  was  colder  and  more  rainy  than  at  present;  it 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  389 

was  covered  with  impenetrable  forests  and  extensive  swamps;  lofty  moun- 
tain-ranges made  it  impassable;  a  multitude  of  beasts  of  prey  (bears, 
wolves,  lynxes,  etc.)  inhabited  it,  and  also  the  aurochs  and  the  wild  hog, 
both  of  which  were  dangerous  animals.  Nutritive  plants  were  absent, 
with  the  exception  of  such  as  the  immigrants  brought  with  them,  and 
also  grains,  of  which  they  perhaps  brought  rye  and  oats. 

Probably  we  must  look  for  the  first  immigrants  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Black  Sea  and  in  Macedonia.     Two  reasons  support  this  opinion: 

First,  the  climate  was  less  severe  there,  and  a  gradual  acclimatization 
could  take  place,  while  at  the  middle  course  of  the  Volga  it  is  unfavor- 
able, and  an  acclimatization  there  would  have  made  living  in  different  cir- 
cumstances extremely  difficult. 

Secondly,  we  find  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  possession  of  many 
treasures  of  language  which  were  highly  developed,  so  that  they  could 
not  have  undergone  tedious  and  difficult  migrations.  The  opinion  that 
these  migrations  have  been  the  cause  of  the  great  elevation  and  develop- 
ment of  the  Indo-Germanic  peoples  has  been  advocated.  But  this  is 
impossible.  A  migration  consumes  the  existing  power  of  a  people:  it  is 
well  if  it  leave  any  strength,  but  it  does  not  create  new  power.  The 
opposite  opinion  contradicts  the  first  of  all  laws  of  nature,  that  of  the 
conservation  of  force. 

Influence  of  Natural  Sitrrmiudivgs. — The  case  is  different  when  a  peo- 
ple has  accustomed  itself  to  the  new  countrj'  and  gradually  masters  it. 
The  less  of  its  strength  it  has  used  in  battling  with  want,  the  more  quickly 
will  it  rise  amid  invigorating  surroundings.  We  must  believe  all  the  Indo- 
Germans  to  have  been  equally  gifted;  at  least  not  the  slightest  evidence 
can  be  brought  for  the  contrary  opinion.  Therefore  neither  the  Greeks 
nor  the  Romans  could  have  been  long  in  an  intermediate  state  before 
reaching  their  new  home,  where,  rapidly  gaining  ground  and  favored  by 
natural  surroundings,  they  developed  wonderfully.  But  the  Thracians 
and  the  Macedonians,  although  occupying  their  scats  since  remote  times, 
have  achieved  far  less,  on  account  of  the  monotony  and  .seclusion  of  their 
country. 

The  other  peoples  of  Europe  also  reflect  in  their  histor\-  the  influence 
of  their  respective  native  countries  and  of  their  varied  experience  in  their 
conflicts  with  nature.  The  greater  the  diflficulty  in  overcoming  natural 
obstacles,  the  later  do  the  people  appear  in  history:  with  some,  as  the 
Lithuanians,  such  appearance  was  entirely  impossible;  owing  to  conn- 
trv  and  position,  they  ha\-e  remained  antique  both  in  customs  and  in 
language. 

The  Celts  of  the  Continent,  who  no  doubt  passed  north  of  the  Alps  to 
their  location,  established  their  chief  seat  in  Galicia,  a  comparatively  com- 
fortable country,  but  it  did  not  iinprove  their  condition.  Besides  being 
rather  northerly  at  that  earl>-  period,  it  was  too  large;  the  ocean  was  too 
vast  to  invite  navigation,  and  the  north,  west,  and  south  were  closed  by 
impenetrable    mountains   and    woods.       Therefore   the   new    inhabitants 


390  ETHNOGRAPHY, 

were  entirely  dependent  on  themselves,  and  even  in  their  later  extensive 
migrations,  as  far  as  Asia  Minor,  they  learned  nothing  more  than  what 
they  had  already  learned  at  home — namely,  to  wage  war  and  to  roam  abont 
on  the  Continent.  Imagination,  the  divine  gift  of  the  Indo-Germaus,  degen- 
erated under  such  circumstances  into  rude  fantasies  or  love  of  finery  and 
of  adventures. 

The  Irish  and  British  were  not  much  different;  while  the  Scotch  were 
at  an  early  period  divided  by  the  character  of  tlieir  country  into  hostile 
clans.  In  like  manner,  the  character  and  history  of  the  Gennanic  and 
Slavic  families — of  course  only  in  their  more  general  groundwork — can 
be  traced  to  the  nature  of  the  German  and  Slavic  countries. 

Aboriginal  Remains. — Did  the  advancing  Indo-Gennans  meet  with 
aboriginal  inhabitants  in  Europe  ?  We  must  so  suppose  from  the  ancient 
diluvial  remains  which  have  been  found  in  France,  Germany,  Denmark, 
and  elsewhere.  Illustrations  of  two  of  the  most  ancient  skulls  in  Europe 
are  found  on  Plate  2.  One  {^figs.  2-4)  was  found  near  Diisseldorf,  and  the 
other  {^figs.  6,  7)  in  the  valley  of  the  Meuse  in  Belgium.  These  skulls, 
both  dolichocephalic  and  both  very  flat,  especially  the  one  from  the  Nean- 
derthal (Diisseldorf ),  which  is  also  noted  for  its  exceedingly  strong  bones, 
are  very  remarkable,  for  they  belong  to  no  class  of  skulls  of  races  now 
living. 

In  order  to  give  them  an  ethnologic  position  they  have  been  pro- 
nounced to  be  of  Finnish  origin — a  supposition  which  has  no  foundation, 
for  the  form  in  question  deviates  as  much  from  the  Mongolian  skull  (comp. 
pi.  2.^  Jigs.  13,  14)  as  from  the  Indo-Germanic.  An  extinct  aboriginal  race 
has  also  been  thought  of,  of  which  we  know  nothing,  and  possess  nothing 
but  these  skulls  and  a  few  pre-historic  articles,  perhaps  the  most  ancient 
of  the  Stone  Period.  The  fact  that  these  remains  must  belong  to  a  pre- 
historic population  is  clear,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  we  can  find  a  place 
for  them.  (For  illustrations  of  the  different  stone  weapons,  the  pieces 
of  bones,  the  scratched  images  of  animals  of  the  diluvial  "finds,"  and  of 
the  bronze  weapons  and  the  buildings  of  a  later  period,  see  Vol.  II.) 

Dispersion. — How,  then,  shall  we  explain  the  migrations  of  which  we 
have  spoken?  The  earliest  masses  of  population,  having  less  developed 
means  to  supply  an  existence,  required  far  more  space  than  the  peoples  of 
to-day.  When  their  numbers  became  greater,  they  gradually  spread,  and 
of  course  to  places  where  the  conditions  were  most  favorable  and  most 
inviting.  In  this  manner  the  masses  separated  by  gradual  dispersion; 
of  course  such  migrations  proceeded  very  slowly,  and  with  all  the  leisure 
which  life  at  that  period  permitted;  and  they  were  very  different  from 
systematic  colonizations  or  from  wild  wanderings.  Still,  the  latter  also 
probably  occurred:  by  some  mishap  (going  astray,  wars,  etc.)  single 
parties,  or  even  larger  hosts,  might  have  separated  from  the  common 
centre.  Thus  the  ancestors  of  the  Basques  may  have  separated  from  the 
ancestors  of  the  Indo-Germans  when  the  latter  were  on  a  very  early  grade 
of  civilization;  and  just  so  other  closely-united  clans  or  casual  hordes  may 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  391 

ha\-e  separated.  Such  seems  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the  earliest  inhab- 
itants of  Europe.  Perhaps  they  were  more  closely  united  to  the  ances- 
tors of  the  Basques. 

The  following  reflections  give  more  solidity  to  these  suppositions: 
first,  geographically  considered,  such  migrations  are  not  only  possible, 
but  are  more  probable  than  an  influx  of  Finnish  tribes  from  the  North 
or  of  swarms  of  Arabic-Africans  from  the  South.  Secondly,  the  oldest 
form  of  the  Indo-Germauic  skull  was  no  doubt  dolichocephalic,  for  the 
skulls  of  the  Asiatic  Indo-Germans  are  mostly  so,  and  close  observation 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  dolichocephalic  form  is  gradually  changed  into 
the  mesocephalic  with  the  advance  of  ci^•ilization.  This  we  find  later  on 
among  most  European  Indo-Germans  (comp.  pi.  2,  fig.  9,  with  //.  2,  fig. 
12,  ox  pi.  89,  fig.  11).  Thirdly,  civilization  and  changes  in  the  manner 
of  living  seem  to  diminish  the  thickness  of  the  skull-bones.  Skulls  from 
old  French  graves  of  the  thirteenth  century,  which  were  examined  by  a 
famous  French  anatomist,  were  exceedingly  thick  and  much  stronger  than 
those  of  the  present  French. 

Thus  in  this  direction  a  connection  between  the  most  ancient  remains 
and  the  present  form  of  the  European  population  is  by  no  means  im- 
possible. The  great  antiquity  of  the  remains  is  no  obstacle,  for  if  we 
consider  language  and  roughly  calculate  the  date  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
pre-historic  period,  we  also  reach  very  early  times.  It  requires  an  infi- 
nitely long  time  to  create  such  forms  of  language  as  the  Indo-German 
and  to  give  them  so  tenacious  and  enduring  a  solidity  as  they  everj-- 
where  possess. 

All  this,  of  course,  cannot  be  strictly  proved.  But  still  less  foutidation 
is  there  for  the  theory  which  supposes  an  aboriginal  people  in  Europe 
that  later  on  disappeared  entirely,  and  wdiich  attempts  to  explain  by  an 
intermixture  with  it  the  physical  peculiarities  of  the  present  race.  There 
is  hardly  any  doubt  that  the  pile-buildings  of  Europe  appertain  to  ancient 
Indo-Germans:  it  is  difficult  to  decide  to  which  tribes  they  belonged,  but 
the  geographical  situation  might  decide;  those  of  Southern  Germany 
and  Switzerland  might  be  attributed,  for  instance,  to  the  Celts,  and  these 
of  North  Germany  to  Germanic  nations.      (See  Lake  DWELLINGS  and 

illus.  Vol.  II.) 

Leaving  those  misty  ancient  periods  and  stepping  on  clear  historical 
ground,  we  classify  the  luiropcan  Indo-Germans  as  follows: 

I.  The  Greek  Family,  to  which  belong  the  old  Greeks,  the  modern 
<7;.^^/.,y_„otwithstanding  their  intermixtures  with  Slavs  and  Turk.s— 
the  Illvrians,  the  modern  Albanians,  the  Thraciaus,  and,  in  Asia,  the 
Phrygians. 

The  Phn-gians,  who  have  left  visible  traces  behind  them  in  Macedonia, 
migrated  back  into  Asia,  and  we  mu.st  presume  the  same  of  the  Ionic 
Greeks.  The  Albanians,  who  also  settled  as  colonists  in  Greece  and 
Italv  and  .scattered  all  over  the  Orient  as  soldiers,  are  the  old  Illyrians, 
and'  thev  have  retained  their  aboriginal  seats  in  the  western  part  of  the 


392  .  ETHXOGRAPHY. 

Balkan  peninsula.  They  are  divided  into  two  linguistically  distinct, 
chief  families,  the  Toskidcs  and  the  Gkcgidcs,  the  former  in  the  south 
of  the  country,  the  latter  in  Centi^al  and  North  Albania.  Their  name, 
Albanians,  is  derived  from  a  small  region  of  their  country  extending  from 
near  Corfu  to  the  Voyutza  River.  Its  name  is  Arbar,  and  the  inhabitants 
are  called  Arbanites,  whence  has  been  derived  the  name  Albanians,  as 
well  as  the  Turkish  denomination  of  Arnauts.  The  Albanian  language 
is  more  closely  related  to  the  Greek  than  to  the  other  Indo-Gennanic 
languages. 

2.  The  I/ali.  All  the  different  tribes  of  ancient  Italy  were  later  on 
absorbed  into  the  Latins  (Romans).  They  had  probably  migrated  over- 
land b)^  way  of  the  South-eastern  Alps,  but  some  of  the  most  eastern 
tribes  may  have  come  directly  from  Greece  by  water.  The  Romans  and 
Greeks  are  related  in  the  same  degree  as  the  Indians  and  the  Iranians. 

The  skulls  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans  belong  to  the  mesocephalic 
form,  bnt  they  approach  the  dolichocephalic  more  than  the  brachycephalic 
(//.  2,  fg.  9),  and  they  are  not  verj-  high.  Two  types  may  be  distin- 
guished among  the  ancient  Greeks — the  one  rather  dolichocephalic, 
oblong-wedge-shaped,  with  broad  occiput,  narrow,  straight  forehead,  and 
larger  facial  angle;  and  the  other  more  brachycephalic,  with  rounded 
skull-structure,  low  and  somewhat  retreating  forehead,  strongly-projecting 
frontal  bone,  and  smaller  facial  angle. 

The  modem  Greek  skull  is,  according  to  Retzius,  high  in  proportion 
to  its  length  and  breadth,  of  a  wedge-like,  rounded  form,  but  broader 
at  the  forehead  than  at  the  occiput.  The  hair  and  eyes  of  all  South 
Europeans  are  dark,  the  skin  as  a  rule  brownish,  but  in  many  cases  often 
of  a  yellowish-white.  Blond  heroes  are  frequently  mentioned  by  the 
ancient  Greeks,  so  that  in  olden  times  a  lighter  type  also  must  have 
existed.     (See  GREEKS,  also  Romans,  and  illus.  Vol.  II.) 

3.  The  ancient  Celts  were  found  in  the  western  part  of  Europe,  in 
Gaul  and  Northern  Spain  (where  by  intermingling  with  the  Iberians  they 
were  changed  into  the  Celtiberians),  in  Britain,  in  Switzerland,  through- 
out Southern  Germany  to  the  north  of  the  ]Main,  and  in  Northern  Italy. 
At  present  the  Celts  are  confined  to  Brittany,  Wales,  Ireland,  Western 
Scotland,  and  the  islands  between  Ireland  and  England.  The  buildings 
depicted  on  Plate  11 1  {fig.  4)  belong  to  them.  They  retained  in  the 
Scotch  mountains,  almost  to  the  beginning  of  modern  times,  their  old 
barbarous  character  as  it  was  described  by  Csesar. 

Their  languages  form  two  great  divisions — the  Cimbric  and  the  Gaelic 
branches,  the  latter  comprising  the  northern,  the  former  the  southern, 
languages.  The  Old  Gaelic,  the  language  of  \'ercingetorix,  is  extinct, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  relics.  The  oldest  form  of  the  Celtic  lan- 
guages that  we  possess  originated  in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  Celtic 
influences  have  not  been  unimportant  on  the  character  of  mediaeval 
legends. 

The    Celts   nowhere   exist  as   independent   nations,   but   they  derive 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  393 

importance  from  the  fiict  tliat  they  constitute  the  original  stock  of  the 
modern  French  people  and  were  a  factor  in  the  origin  of  the  English 
nation.  Even  in  ancient  times  they  exhibited  a  double  type:  in  Gaul 
they  were  light,  blond,  and  blue-eyed,  while  the  P.ritons  were  of  a  darker 
complexion  with  dark  hair;  on  the  other  hand,  Tacitus  described  the 
Caledonians  of  Scotland  as  having  red  hair.  The  present  Scotch  High- 
landers also  comprise  many  red-haired  individuals,  but  in  general  they  are 
of  a  rather  dark  complexion,  with  dark-brown  straight  hair.  In  South 
Wales  the  people  are  dark,  especially  in  the  cities;  in  North  Wales  they 
are  light,  blond,  and  blue-eyed.  The  form  of  the  skull  is  dolichocephalic, 
and  the  temples  are  flat,  in  consequence  of  which  the  forehead  is  narrow 
and  the  back  of  the  head  broad;  but  mesocephalic  shapes  are  frequent 
among  them. 

4.  The  Gcnnans  form  three  divisions — the  High  German,  the  Low 
German,  and  the  Norlheni  families.  The  Sivcdcs,  the  A'oncegiatts, 
together  with  the  Icelanders,  who  belong  to  them,  and  the  Danes,  con- 
stitute the  Northern  family.  The  Low  Germans  are  the  largest  division: 
to  them  belonged  in  ancient  times  the  Golhs,  together  with  related  peoples, 
such  as  the  I  'andals,  Biirgundinns,  Bastarnce,  Gepidi,  Heruli,  etc.  They 
also  include  the  Cherusci,  Angles,  Saxons,  Frisians,  and,  in  fine,  all  tribes 
of  Germany  speaking  the  Low  German  tongue,  as  well  as  the  Xel/ier/and- 
ers  and  the  English.  At  present  four  forms  of  the  language  of  this  family 
may  be  distinguished — the  Low  German,  the  Frisian,  the  Dutch,  and  the 
English,  which  are  again  divided  into  various  dialects. 

The  High  Germans,  who  are  more  closely  related  to  the  Low  Gennans 
than  to  the  Northern  nations,  comprise  all  tribes  speaking  the  High  Ger- 
man tongue,  such  as  the  Hessians,  Franks,  Thuringians,  Bavarians,  Siea- 
bians,  Alemanni,  Swiss,  etc.  The  oldest  linguistic  forms  of  this  division 
are  the  High  German  dialects,  which  have  been  retained  since  the  seventh 
century  in  a  few  examples;  the  different  idioms  of  to-day  are  homogeneous, 
but  independent. 

The  Northern  family,  especially  the  simple  rural  population,  has 
retained  the  original  Ck-rmanic  type— high  stature,  robust  build,  light 
complexion,  blond  and  aliundant  hair,  while  in  the  cities,  even  in  Nor- 
way, brunettes  are  not  rarely  found.  It  is  the  same  in  Germany.  Indeed, 
the  population  of  Germany  is  greatly  mixed,  being  composed  of  Gcrnumic, 
Celtic,  and  Scandinavian  elements,  intermixed  with  Roman  and  Romance 
intruders,  and  in  the  east  with  the  remains  of  the  Slavic  and  Russian 
aboriginal  population,  and  also  with  !\Iongolian  elements;  while  Jews  are 

nowhere  absent. 

Nevertheless,  the  present  physique  of  the  Germans,  however  great  a 
contrast  to  the  original  Germanic,  has  been  changed  not  so  much  b\  inter- 
mixture as  in  con.sequcnce  of  advancing  civilization  and  of  changed  condi- 
tions of  life.  Even  among  the  Wel.sh  and  the  Norwegians,  who  have  been 
comparatively  little  exposed  to  intenuixture,  we  find  such  double  types; 
furthermore,  families  who.se  gcnealog)-  proves  them  to  have  been  purely 


394  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Germanic  for  many  centuries  exhibit  the  modern  rather  brunette  type, 
while  otiier  families  known  to  be  mixed  show  the  pure  Germanic  type. 

The  rural  population  has  preserved  the  Germanic  type  most  purely, 
but  it  cannot  be  asserted  that  it  is  less  mixed.  The  skull-form  of  Ger- 
manic families  is  nowhere  truly  dolichocephalic,  but  it  is  remarked  that 
the  Germans  and  Swiss  have  broader  heads  than  all  others.  The  Low 
Germans  (according  to  Welcker's  index)  have  narrower  skulls  than  the 
High  Germans. 

5.  The  Letto-Slavs.  We  comprise  the  Lithuanians  and  Slavs  in  one 
great  division,  because  they  are  closely  related  in  language;  but  this  divis- 
ion at  once  separates  into  two  families,  the  Lithuanian  and  the  Slav.  To 
the  former  belong  (in  Livonia  and  Courland)  the  Li/huanians,  the  Letts, 
and  the  Old  Prussians,  whose  language  is  now  extinct. 

Of  greater  importance  are  the  Slavs,  who  are  philologically  more  closely 
united  among  themselves  than  are  the  various  Germanic  families.  The 
Bulgarian,  which  has  reached  us  as  the  old  Church  language  of  the  elev- 
enth centur}^,  is  the  earliest  Slavic  language.  According  to  Schafarik, 
the  Slavs  are  divided  into — 

First,  a  south-eastern  family,  to  which  belong  (i)  the  Russians,  who 
are  again  divided  into  the  Great  Russians  (beyond  a  line  from  Lake  Peipus 
to  the  Don),  the  Little  Russians  (south  of  this  line  in  Eastern  Galicia, 
Bukowina,  and  Northern  Hungar)'),  and  the  White  Russians  (west  of  this 
line,  toward  the  Baltic  Sea).  (2)  The  Bulgarians,  who  were  formerly  also 
in  Hungary'  and  Wallachia,  but  who  are  now  bounded  by  the  Danube,  the 
ocean,  and  a  line  from  Salonica  to  Widdin.  (3)  The  Servians,  in  Servia, 
Bosnia,  Dalmatia,  Herzegovina,  etc.  Plate  72  {Jig.  6)  shows  a  group  of 
Servians  in  their  peculiar  attire.  (4)  The  Slovenians  in  Carinthia  and 
Carniola  up  to  Styria. 

Secondly,  a  western  family,  which  comprises  the  Poles  and  Czechs, 
toeether  with  the  Slovaks  and  the  Sorbs  or  IFcnds.  Among  the  Poles  must 
be  included  the  Kassubs  and  Polabs,  whose  language  is  now  extinct,  and 
who  formerly  extended  along  both  sides  of  the  Elbe  and  had  some  settle- 
ments as  far  as  the  Main  and  the  Rednitz.  To  this  branch  also  belonged 
the  now  Germanized  (Lechish)  nations  on  both  banks  of  the  Oder,  in 
Silesia  and  Western  Pomerania.  The  Wends  also  formerly  extended 
from  the  Elbe  to  the  Saal;  now  they  are  confined  to  the  region  between 
Lobau  and  Liibben,  through  which  the  lower  Spree  flows. 

The  Slavs  are  smaller  than  the  Germans,  of  a  darker  complexion,  with 
black,  straighter  hair  and  rounder  faces:  a  tendency  toward  the  IMongolian 
type  has  often  been  asserted,  and  cannot  be  denied.  The  skull  is  brachy- 
cephalic  and  approaches  the  Mongolian  form. 

6.  The  Romance  peoples,  who  have  originated  from  the  intermixture 
of  the  Romans  with  various  other  European  nations. 

Language. — First  must  be  mentioned  the  Italian  language,  which  was 
developed  from  the  national  idioms  of  Italy  by  the  influence  of  German 
languages  which  inundated  Italy  at  the  beginning  of  the  IMiddle  Ages. 


ETHNOGRAPHY.  395 

It  is  spoken  in  Italy,  Sicily,  Corsica,  and  Sardinia,  in  Southern  Switzer- 
land and  Tyrol,  and  on  the  coast  of  Dalniatia,  and  is  divided  into  numer- 
ous dialects. 

Secondly,  the  Por/iigiiese,  Spanish  (Castilian),  and  Catahmian  lan- 
guages, the  latter  of  which  is  spoken  in  the  east  of  Spain  (\'alencia 
and  Catalonia),  on  Pityusa  (Fonnentera)  and  the  other  Balearic  Islands, 
in  a  small  coast-tract  in  Sardinia,  and  in  Roussillon  in  Southern  France. 
Each  of  these  is  divided  into  various  dialects. 

Thirdly,  the  Provcnqal  (Langue  d'oc)  and  the  French  with  its  dialects 
(Langue  d'oil);  in  the  Orisons  the  AV/^Vo-rt';«rt«;r(Ladiuish);  and  in  Friuli 
(Udine)  the  Friiilian  language;  the  latter  two  are  closely  related,  and  origi- 
nated from  a  mixture  of  Roman  with  Celtic  and  Germanic  elements.  In 
the  east  of  Europe  we  also  find  Romance  peoples:  these  are  the  northern 
Wallachians  or  Roumanians,  the  Daci-Roumauians,  who  dwell  in  Walla- 
chia  (the  ancient  Dacia)  and  Moldavia  as  fiir  as  Bessarabia.  They  sur- 
round the  Transylvanian  Germans  and  several  Mag\ar  districts.  The 
southern  or  Maccdo-WaUacJtiaiis  dwell  in  Macedonia,  one  branch  to  the 
south  of  Lake  Ochrida  and  another  to  the  west  of  the  Pindus  Mountains. 

The  Romance  languages  are  all  filial  languages  of  the  Latin,  but  the 
peoples  themselves  have  retained  their  old  inherited  character  in  spile  of 
the  various  iuterniinglings  which  they  have  undergone.  The  northern 
French,  for  instance,  although  so  much  mi.xed  with  Roman  and  Gennanic 
elements,  still  exhibit  the  characteristic  traits  of  the  old  Celts  who  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  nation;  they  differ  remarkably  from  the  southern 
French.  The  Spaniards,  originating  from  an  Iberian  source  by  intcnnix- 
ture  with  Roman,  Germanic,  Celtic,  and  Arabic  elements,  still  retain  much 
of  the  old  Iberian  character.  Quite  a  different  character  is  exhibited  by  the 
Italians,  who  reflect  rather  faithfully  the  nature  of  the  old  Italian  tribes. 
Still,  these  Romance  nations  form  a  unit  in  comparison  with  the  Germanic 
nations,  and  the  mutual  reactions  of  those  great  opposites,  the  Romance 
and  (k-rmanic  characters,  have  played  a  most  important  part  in  the  mod- 
ern history  of  Europe.  The  Romance  division  is  based  partly  on  the 
alwa\s  powerful  influence  of  Rome,  and  still  more  on  the  influences  of  a 
southern  climate,  which  is  so  different  from  a  northern. 

Germanic  and  Romance  nations  have  spread  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  globe:  the  Germanic  race  is  in  North  America,  South  .\frica,  India, 
East  Asia,  Malaysia,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand,  without  naming  the 
colonies  of  Western  and  Southern  South  America,  Polynesia,  and  else- 
where. The  Romance  nations,  though  less  aggressive,  have  taken  the 
principal  possession  of  America:  Spani.sh  is  spoken  in  Mexico  and  through- 
out Central  America,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Brazil,  where  the  Portu- 
guese prevails,  it  is  the  language  of  all  civilized  South  America.  The 
districts  in  which  the  French  prevails  (Cayenne  and  some  islands)  are 
proportionately  small.  The  islands  of  the  middle  Atlantic  Ocean  arc 
almost  all  Spanish  (Canary  Islands)  or  Portuguese.  Spanish  prevails  also 
in  Malaysia  (Philippine  Islands,  Marianne  Islands),  while  the  Portuguese 


396  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

is  almost  extinct  there,  but  has  been  retained  in  some  places  in  Hither 
India.  France  governs  Algeria,  some  islands  east  of  Africa,  New  Cale- 
donia, and  Tahiti. 

The  third  great  race  of  the  modern  Europeans,  the  Slavic,  is  also 
spreading  extensively.  Almost  the  whole  of  Northern  Asia  from  the 
Caucasus  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor  belongs  to  it.  Although,  yielding 
to  modern  principles,  this  race  leaves  almost  untouched  the  peculiarities 
of  the  peoples  whom  it  has  subjugated,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this 
spread  of  European  characteristics  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  univer- 
sal history. 

Cii'ili-atiou. — Thus  we  see  that  the  Indo-Germanic  family  has  at  pres- 
ent the  greatest  power  on  earth.  It  occupies  the  highest  rank  yet  attained 
by  human  civilization,  not  only  in  intellectual  respects,  but  also  in  physi- 
cal life.  Everywhere  nature  seems  to  strive  after  that  type  of  the  human 
form  which  it  has  finally  attained  in  the  Indo-Germanic  peoples,  and  which 
is  everywhere  developed  in  those  places  where  the  continued  enjoyment 
of  prosperity  has  permitted  the  race  to  develop  itself,  as  in  Pol}'nesia  and 
in  some  African  and  some  American  regions. 

The  European  type  is  not  the  original  type  of  mankind,  from  which 
the  less  favorable  forms  have  degenerated;  neither  is  it  a  type  confined  to 
one  race  and  beyond  the  reach  of  others:  it  is  rather  the  last  degree  of 
human  physical  development,  which  is  gained  only  by  gradual  cultivation 
and  the  favor  of  all  kinds  of  circumstances.  It  may  be  attained  by  any 
race  which  has,  in  consequence  of  favorable  circumstances,  an  opportunity 
to  cultivate  itself,  as  is  shown  by  the  development  of  the  Mongolian  race 
in  Turkey,  the  Caucasus,  and  Hungary.  The  type  may  be  lost  by  long- 
continued  wildness  and  subversion.  The  oppressed  Irish  of  some  districts 
are  a  sad  illustration  of  this  fact. 

Physical^  Intellectual.,  and  Moral  Development. — Intellectually  also  the 
Indo-Gennanic  race  at  present  occupies  the  highest  rank.  It  shows  what 
humanity  can  accomplish  intellectually  and  morall}'.  Here  we  must  note 
the  most  remarkable  lesson  taught  by  anthropolog}- :  the  entire  develop- 
ment of  mankind,  even  to  its  highest  degree,  depends  immediately  on  the 
natural  quality  of  the  soil  (comp.  p.  176).  It  was  the  natural  condition 
of  the  soil  which  caused  the  originally  homogeneous  race  to  separate  and 
to  migrate  to  regions  which  influenced  it  differently. 

The  human  race  everywhere  exhibits  a  uniform  anatomical  foundation, 
which  it  owes  to  its  uniform  development  from  lower  animal  conditions: 
this  anatomical  foundation  is  the  ner\'ous  system,  which  is  wonderfully 
developed  in  man  as  compared  with  the  lower  animals.  All  human  devel- 
opment has  resulted  from  the  influence  exerted  upon  it  by  dissimilar  parts 
of  our  planet. 

The  entrance  of  man,  thus  constituted,  into  the  world,  constructed  as 
it  is,  determined  his  physical  and  intellectual  development  and  his  subse- 
quent destiny,  and  this  development  and  this  destiny  could  not  have  been 
othen\ase  than  what  they  are,  for  they  are  the  result  of  a  natural  necessity. 


ETHNOGRAPHY. 


397 


It  was  of  course  immaterial  whether  this  or  that  horde  went  here  or  there: 
a  certain  development  and  a  certain  fate  awaited  them.  The  Indo-Gcr- 
mau  races  would  have  been  developed  even  though  the  ancestors  of  the 
Mongolians  or  of  the  Oceanians  had  migrated  into  Western  Asia  and  into 
Europe.  In  that  case  these  would  have  become  what  the  ancestors  of  the 
Indo-Gennans  were;  and  the  latter,  had  they  wandered  to  Northern  Asia, 
would  as  certainly  have  become  IMongolians. 

But  still  more.  As  the  development  of  man  from  a  low  animal  t\'pe 
up  to  human  dignity  depends  solely  on  the  material  influence  of  physical 
nature,  so  we  see  that  at  the  very  creation  of  the  world  the  necessity  for 
human  development,  and  for  human  development  such  as  we  have  it,  was 
established.  It  may  seem  exaggeration,  but  it  is  perfectly  true  to  say  that 
at  the  creation  of  the  world  all  the  historic  destinies  of  this  small  factor, 
Man,  were  established  in  all  details  and  for  all  futurity.  But  the  follow- 
ing is  still  more  noteworthy:  Man  has  by  the  aid  of  nature  risen  first  to 
physical  power,  and  by  this  to  intellectual  might.  But  this  is  not  his 
highest  end;  his  intellectual  abilities  must,  and  will,  conduct  him  to 
moral  liberty. 

These  three  steps  of  development — the  physical,  the  intellectual,  and 
the  moral — cannot  be  separated:  as  the  higher  always  includes  the  lower, 
so  the  lower  contains  from  its  beginning  the  genus  of  the  higher.  Moral 
liberty,  which  in  its  growing  power  will  bring  blessing  to  all  people, 
although  apparently  so  distinct  from  physical  nature,  results  by  stem 
necessity  from  natural  development;  and  thus  we  are  compelled  to  ac- 
knowledge a  moral  law  in  a  world  where  the  final  and  highest  eud  of 
natural  being  is  morality. 


IXDO-KTROPEAXS. 


Pi.ATi:  107. 


I.  Braliman.     2.  Siva  wor>liip|UT.     3.   MohammciUiii    of   India.     4.  Wealthy   Iiulinii  of  C'iir»iiuiiulcl.     5.  na}'adere. 
6.  Tariah.     7.  <  Hd  nfilile  Indian  woman.     8.  Rajah  (Shatraga  of  Travancorc,  Imlln).     9.  Wife  of  ihc  rajah. 


INDO-EUROI'KAXS. 


Pl.ATK    I08. 


I.    lirnhiiKinA  rt'lcltr.ilinj^  tlicir  >.»fivfi   morning  riles.      2.  <-*rfin;ilni_\    m.u    Amin -..tiM-i  itiuni.iii.      ^     ..i m   Ii.m.^i. 

4.  Crave  momuncnl  of  a  UajpuDl  (CJujcral).     5.  Iinlian  school.     6.  Soldier  of  Itcloocliislan.     7.  Uy|isy  woman  of  Wnlla- 
rliia. 


INDO-EUROPEANS. 


Plate  109. 


»!!!HI8P 


I.  Persian  (about  1700).     2.  Persian  woman.     3 


smn  warrior 


.     6.   Kin^  of  Persia  (about  1700).     7.   Market  of  Is|«han,  Persia  1 1700). 


Persian  woman  in  street  allirc.     4.   Persian  couritHi;oo).     5.   Per 


INDO-EUROPEANS. 


Plate  ho. 


I,  2.  Tajik  (imililc  aiicl  full  face  view).     3.   IVrsian  cannoneer.     4-   t'cT^''-^"  l'-'""i'  ('W)-     5-   l""eral  leivnu.nu-  ..I 
the  Persians. 


INDO-EUROPEANS. 


Plate  hi. 


i 


fl'i 


no 


1 


•4^MI*>BE-n0t*a«i*9 


fmrm 


^'^^'y^'^.^n 


I.  Armenian  "Keasl  of  the  Dca.l."     i.  Annciiiaii  house,     j.  Working  cotlon  in  Aniienia.    4.  Scolch  clay  liuilJings 
fbeehive  liousts).     5,  6.  Armenian  graves. 


INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


(The  figures  at  the  right  indicate  the  pages  where  explanations  of  the  illustrations  may  be  found.) 


Plate  i. — Anthropology. 
Eye  of  a  Japanese,  36,  238. 
Eye  of  a  Corean,  36,  238. 


Eye  of  a  Chinese,  36,  238. 

Eye  of  a  Dyak,  36,  23S. 

Foot  of  a  Chinese  woman,  36,  254. 

Sections  of  hair  highly  magnified,  45. 

7.  Jaw  of  La  Naulette,  38. 

8.  Hand  and  foot  of  chimpanzee;  of  man,  18,  19. 

9.  Section  of  Negro  sl<in,  41,  330. 

10.  Neolithic  implements,  27. 

11.  Various  forms  of  human  pelvises,  202,  295, 329. 

12.  Palaeolithic  implements,  27. 


Plate  2. — Crania. 
I.  Negro,  European,  and  Sainoied  skulls,  49. 
2-4.  Skull  from  the  Neanderthal,  38,  390. 

5.  Australian,  African,  and  European  skulls,  49. 

6,  7.  Skull  from  Engis  (Belgium),  38,  390. 

8.  Skull  from  Kotzebue  Sound  (.Maska),  213. 

9.  Base  of  skull  of  an  old  Roman,  49. 
10,  II.  Tartar  and  New  Zealand  skulls,  49. 
12,  13.  Aleutian  and  Cafillr  skulls,  49,  309. 
14,  15.  Calmuck  skull,  49,  186,  390. 

16.  West  Australian  skull,  49. 

Plate  3. — Ethnographic  Map. 


OCEANIC   PEOPLES. 


Plate  4. — Australians. 

1.  Native  of  Port  Lincoln,  1S6,  187. 

2.  Native  of  Queensland,  187. 

3.  Woman  from  Queensland,  187. 

4.  West  Australian,  1 86. 
5-7.  Australian  graves,  190. 

8.  East  Australian  chief  and  family,  186. 
9-1 1.   Rock-paintings,  188. 
12.  "  Kangaroo  dance,"  188. 

Plate  5. — .\istralians. 
I,  2.  South  .Australians,  186. 

3.  Stone  a.\e,  from  South  Australia,  1S7. 

4.  North  Australian  village,  187. 

5.  Spear,  187. 

6.  Ilurling-stick,  187. 

7.  S]jear-points,  1S7. 

8.  liatlle-knife;  boomerang,  187,343. 

9.  Axe,  187. 

10.  Wooden  shield,  187. 

11.  Distaff,  with  threads  .spun  from  hair,  187. 

12.  Decoration  of  kangaroo  teeth,  1S8. 

13.  19.  Instruments  for  making  noise,  187. 

14.  Stone  mortar,  187. 

15.  Drinking-vessel  made  of  a  human  skull,  1S8. 

16.  Water-bag  made  of  opossum-skin,  187. 

17.  M.at  for  carrying  an  infant,  187. 

18.  Club,  187. 

20.  Basket  made  of  woven  nets,  187. 

21.  Spear-point,  187. 

22.  Basket  carried  on  the  backs  of  the  women,  187. 

Plate  6. — Tasmanians. 
1-5.  Tasmanians,  1S6. 

6.  Tasmanian  woman,  1 86,  1 88. 

7.  Boat,  1S7. 

8.  Paintings,  188. 

9.  Tasmanian  graves,  190. 


10.  Tannese  (Tanna  Island),  191. 

11.  Inhabitant  of  Marc  Island,  191. 

Plate  7. — Melanesians. 

I,  2.  Natives  of  Redscar  Bay,  191. 

3.  Natives  of  IlumboliU  l?ay,  191,  192. 

4.  Temple  at  Dorci,  192. 

5.  Temple  on  Humboldt  Bay,  192. 

6.  Calabash,  193. 

7.  Car\'ed  ship-ornament,  192. 

8.  Arrow-point,  193. 

Plate  8. — Melanesians. 

1.  Vill.-ige  on  Humlx)ldt  Bay,  192,  193. 

2.  Village  on  coast  of  New  Guinea,  192. 

3.  Native  of  Dorei,  191,  194. 

4.  Village  on  the  L'tanata  River,  192,  I93. 

PI.ATE  9. — MEWNESIANS. 

1.  Native  of  Humlx)ldt  Bay,  191,  194. 

2.  Spe.ir,  from  Kedscar  Bay,  104. 

3.  Spear,  from  Kingsmill  Islands,  194. 

4.  23.  Head-re-sts,  19I. 

5.  Pan's  flute,  193. 

6.  7,  13,  14.  Shields,  194. 

8.  Spear  for  fishing,  193,  194. 

9.  Spear  from  M.alania,  194. 
10    D.agger-handle,  193,  194. 

II.  Drum,  193. 
12.  Ear-ring,  102. 

15.  D.aggcr  made  from  human  bones,  194. 

16.  Comb  from  Dorei,  191. 

17.  18.  Bows,  104. 

19,  21.  Loin-cloths,  192. 

20,  24.  Idols  of  Dorci,  194,  195. 
22.  Fltite,  103. 

25.  New  Caledonian,  191,  192,  194. 

26,  27.  House;  section  of  same,  192. 

S8» 


400 


INDEX    OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate  io. — Melanesians. 
Boat  of  New  Caledonia,  193. 
5.  Boats  of  the  Admiralty  Islanders,  193. 


Boat  of  Malanta,  193, 

Boat  of  Vanikoro,  193. 

7.  Hut  and  altar;  section  of  hut,  192. 

8.  Bracelet  of  human  bones,  199. 

9.  Group  of  the  various  islanders,  190.  ^ 

Plate  ii. — Melanesians. 

1,  4.  Arfakis,  igi,  192. 

2,  3.  Skulls  artificially  mis-shaped,  191. 

5.  Admiralty  Islander,  191,  192,  310. 

6,  7.  Negritos,  from  North  Luzon,  190. 
8,  9.  Negrito  skull,  igi. 

10.  Place  for  skulls,  195. 

Plate  12. — Melanesians. 
I,  2.  Feejeean  chiefs,  191,  192. 

3.  Feejeean  manner  of  painting  faces,  192. 

4.  King  of  the  Feejee  Islands,  191,  192. 

5,  7.   Fishhooks,  1 93. 

6.  Cap  of  the  Cannibals,  194. 

8,  9.  Combs,  from  New  Caledonia,  191. 

10.  18.  Spears,  194. 

11.  Basket,  from  the  Admiralty  Islands,  193. 

12.  Necklace,  187. 

13.  15.   Utensils  of  the  Cannibals,  194. 

14.  Hatchet,  from  New  Caledonia,  194. 

16.  Sacred  drinldng- vessels,  194. 

17.  Clubs,  194. 

19,  20.  Arr.nngements  of  the  hair,  191. 

21.  Belt  for  the  women,  192. 

22,  23.  Fans,  19S. 

24.  Cannibal  forks,  194. 

25.  "Taboo"  mark,  195. 

Plate  13. — Melanesians. 

1.  Temple,  192. 

2.  Sacred  stones,  195. 

3.  Pots,  193. 

4.  5.  Sleeping-houses,  section  and  elevation,  192. 

6.  Mastheads,  193. 

7.  Supports  for  the  ridge  of  a  roof,  192. 

8.  Section  of  a  skiff,  193. 

9.  Ship,  193. 

10.  Musical  instruments,  193. 

1 1 .  Temple  square,  1 92,  1 94. 

12.  Feejeean  idol,  195. 

Plate  14. — Polynesians. 

1.  Woman  of  Ualan,  196,  197. 

2.  Boat  from  Lukunor,  198. 

3.  Dwelling-house  on  Ualan,  197. 

4.  House  of  assembly  on  Lukunor,  197. 

5.  Native  of  Ponapi,  196,  197,  198. 

6.  .Sword,  19S. 

7.  Comb,  197. 

8.  Vessel,  from  Pelew,  ig8. 

Plate  15.— Polynesians. 

1.  Boat,  from  R.adack,  198. 

2.  Coral  island  and  l.igoon,  196. 

3.  Boat,  from  Tamatam,  198. 

4.  Plan  of  niins  on  Ponapi,  197,  201. 

5.  Ahathulle,  chief  of  the  Pelew  Islands,  196, 197. 

6.  Place  of  public  assembly  at  Pelew,  197. 

Plate  16. — Polynesians. 
I,  2.  Ruins  on  Tinian  and  Rota,  198,  201. 
3.  Rarik,  chief  of  the  Radack  Islands,  196,  197. 


4.  Drum  from  Radack,  198. 

5.  Island  of  the  Radack  chain,  197,  19S. 

6.  Cava-bowl,  197. 
7-9-  Weapons,  198. 

10.  Needle,   197. 

If.  Cloth-hammer,  197. 

12.  Chief  of  the  Tonga  Islands,  ig6. 

Plate  17. — Polynesians. 

1.  "Nocturnal  dance,"  198,  199. 

2.  Tonganese  club,  ig8. 

3.  Tonganese  costume,  igS. 

4.  Wreath,  "soul  of  the  god,"  200. 

5.  Female  idol,  200. 

6.  Head-rests,  191,  ig7. 

7.  Small  skiff,  198. 

8.  Pendent  table,  197. 

9.  Idol,  2CX3. 

10.  Plaited  bag,  ig7,  198. 

11.  Tonganese  ship,  198. 

Plate  18. — Polynesians. 

1.  Tahitian  of  rank,  197. 

2.  ^^■oman  and  child  of  Tahiti,  197. 

3.  Tahilian  flute-player,  196,  197,  198. 
4-7.  Idols  of  Tahiti,  200. 

8.  Tahitians,  196,  197. 

9.  Female  dancer,  197. 

10.  Ship  of  Tahiti,  igS. 

11.  Pomare  II.,  king  of  Tahiti,  201. 


Plate  ig. — Polynesians. 
Temple-place,  Tahiti,  200. 
Implements  for  tattooing,  ig7. 
Heva,  priest  of  the  corjises,  201. 
Burial-place  of  Tahiti,  201. 
Skiti"  from  Nine,  198. 
Inhabitant  of  Nukahiva,  197,  198. 
9.  Tattoo  marks,  197. 
Stilts  of  Nukahiva,  198,  200. 
King  Kamehameha,  201. 


Plate  20. — Polynesians  and  Micronesians. 

1.  Temple-place  of  Kamehameha,  200,  201. 

2.  Carved  doors,  ig8,  200. 
3-5.  Clubs,  19S. 

6.  .Swing,  198. 

7.  Caned  bo.\,  lg8. 

8.  Head  of  a  Kanaka,  196. 

9.  Grave  monument,  201,  224. 

10.  Ornamented  club  of  the  Maoris,  198. 

11.  Stone  images  on  Easter  Island,  200. 

12.  Stone  house  on  Easter  Island,  197. 

13.  Maori  chief,  197,  igS. 

14.  Hut  on  Easter  Isl.and,  107. 

15.  War-ship  of  the  Maoris,  19S,  200. 

16.  17.  Mincopies,  190. 


Plate  21. — Malaysians. 
Scout  of  Amfoang,  206. 
Javanese  bridal  cou|)le.  202,  204,  205. 
Javanese  woman  and  child,  202. 
Javanese  of  rank,  202. 
Skull  of  a  Javanese.  202. 

6.  Children  from  the  interior  of  Java,  202. 

7.  Woman  tying  her  husband's  kerchief,  202. 

8.  Javanese  in  war  attire,  202,  204,  206. 

9.  10.  Javanese  chieftains,  202,  204. 

11.  Musical  instruments,  204. 

12.  Javanese  in  court  attire,  202,  203,  204,  205. 


INDEX    OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


401 


Plate  22. — Malaysians.     ■ 
Main  temple  of  Suku,  203. 
5.  Instruments  for  preparing  dress  stuffs,  26-^. 
Plough,  203. 
Buffalo  yoke,  203. 
11,  19.  Combs,  203. 
Cocoa  spoon,  203. 
10.  Wai'-caps  of  the  Dyaks,  206. 
Linen  bag  of  Timor,  203. 
Masks,  205. 
Toy  doll,  205. 
Stone  head  from  Java,  204. 
16.  Inhabitants  of  Amarassie,  202. 
Herald  of  Amarassie,  206. 
Madurese,  202,  204. 
Houses  of  Timor,  203. 
Ngadyus,  202,  203,  204. 
Dance  of  the  Ot  Danan,  202,  203,  206. 

Plate  23. — Malaysians. 
Dyaks,  202,  203,  204. 
Common  people,  203. 
Nobleman,  204. 
Tampajan,  203. 
Sedan,  205. 
Dyak  village,  203. 

Plate  24. — Malaysians. 

1.  Iron  furnace  of  the  Dyaks,  204. 

2.  Regent  of  Serang,  202. 

3.  Interior  of  a  Dyak  house,  202. 

4.  Washing  of  sago,  203. 

5.  Sago  stove,  203. 

6.  Bamboo  receptacle  for  water,  203. 

7.  Sago  club,  of  Ceram,  203. 

8.  Bamboo  napkin-case,  203. 

9.  Cake-pan,  of  Celebes,  203. 
10.  Macassar  flutes,  204. 

Plate  25. — Malaysians. 
1-7.  Dwelling-house  of  a  noble  Macassar,  with 
plan  and  details  of  construction,  203. 

Plate  26. — Malaysians. 

1.  Tagalese,  202,  204,  205. 

2.  Alfure,  from  Celebes.  202,  203,  204. 


I. 

2, 
3' 
4. 
6, 
7- 
8, 
9- 
12. 

13- 
14. 

•5. 
17- 
18. 
20. 
21. 
22. 


3.  Alfurc  in  war  attire,  204. 

4.  Bier  of  the  .Macassars,  207. 

5.  6.  Spoons,  203. 
7.  Funnel,  203. 
8-12.  Vessels,  203. 

13.  Vessel  made  of  fruit,  203. 

14.  Copper  finger-bowl,  203. 

15.  Instrument  for  twisting  ropes,  203. 

16.  Paper  kite,  205. 

17.  Ship  for  passengers  and  freight,  204. 

18.  Bamboo  bridge  and  Malayan  church,  203. 

Plate  27.— Malaysians. 

1.  Plough,  203. 

2.  Roller,  203. 

3.  Knife,  204. 

4.  Harrow,  203. 
5-8.  Daggers,  204. 
9.  Shovel,  203. 

10,  II.  Violin  and  bow,  204. 

12.  Bellows  of  the  Maca.ssars,  204. 

13.  Gimlet,  204. 

14.  Cun-barrel  borer,  204. 

15.  Kruit-cup  for  fine  fniits,  203. 

16.  Knife  for  the  capture  of  enemies'  heads,  206. 

17.  Blow^jipe,  204. 

18.  Quiver,  204. 

19.  Poisoned  bolt,  204. 

20.  Bucket  (palm  leaf),  203. 

21.  Leaf  for  the  departing  soul,  207. 

22.  Scout  of  .Solor,  206. 

23.  Market  at  Dobho  (.\ru  Islands),  202,  204. 

24.  Batta  village  (Sumatra),  207. 

25.  Farmyard  of  a  chieftain  of  Sumatra,  203. 

Plate  28. — Malaysians. 
I,  2.  Inhabitants  of  Roltie,  202. 

3.  Street  in  Tamatavc,  202,  203,  206,  213. 

4.  Hova  women,  202. 

5.  S[>inning-wheel,  203. 

6.  Bandang,  204. 

7.  Gada,  204. 

8-11.  Musical  inslrumenLs,  204. 

12.  Powder-horn,  of  a  crocodile's  tooth,  204. 

13.  Hova-s,  202. 

14.  Female  slaves  carrying  water,  202,  203. 


AMERICANS. 


Plate  29. — HYrERBOREANs. 

1.  Eskimo  of  Greenland,  209,  213,  214. 

2.  Western  Eskimo,  213,  214. 

3.  Eskimo  of  Kotzebue  Sound,  209,  213,  214,  216. 

4.  Eskimo  from  Prince  Regent  Bay,  20g,  213,  216. 

5.  Winter  house,  2 1 3,  216,  218. 

6.  Summer  tent,  216,  218. 

7-  Eskimo  woman,  209,  213,  216. 

Plate  30. — Hyperboreans. 

1.  Exst  Oreenlander  in  his  kayak,  219,  220. 

2.  Boat  of  the  East  Greenlanders,  216,  219. 

3.  4.  Casting  spears,  220. 

5.  .Snow-glasses,  217. 

6.  Eskimo  sledge,  219. 

7.  Idols  from  a  grave  in  Ea.st  Greenland,  220, 225. 
8—10.    Boat  and  p.iddlc  of  the  Kodyaks,  219. 

11.  Burial,  of  the  Western  Eskimo,  224. 

12,  13.   I'ur  coats  of  the  Malaimiutcs,  21(5. 
14.  Aleutians,  209,  213,  214,  216. 

26 


Plate  31. — North  Americans. 

1.  Aleutian  dwelling,  218. 

2.  Cap,  216. 

3.  Lip  ornament,  215. 

4.  Vessel  of  the  Kolushes,  220. 

5.  Kolush  woman,  209,  215,  217. 

6.  Basket,  220. 
7-9.   I)aggers,  220. 

10.  Painted  tomb-lwx  of  the  Kolushes,  224. 
Aht  Indian,  209,  2I4,  215,  217. 
Xanana  Indian,  213.  214.  215,  217. 
Finger-covering  of  the  Ala.^kn  women,  220. 
Cor)ise-receplaclc  of  the  Inkalils,  224. 
Child's  chair,  209,  214,  217,  223. 


Plate  32. — North  Americans. 


1.  Dakota  woman,  213,  214,  217,  222. 

2.  Imlian  monument,  221,  223. 

3.  Dakota  woman  and  .Assinibuin  fcnuJc  child, 

213,214,  217. 


402 


INDEX    OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


4.  Club  of  the  Dakotas,  222. 

5.  Disk  from  an  Indian  mound,  222. 

6.  Spoon  of  the  Kolushes,  220. 

7.  Leather  bag  of  the  Dakotas,  221. 

8.  Chib  of  the  Dakotas,  222. 

9.  Flute,  221. 

10.  Rods,  memorials  of  successful  love,  223. 

11.  Double  pipe  of  the  Mandans,  221. 

12.  Pipe  of  the  Mandans,  220. 

13.  Snow-glasses,  217. 

14.  Pipe  of  the  Inkalits,  220,  223. 

15.  "Pipe  of  peace,"  217,  220,  222. 

16.  Pipe-head,  220. 

17.  Pipe-cleaner,  220. 
iS,  19.  Snow-shoes,  217. 

Plate  33. — North  Americans. 

1.  Assiniboins,  213,  214,  217,  218,  222,  223. 

2.  Minitaree  warrior,  213,  214,  217,  218,  222,  223. 

3.  Magical  monument,  225. 

4.  Bed-box  of  the  North  .\merican  Indians,  219. 

5.  6.  Mandan  chiefs,  213,  214,  215,  217,  218,  222. 

PL.A.TE  34. — North  Americans. 
"Buffalo  dance,"  215,  217-219,  221-224. 

Pl-vte  35. — North  Americans. 
Hut  of  a  Mandan  chief,  214,  217,  21S,  219,  220. 

Plate  36. — North  Americans. 

1.  Village  and  skiffs  of  the  Mandans,  218,  219. 

2.  Scalp  of  a  man;  memorial  feathers,  217,  222. 

3.  Navajo  Indian,  213,  214,  217. 

4.  Tribal  sign  of  the  Mandans,  223. 

5.  7.  Paintings,  220,  221,  222,  225. 

6.  Portable  cradle,  221,  223. 

8.  Plan  of  North  American  hut,  2 1 8,  219. 

9.  Wampum-belt  and  beads,  217. 

Plate  37. — North  Americans. 

1.  Chieftain's  summer  tent,  219. 

2.  Scaflblding  for  corpses,  224. 

3.  Indian  pot,  220. 

4.  Spoon,  220. 

5.  Cherokae  village,  218. 

6.  Skiff  models,  219. 

7.  Indian  grave,  224. 

8.  Section  of  an  old  grave,  216,  224. 

g.  Hieroglyphics:  Meda  League,  221,  226. 

Plate  38. — North  Americans. 

1.  Arrow,  222. 

2.  Fish-spear,  219. 

3.  Stone  axe,  221. 

4.  Ball,  222. 

5.  Idol  from  an  Indian  grave,  221,  225. 

6.  Painted  buffalo-skin,  217,  221. 

7.  9,  10,  12.  Pipe-heads,  220,  221. 

8.  Painting:  stone  giants,  221,  225,  230. 
II.  Painting:  a  petition,  221,  223. 

Plate  39. — North  Americans. 

1.  7.  Ancient  earthworks,  215,  216,  225. 

2.  Ancient  double  enclosure,  216. 

3.  Parallel  mounds,  216. 

4.  Specimens  of  pottery-,  216. 

5.  Ancient  grave-mound,  216,  224. 

6.  Ancient  mound  and  "corn-hills,"  215,  2l5,  225. 

8.  Ancient  mound,  215,  216,  225. 

9.  Profile  of  the  "garden-beds,"  216. 
ID.  Ancient  hill,  215,  216,  225. 


Plate  40. — North  Americans. 

1,  3.  California  Indians,  209,  214,  215,  216. 

2.  Necklace,  217. 

4.  Bow,  222. 

5.  Arrows,  222. 

6.  Eating-basket,  220. 

7.  Dancers,  215,  217,  222. 

8.  9.  Mexican  paintings :   warriors,  226. 

10.  Ghost-house  of  Vanikora,  224,  225. 

Plate  41. — Me.xicans. 

1.  Mexicans  of  Michoacan,  213,  214,  227. 

2.  Room  at  Chichen  Itza,  227. 

3.  Interior  of  chamber  at  Uxmal,  215,  227. 

4.  5.  Fortified  hill  and  plan,  Xochicalco,  227. 

6.  Interior  of  Mexican  hut,  220,  227. 

7.  Present  habitation  of  the  native  Mexicans,  227. 

8.  Inhabitant  of  Zapatera,  226. 

9.  10.  Women  of  Huateca,  226. 

11.  Montezuma  II.  in  court  attire,  226. 

12.  Mexican  idol,  22S. 

Plate  42. — Mexicans  and  South  Americans. 

1.  Mexican  place  of  offering,  227,  228. 

2.  Mexican  hierogl\-phics,  229. 

3.  Mojaves,  213.  214,  217,  223. 

4.  Temple-sculpture,  213,  214,  226,  227,  22$. 

5.  Moquis,  214,  217. 

6.  Pimo  women,  213,  214,  217. 

7.  8.  Idols,  230. 

9.  Areneo  Indian,  213,  217. 

Plate  43. — South  Americans. 

1.  House  of  the  Moquis,  217,  219,  220,  227. 

2.  Houses  of  the  Goajira  Indians,  219. 

3.  Rock-paintings,  228. 

4.  Religious  stone  monument,  228. 

5.  Sections  of  a  pillar  at  Tula,  227. 

6.  7.  Stone  images,  228. 

8.  Granite  vase,  228. 

9.  Cross-section  of  a  stone  bridge,  227. 

10.  Gigantic  head  at  Isamal,  227. 

11.  PjTamid  of  Papantla,  227. 

Plate  44. — South  Americans. 

1.  Wapisiano  Indian,  209,  217,  220. 

2.  "  girl,  209,  213,  220. 

3.  "  woman,  209,  217,  220. 

4.  "  hut,  219,  220,  222. 

5.  "  chieftain,  214,  215,  217. 

6.  Warrau  woman,  209,  213,  217,  220. 

7.  Maxuruna,  214,  215,  217. 

8.  Village  of  the  Caribs,  219. 

9.  Macusi,  209,  213,  215,  217,  222. 

10.  Paravilhano,  209,  213,  215,  217,  222. 

11.  Warrau,  209,  213,  217,  222. 

Plate  45. — South  Americans. 
I.  Macusi,  217,  219,  220. 
2-4.  Skull  of  a  Coroado  Indian,  212. 

5.  Village  of  the  Macusis,  219. 

6.  Hut  of  the  Patachos,  219. 

7.  Rock-sculptures,  221,  225. 

8.  Procession,  209  213,  217,  220,  222,  223,  225. 

Plate  46. — South  Americans. 

1.  Miranha  girl,  209,  214. 

2.  Coretu,  209,  213. 

3.  Mauhe,  209,  213,  214,  215,  217. 

4.  Boat-building,  213,  217,  219,  221. 

5.  Predatory  Puelches,  222,  223. 


INDEX    OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


403 


ri.ATE  47. — South  Americans. 

1.  _T»ri,  209,  214. 

2.  Mura  Indian,  2og,  213,  214. 

3.  Mundrucu,  209,  213,  214,  215. 

4.  War-dance  of  the  Juris,  213,  217,  222. 

5.  Mundrucu  warrior,  214,  215,  222. 

6.  Botocudos,  209,  214,  215,  220,  223. 

7.  Ear-pluy,  214,  220. 

8.  Lip-plug,  214. 

9.  Speaking-trumpet,  220,  221. 

10.  Artificial  eyes,  232. 

11.  Loin-covering,  217. 

12.  Forehead  ornament,  214,  217. 

Plate  48. — South  Americans. 
1-3.  Botocudos,  209,  214. 

4.  Family,  209,  213,  214,  217,  219,  220,  222,  223. 

5.  Knife  of  the  Botocudos,  221. 

6.  Puri  woman,  213,  214,  215. 

7.  Hammock  of  the  Puris,  219. 

8.  Botocudo  bodogue,  222. 

9.  IMris  in  their  hut,  209,  219,  220. 
10.  Cafusa  woman,  215. 

Plate  49. — South  Americans. 

1.  Dance  of  the  Puns,  213,  214,  222,  223. 

2.  Dancing-feast,  217,  219,  221,  222,  223. 

3.  Musical  instrument,  221. 

4.  Camacuna  woman,  209,  213. 

5.  Gurajos  family,  215,  223,  232. 

Plate  50. — South  Americans. 

1.  Toba  Indian,  213,  214,  230,  232. 

2.  Patagonians,  209,  213,  214,  215,  217,  222. 

3.  Quichuas,  229. 

4.  Quichua  habitation,  231. 


5-8.  Mummies,  232. 
9.  Aymaras,  214,  229. 

Plate  51. — .South  Americans. 

1.  Dance  of  the  .-Vymaras,  229,  231. 

2.  Payagiias,  213,  214. 

3.  Grave  of  an  .Xymara  chief,  232. 

4.  Moxos  Indians,  209,  213,  214,  229. 

5.  Kelij^ous  dance,  229,  231. 

Plate  52.— Soiith  Amkricans. 

1.  Costume  of  the  Inca,  229,  230. 

2.  Temple  ruins,  230,  231. 

3.  Remains  of  an  Inca's  i)alace,  231. 

4.  Idol  of  gold,  230. 
S-  Ancient  vessel,  230. 

6.  7.  Vases,  231. 

8.  Ancient  ]ilacc  of  sacrifice,  230. 

9,  10.   Peruvian  skull,  213. 
II,  12.  Clubs,  231. 

13.  Sceptre-point,  231. 

Plate  53. — South  Americans. 

1,  3,  7,  8,  ID.  Vessels,  230,  231. 

2.  Idol  of  silver,  230,  231. 

4.  War-club,  231. 

5,  6.  Copi)er  axe-loop;  implement,  231. 
9.  .Stone  sculptures,  231. 

11.  Pan's  flute,  231. 

12.  Quipus,  231. 

13.  Skull  of  an  Alure,  212. 

14.  Place  of  sacrifice,  230. 

15.  Old  Penivian  vase,  214,  231. 

16.  Head  of  colossal  statue,  230. 

17.  Penivian  balsa,  219. 

18.  Cholo  of  Are<|ui|ia,  214,  215,  229. 

19.  Fortilication,  231. 


MONGOLI.\NS. 


Plate  54. — Indo-Chinese. 

1.  9.  Burmese,  23S,  250. 

2.  Palace  of  Amarapoora,  25 1. 

3.  Warriors;  dragon  temple,  250,  25 1,  252,  253. 

4.  Head  of  a  Buniicsc  woman,  250. 

5.  Mandarins  and  their  wives,  237,  250,  252. 

6.  7.  Anamites,  23S,  239.  249,  250. 

8.  Saddle  of  a  war-elephant,  252. 

Plate  55. — Indo-Chinese. 

1.  Cochin-Chinese,  254. 

2.  Siamese  actresses,  250. 

3.  Thai-jai,  239,  249. 

4.  Man-tsc,  238,  249. 

5.  Feast  of  the  "new  moon,"  250,  25 1,  253. 

Plate  56. — Indo-Chinf.se. 

1.  4,  6.  Laos,  238,  249,  250. 

2.  Laos  mandarin,  237,  249,  250. 

3.  Mountain  inhabitant,  238,  249,  250. 

5.  Lemcnt,  237,  238,  249,  250. 

7.  Laos  habitation,  251,  252. 

Plate  57. — Indo-Chinese. 

1.  Emperor  Keen-Lung,  254. 

2.  5,  8,  10.  Chinese,  237,  238,  239,  254. 

3.  Chinese  empress,  238. 

4.  Chinese  actor,  237,  255. 

6.  Chinese  night-w.itchmen,  237,  254,  256. 

7.  Mandarin  in  court  custume,  254. 

9.  Chinese  bridge  of  assault,  256. 


Plate  58. — Indo-Chinese. 

1,  3.  Southern  Chinese,  237,  249,  250,  252,  257, 

258. 

2.  Chinese  burial-place,  257. 
4,  5.  Chinese  helmets,  256. 

6-1 1,  13,  14.  Ancient  Chinese  wcapon.s,  256. 
12.  Ancient  vase,  256. 

Pi-ate  59. — Indo-Chinese. 

1.  House  of  Chinese  merchant,  255. 

2.  Reception-room  of  a  Hcalihy  Chinese,  255. 

3.  Sleeping  a]\irtment,  255,  259,  270. 

Plate  60. — Indo-Chinese. 

1.  Fntrance-gatc  to  the  jxigoda,  251. 

2.  Chinese  funeral,  254,  257. 

3.  Chinese  costumes  and  |h;oi>Ic,  237,  249,  250. 

4.  Chieftain  from  LiuKiu  IsUands,  254,  2U2. 

5.  CaLipull,  256,  266. 

6.  Priest  and  nobleman,  254. 

Plate  61. — Indo-Chinese. 

1.  Ancient  Chinese  warrior,  254,  256. 

2.  Lamas  of  Ijidakh,  237,  238,  239,  258. 

3.  1  Jim.is  and  monks,  258. 

4.  I.eix-lia  cirl  and  women,  257,  258. 

5.  Itholi  skull,  237,  23S. 

6.  Men  of  I'in,  237,  238.  230.  258. 

7.  Mountaineer  of  Farther  Imlia,  2.(0,  250. 

8.  Women  of  Kanaw.tr,  237,  23S,  239,  258. 


404 


INDEX    OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate  62. — Ural- Japanese. 
1-4.  Jairaiiese,  237,  238,  239,  261,  263. 

5.  Woman  in  full  dress,  236,  239,  2C1,  263. 

6.  Japanese  in  court  attire,  263,  264,  266. 

7.  Ja|>anese  in  festive  dress,  266. 

8.  The  mikado,  263,  264,  266. 

9.  The  Idsaki,  263,  264,  266. 

Plate  63. — ^Ural-Japanese. 

1.  Japanese  man,  238,  239,  261,  263. 

2.  "pilgrim,  236,  263,  267. 

3.  Young  woman,  23S,  239,  261,  263. 

4.  Woman  of   the  middle  class,  236,  237,  239, 

261,  263. 

5.  Japs'iese  temple,  264,  267. 

6.  Man  of  the  middle  class,  236,  237,  239,  261, 

263. 

7.  8.  Peasants,  237,  263,  264,  265. 
9.  Japanese  coolie,  263. 

\o.  Japanese  priest,  263,  268. 

Plate  64. — Ural- Japanese. 

1.  House  of  a  Japanese,  264. 

2,  3.  Cases  for  spe.Tr-points,  266. 
4,  5,  6.  Spear-points,  266. 

7.  House  of  a  Japanese  nobleman,  264. 

8.  Japanese  fire-arrow,  266. 

0.  Falcon-hunt,  238,  261,  263,  264,  265,  266. 
10,  II,  17.  **  Magatamas,"  266. 

12.  W"hislling  arrow,  266. 

13,  14,  15,  19,  21.  Stone  weapons,  266. 
16,  20,  22.   Earthen  vessels,  266. 

18.   Bear-skin  boot,  266. 
23.  Old  Japanese  armor,  266. 

Plate  65. — Ural-Japanese. 

1.  Japanese  family,  263,  264,  265. 

2.  Temple  "Five  Hundred  Genii,"  264,  26S. 

3.  Magatama  chain,  266. 

4.  5.  Boats,  262. 

6.  Guitar,  262. 

7.  Ornamented  box,  262. 

Plate  66. — Ural-Japanese. 

1.  Ainos  and  their  habitation,  237,  238,  262. 

2.  "Omsia  feast,"  237,  23S,  262. 

3.  Grave  of  an  Ainos  chieftain,  263,  267. 

4.  Gilyak  in  full  costume,  262. 

5.  Corean  sage,  23S,  239,  261. 

6.  Nobleman  of  Corea,  237,  261. 

7.  Merchant  of  Corea,  261. 

Plate  67. — Ur^l-Japanese. 

1,  4.  Coreans,  238,  239,  261. 

2,  3.  Corean  guardian  deities,  262. 

5.  Corean  coaster,  262. 

6.  Saghalin  Islanders,  237,  239,  259,  269. 

Plate  68. — Ural-Altaics. 
1-5.  TungHses,  237,  238,  239,  259,  269,  276. 

6,  9.  Hood  and  fur  coat,  260,  269. 

7,  8.  Collar  and  breast-ornament,  260. 

Plate  69. — Ural-Altaics. 
I,  2,  4.  Buriats,  237,  23S,  239,  269. 

3,  Lama,  269. 

5,  6.  Siberian  belt  and  fur  coat,  269. 

7.  Calmuck  tent  (interior),  269,  270. 

8.  Calmuck  tent  (exterior),  270. 

9.  Grave  monuments,  274. 


10.  Calmuck  skull,  237. 

11.  Calmuck  priest,  237,  269,  274. 

Plate  70. — Ural-Altaics. 

1.  Calmucks,  237,  238,  239,  268,  269,  271,  273. 

2,  3.  Vakoots,  237,  238,  269. 

4.  5,  11-13.  Whale-teeth  carvings,  276. 

6.  Covered  sledge,  270. 

7.  14.   Pantaloons,  269. 

8.  Tinder-sticks,  276. 

9.  Flood  of  the  Yakoots,  269. 
10.  Tobacco-box,  276. 

Plate  71. — Ural-Altaics. 

1.  Village  of  the  Yakoots,  269. 

2.  Sultan  and  family,  237,  238,  268,  269,  270,  273. 

3.  Kirgheez  and  brides,  237,  23S,  268,  269,  271. 

Plate  72. — Ural-Altaics. 
I,  2.  Turks  (Tartars).  239,  26S. 
3,  4.  Profile  and  full  face  of  Turkish  woman,  26S. 

5.  Turcoman,  240,  260,  26S,  269,  273,  27S. 

6.  .Servian  story-teller,  394. 

7.  Tchuvash  women,  237,  26S. 

8.  Nogais  women  and  settlement,  240,  260,  2CS, 

269,  270. 

Plate  73. — Ural-Altaics. 

1.  Son  of  the  khan,  237,  238,  26S,  269. 

2.  Noble  court-official,  237,  238,  268. 

3.  Mountain  Tartars,  240,  260,  26S,  270,  271,  274. 

4.  Votyak  woman,  237,  268. 

5.  Noble  Tartars,  237,  260,  268,  271. 

6.  9.   Kurds,  3S4. 

7.  Plough,  271. 

8.  Calmuck  sacrificial  monument,  273. 

Plate  74. — Ural-Altaics. 

1.  \Vomen  of  Kazan,  240,  260,  268. 

2.  Koumiss  vessels,  271. 

3.  4.  Mordwins,  237,  268. 
5.  Mill  of  Bashkirs,  271. 
6-9.  Samoieds,  23S,  239,  269. 

Plate  75. — Isolated  North  Asutics. 

1,  3.  Lapps,  with  their  dwelling,  269,  270. 

2,  4.  Finns,  237,  239,  269. 

5.  Tchuktchis,  209,  237,  238,  275,  276. 

6,  7.  Ostyaks,  238,  239,  269. 

8.  Ostyak  dance,  237,  238,  239,  269,  271. 

Plate  76. — Isolated  North  Asiatics. 
I,  2.  Nomadic  Koryaks,  237,  238,  275. 

3,  Dwelling  of  the  Koryaks,  237,  270,  275,  276. 

4,  5.  S|,ear  and  case,  276. 
6,  7.   Baskets,  276. 

8.  Tobacco-bag,  271,  276. 

Plate  77. — Isolated  North  Asiatics. 

1.  Village  of  the  Koryaks,  275,  276. 

2.  Fur  glove,  269. 

3.  4.  Belt  decorations  of  the  Koryaks,  275. 

5,  Knife  of  the  Kor}'ak  women,  276. 

6,  Sedentary  Koryaks,  237,  23S,  275,  276. 

7,  8.  Pipes  of  the  Kor)'aks,  276. 

Plate  78. — Isolated  North  -Asiatics. 

1.  Village  of  the  Koryaks,  237,  275,  276. 

2,  3.  Knife  and  scabbard,  276. 

4.  Nom.adic  Korj-aks,  237,  238,  275. 

5.  Kamchatkan,  209,  237,  23S,  275. 

6.  7.  Steering-pole  and  sledge,  276. 


INDEX    OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


405 


Plate  79. — Isolated  North  Asiatics. 

1,  4,  5.   Kamcliatkans,  209,  237,  23S,  276. 

2,  3.  Summer  and  winter  liuts,  276. 

Plate  80. — Isolated  North  Asiatics. 
I,  7-9.  Swanes,  240,  27S. 


2,  3.  Circassian.';,  240,  278,  279. 

4.  Snow-shoe,  278. 

5.  Lar  ring  of  the  Swanes,  278. 

6.  Royal  tonitis  of  the  Tcherkcsscs,  279. 

10,  II.  'I'cherkesses  and  habilalions,  27S,  279. 
12.  Mingreliau  woman,  278. 


DRAVIDIANS. 


Plate  81. — Vindhyas  and  Deccankes. 

1.  Tamil,  283,  285. 

2.  Native  of  Cranganore,  2S3. 

3.  Native  of  Nelpli,  2S3. 

4.  Singhalese  of  Ceylon,  283,  285. 

5.  6.  Sliip  and  skiff  of  Ceylon,  285,  286. 


7.  .Sacred  tooth  of  the  Kandians,  287. 

8,  9.  Todas,  283,  285. 

10.  Kolh  woman,  283,  285. 

11.  Cromlech  of  India,  288. 

12.  Kong  woman,  249,  250. 


AR.\BIC-AFRICANS. 


Plate  82. — Koi-Koin. 
1-3,  7.  Hottentots,  294,  295,  296,  309. 

4.  Bushwoman,  295,  296. 

5.  6.  Bushmen,  295,  296,  310. 
S-II.  Hottentot  skull,  295,  309. 

Plate  83. — Bantu  Peoples. 

1.  Musicians  and  women,  306,  312,  316,  338. 

2.  Betchuana  village,  311,  312,  315,  318. 

3.  Betchuana  skull,  309. 

4.  5,  Mulattoes,  30S,  309,  349. 

6.  Slave  transportation,  307,  310,  312,  319. 

7.  Young  Negro,  340. 

Plate  84. — Bantu  Peoples. 

1,  3,4.  Basutos,  296,  306,  307,  308,  309,  310,311. 

2.  Interior  of   Basuto   dwelling,   306,  311,   313, 

315-  35S. 

5.  Chieftain,  296, 306, 308, 309, 310, 311,313, 31S. 

6.  Warrior,  296,  306,  308,  310,  311,  313,  314. 

7.  Basutos  farming,  306,  307,  310,  311,  314. 

8.  Needles  and  needle-boxes,  313. 
9-1 1.  Pipes  and  tobacco-bag,  312,  315. 

12,  13.  Lebekos  (spades),  315. 
14.  Spoon,  312,  315. 

Plate  85. — Bantu  Peoples. 
1-3.  Koranas,  295,  309. 
4,  5.  Caffir  skull,  309,  314. 
6,  7.  Zulus,  306,  310,  311,  314,  318. 

8.  Zulu  grave,  319. 

9.  War-dance,  306,  307,  308,  310,  31 1,  313,  314, 

316,318. 

Plate  86. — Bantu  Peoples. 

1.  Baskets  and  vessels,  312. 

2.  Interior  of  dwelling,  31 1,  312,  313,  358. 

3.  Grain-mortar,  312. 

4.  Calabash,  312,  316. 

5.  Fish-basket,  312,  314. 

6.  15.  Hoes,  313. 

7.  If.   Musical  instruments,  316. 

8.  Bellows,  313. 

9.  Bow,  314. 

10.  Hand-net,  314. 

12.  Slave-yoke,  319. 

13.  Hippopotami  spear,  314. 

14.  Knife  and  case,  313. 

16.  Assagais,  313. 

17.  Makua  wom.an  and  child,  309,  311,  355. 
18-20.  Mozambique  Negroes,  306,  308,  309,  349. 


Plate  87. — Bantu  Peoples. 
I.  Hair  arrangements,  306,  308,  309,  310. 
2-4.  Suahelis,  306,  307,  308,  310,  311. 

5.  .Suaheli  village,  306,  311,  312. 

6.  Arabian  soldier,  310. 

Plate  88. — Bantu  Peoples. 

1.  Arabian  of  Zanzibar,  310. 

2.  'Ishaga  girl,  306,  308,  309. 

3,  6,  7.  Daggers,  313. 

4,  5.  Bow,  and  arrow-case,  314. 
8,  9.  Shijjs,  316. 

10.  Kibani,  313. 

11.  Wooden  pot,  312. 

12.  .Su.ahcli  spear,  313. 

13.  Wooden  lx>wl,  312. 

14.  Chair,  313. 

15.  Crain-crushing  implement,  312. 

16.  Hoe,  314. 

17.  Cirafle  tail,  a  w.ar-decoralion,  318. 

18.  Wooden  jxit  with  lid,  312. 

19.  Smiths  and  Negroes,  in,  335,  337,  342. 

Plate  89. — Bantu  Peoples. 

1.  Tattooed  woman,  307,  30S,  309,  310. 

2.  Woman  with  lip-plug,  307,  30.;,  310,  332. 

3.  tluiola,  307,  349. 

4.  Arrow,  313,  314- 

5.  Mina  Negress,  307,  300,  310,  349. 

6.  Monjola,  307,  309.  310,  349. 

7.  Ch.air  of  West  Africa.  334. 

8.  Kamba  women,  306,  307,  309. 

9.  Mukamanga  and  M'Nynssa,  306,  307,  30S,  309. 
10-12.  Negro  skull.  309,  320.  330,  332. 

13.  Woman  and  chiki,  306,  307,  30S,  309,  310. 

Pi.-\te  90.— Bantu  Feopi-ES. 
!-•?.  Congo  Ncerocs,  307,  309,  310,  349. 
4,  5.  Bengiiela  Negroes.  307,  308,  300,  349. 

6.  Weaving  of  the  Mncgash,  315,  350. 

7.  Village  of  Fernando  I'o,  312,  335.  35S. 

8.  Cabinda  Nc^-ni,  307,  308.  309.  310,  349. 

9.  Dwelling  of  the  chicflain,  334. 

10.  Corn-gran.iry,  312,  335. 

11.  .Sleeping  tent,  334. 

Plate  91.— PForLFS  of  Soudan. 

1.  Negni  of  the  Cold  Coast,  330,  33 1. 

2.  Idol  of  the  IIkxs,  347. 

3.  Sarakulc.  333.  343- 

4.  Uainbarra  warrior,  m,  342,  343. 


4o6 


INDEX    OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


5.  Bambarra  dancer,  333,  33S,  343. 

6.  Peul  Negress,  325,  332,  333. 

7.  Peul  warrior,  325,  332,  333,  342,  343. 

8.  Spear-rider,  336,  340,  342,  343. 

9.  Bagirmi  Negro,  330,  331. 

10.  Fulah  girl,  325,  332,  333. 

11.  Fulah  woman  and  child,  325,  332,  333. 

Plate  92. — Peoples  of  Soudan. 

1.  Sheik  of  Bornu,  333,  340. 

2.  Body  guard,  333,  336,  340,  342,  343. 

3.  Fellatah  and  Bornu  Negroes,  325,  ^,11- 

4.  Batlle-scythe,  343. 

5.  Coat  of  mail,  343. 

6.  Bow,  342. 

7.  Battle-a.\e,  343. 
S,  9.  Swords,  314. 

10.  Amulet,  310. 

11.  Fan,  311. 

12.  13,  15-17.  Musical  instruments,  33S. 
14.  Chin-ornament,  332. 

iS.  Earthen  vessels  of  the  Negroes,  334,  336. 

19.  Inhabitant  of  Merka,  355,  357. 

20.  Negro  village,  324,  333,  334,  335,  35S. 

Plate  93. — Peoples  of  Soudan. 

1.  Young  Yolof,  ■^T,'!,. 

2.  Yolof  warrior,  331,  333,  343. 

3.  Negro  of  Darfur,  329,  330,  333. 

4.  Wandala  Negroes,  333,  33S. 

5.  Mungu  warriors,  333,  342,  343. 

6.  Negroes  and  skiffs,  332,  m,  334,  336, 337,  342. 

7.  Hatchet,  337. 

8.  Cooper's  tool,  337. 

9.  Earthen  oil-jar,  337. 

10.  Stool,  337. 

11.  Bench,  337. 

12.  Basket,  337. 

13.  Large  hut,  337. 

Plate  94. — Peoples  of  Soudan. 

1.  Nocturnal  war-dance,  333,  338,  343. 

2.  Dinka  dwelling,  337. 

3.  Clay  pipe-head,  337. 

4.  Ba/i  Negroes,  330,  331,  332,  333,  342. 

5.  Drum  of  the  Dinkas,  337. 

6.  Dance,  330,  332,  333,  334,  33S,  345. 

7.  Dinka  water-pitcher,  337. 

Plate  95. — Peoples  of  Soudan. 

1.  Woman  of  the  Niam-Niam,  331. 

2.  10.  Daggers,  337. 

3.  Wooden  tureen,  337. 

4.  15.  Stringed  instruments,  337. 

5.  Earthen  beer-pitcher,  337. 

6.  Box,  337. 

7.  Earthen  flask,  337. 

8.  13.   Baskets,  337. 

9.  Shield,  337. 

II,  12.  Swords,  337,  343. 

14.  Tobacco-pipe,  337. 

Plate  96. — Peoples  of  Soudan. 

1.  "Buffalo  dance,"  313,  355,  361,  362,  366. 

2.  Nuer  Negroes,  330,  331,  332,  333,  336,  342. 

3.  Lance-points,  337. 

4-6.  Furnace  of  the  Djurs,  337. 

Plate  97. — Peoples  of  Soudan. 

1.  Granary,  337. 

2.  Bellows,  337. 


3.  Cari'ed  grave-figure,  337. 

4.  Akka,  331,  337,  342. 

5.  Nuer  Negroes,  330,  332,  zil,  336,  342. 

6.  Shovel,  337. 

7.  Ivory  bracelet,  337. 

8.  Bark  of  the  Upper  Nile,  360. 


Plate 


-African-Semites. 


Gurage  women,  357. 

Anihara  women,  354,  357. 

Inhabitant  of  Tigr^,  354,  357. 

Costumes  of  the  Shoa,  354,  357,  358,  359. 


Bishari  warr 


354.  357.  361.  362 


6.  Dwelling  of  the  Shoa,  324,  357,  358,  359,  360, 
361,  362. 

Pl.\te  99. — African-Semites. 

1.  Easter  banquet,  357,  358,  359,  360,  361,  364. 

2.  Chieftain  and  habitation,  324,  332,  333,  334, 

rA  342,  343.  35S- 

3.  7.  Swords,  343. 

4.  9.  Javelins,  343,  361. 

5.  Pipe  of  the  Denga,  359. 

6.  Club  of  the  Denga,  361. 
8.  Dagger,  361. 

10,  17.  Spindles,  359. 

11.  Sandal,  357. 

12.  Harpoon,  35S. 

13,  14.  Baskets,  359. 

15.  War-hat,  362. 

16.  Abyssinian  plough,  358. 

Plate  ioc— African-Semites. 

1.  Judicial  proceedings,  324,  357,  358,  360,  364, 

365. 

2.  Danakil  women,  355,  357,  359. 

3.  Guanche  mummy,  350. 

4.  Tuarick,  356,  361,  362. 

5.  Section  of  house,  324,  358. 


Plate  ioi. — African-Semites. 
1-3.  Somalis,  355,  356,  357,  361,  362. 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 

9' 


Saddle,  359. 
Plaited  pot,  359. 
Sandal,  357. 
Small  hatchet,  359. 
Plaited  basket,  359. 
.     Bag,  359. 

10.  Dagger,  361. 

11.  Quiver,  361. 

12.  Spear,  361. 

13.  Somali  village,  358. 


Plate  102. — African-Semites. 
Woman  from  Magadoxo,  355,  357. 
View  of  Magado.No,  358. 
Oil-mill,  357,  358,  359,  361. 
Shield,  362. 


I. 

2. 

3' 
4. 
5,  6,  Midsherthains,  355,  357. 

Plate  103. — African-Semites. 

1.  Nubians,  357,  359. 

2.  Yard  of  a  Berabra  habitation,  358,  359. 

3.  Egyptian  woman,  354. 

4.  Copts  and  a  Mohammedan  grave,  351,  357. 

5.  W.all-painting,  354,  357,  358,  360,  361. 
6-8.  Egyi^tian  skull,  356. 

9.  Hathor:  Egyptian  goddess,  354,  357. 

Plate  104. — Asiatic-Semites. 
1-3,  S.  .\rabs,  355,  357,  361,  362. 


INDEX    OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


407 


4-7.  Arabian  hair  arrangements,  355. 
9.  Camp  of  lieni-Sakliar,  358. 

10.  Arabian  slicilc,  357,  361. 

11.  Arabic  chiefs.  355,  359. 

12.  Akil  Aga,  Arabian  chief,  355,  357,  361. 

Plate  105. — Asiatic-Semites. 

1.  Takhtrawan  (sedan),  359. 

2.  Fundshe  Arab,  354. 

3.  Arabian  pilgrims,  357,  366. 

4.  Huts,  357,  358. 

5.  Woman  of  Sockna,  354,  356. 


6.  Moors,  343,  350,  356. 

7.  Torat  Bedouins.  357,  362. 

8.  Inhabitants  of  Tripoli,  354,  359. 

Plate  106. — Asiatic-Semites. 

1.  Palace  hall,  357,  358,  360,  361,  362.  366. 

2.  Painting,  357,  35S,  360,  361,  362,  36^ 

3.  Relief  from  N'imrud,  360. 

4.  Representations  from  an  obelisk,  360. 

5.  Old  Jewi.sh  grave,  358,  368. 

6.  Cromlech  of  SjTia,  368. 


INDO-EUROPEANS. 


Plate  107. — Indians. 

1.  Brahman,  378. 

2.  Siva  worshipper,  37S,  381. 

3.  Mohammedan  of  India,  37S. 

4.  Wealthy  Indian  of  Coromandel,  378, 

5.  Bayadere,  378. 

6.  Pariah,  378,  3S2. 

7.  Old  noble  Indian  woman,  378. 

8.  Rajah,  37S,  379,  382. 

9.  Wife  of  the  rajah,  378,  379. 

Plate  108. — Indians. 

1.  Sacred  rites  of  the  Brahmans,  378,  381. 

2.  Crematory,  3S2. 

3.  Brahman  house,  378. 

4.  (Irave  monument  of  a  Rajpoot,  37S,  382. 

5.  Indian  school,  378. 

6.  Soldier  of  Beloochistan,  383,  385. 


7.  Gjpsy  woman  of  Wallachia,  377. 

Plate  109. — Iranians. 
1-5.  Persians,  385. 

6.  King  of  Persia,  385. 

7.  Market  of  Ispahan,  3S5. 

Plate  iio. — Iranians. 
I,  2.  Tajik  (profile  and  full-face  view),  383. 

3.  Persian  cannoneer,  385. 

4.  Persian  banner,  388. 

5.  Persian  funeral  ceremonies,  385,  387. 

Plate  hi. — Iranians. 

1.  Armenian  "Feast  of  the  Dead,"  387. 

2.  .Armenian  house,  385,  388. 

3.  Working  cotton  in  Armenia,  387. 

4.  Scotch  clay  buildings,  3S8,  392. 

5.  6.  Armenian  graves,  387. 


INDEX. 


Abades,  351. 

Alichas,  277. 

Abipones,  76,  210 

Abors,  248. 

Abyssiiiians,  35 1. 

Achdam,  352. 

Adainawa,  327. 

Adiges,  277. 

Aerial  navigation,  109. 

Aetas,  190. 

Afghans,  383. 

Agows,  351. 

Agriculture,  63,  203,  216,  220,  255,  258,  271,  285, 

29S,  314.  335.  35S.  376. 

implements,  203,  314,  335,  358. 

in  ethnology,  63-65. 

influence  of,  65. 

stage  of  progress,  176. 
Ahaggar,  364. 
Ahonis,  24S. 
Aiamat,  327. 

Aimak,  260.  " 

Ainos,  259. 

Akas,  248.  ^ 

Akkas,  329. 

Akras,  327.  , 

Akusclians,  277. 
Alan,  327. 

Alans,  260.  , 

Albanians,  391. 
Albinism,  43, 

Alemanni,  393.  , 

Aleutians,  209. 
Alfures,  191. 
Algonkins,  210. 
Altaic  peoples,  236. 
Amakosa,  306. 
Amapondo,  306. 
Amazigs,  350. 
Americans,  209-233  (riatcs  29-53). 

classification,  209,  210. 

government,  223,  229. 

language,  211. 

life  and  habits,  215-233. 

physical  characteristics,  2 1 2-2 1 5. 

religion,  224-229. 
Anamites,  248. 
Angles,  393. 
Angola,  306. 
Animals,  sacred,  225,  263,  345,  366,  382,  3S7. 

domestic,  65,  220,  251,  25S,  276,  285,  297,  315, 

335.  358. 
Animism,  144,  344,  366. 
Ankolier,  hall  of,  360,  364. 
ANTHRiii'oi.or.Y,  17. 
Anthropophagy,  63,  1S8,  194,  199,  206,  222,  274, 

3»9.  344. 


Antisans,  210. 

Apaches,  210. 

Ajjes,  anthropoid,  28. 

Apparel,  103-105,  187,  192,  197,  202,  216,  226, 
227.  229,  250,  254,  258,  262,  263,  26S,  275, 
278,  285,  296,  310,  333,  356,  357,  376,  37S. 

385- 
Arabians,  352. 
Araucanians,  210. 
.Xrawacks,  210. 
Arabic  .\iRicAN  Race,  291-370  (Plates  82-106). 

classification,  292,  306,  322,  326-328,  350-353. 

government,  300,  317,  340-342,  363. 

language,  291,  304,  323-326,  369. 

life  and  habits,  295-322,  333-349.  35^-368. 

physical  characteristics,  294,  307-309,  329-332, 
353-355- 

religion,  301,  320,  339,  344-347.  365-367- 
Arbanilcs,  392. 
Arch,  invention  of  the,  loi. 
Architecture,  101,  192,  203,  227,  231,   251,   255, 

25S,  3".  334.  35i>.  360,  378,  3S5- 
Arctic  races,  209. 
Arinzes,  274. 
Anncnians,  384. 
.■\rmies,  206,  344. 
Annor,  99,  279,  340. 
Art,  122. 

fine,  188,  204,  221,  227,  265,  276,  303,  316,  338, 
360,  361. 

Creek,  secret  of,  125. 

religious  senlinieni  on  the  development  of,  132. 
Artistic  studies,  )>rohibitions  of,  126. 
Arts,  a-sthetic,  119. 

agricultural,  64. 

cl.Tssification  of,  95. 

industrial,  203,  220,  229,  265,  337,  359,  360. 

of  pleasure,  1 1 9. 

religious,  131.         . 

technical,  95,  188,  192,  198,  221,  231,  251,  265, 

276,  316,  337.  338.  359.  360- 

utiliL-irian,  95. 
Ashantces,  327. 
Assagais,  296,  3 1 3. 
Assancs,  274. 
Assinilniins,  210. 
Assyrians,  353. 

the  old,  357. 
Alh.alasc.is,  20Q. 

.\uslralians.  75,  186-I90  (rialcs  4,  5). 
Avares,  260,  277. 
.■\vekvoms,  327. 
Ayawas,  314. 
Ayniaras,  229. 
Azdjcr,  364. 

Babylonians,  358. 

400 


4IO 


INDEX. 


Bagimiis,  327. 

Bakuti,  32S. 

Balantes,  327. 

Balsas,  use  of,  105,  219. 

Balui,  328. 

Balunda,  306. 

BambaiTas,  327. 

Bambukis,  327. 

Bantu  peoples,  305-322  (Plates  S3-90). 

Banyuns,  327. 

Bai-abiuzes,  260. 

Barabra  (Beiabra),  351. 

Baralong,  306. 

Bali  Negroes,  336. 

Barotse,  306. 

Bashkire,  261. 

Basques,  371-375. 

Bastaards,  294. 

Bastarna:,  393. 

Basundi,  32S. 

Basuto,  306. 

Batoka,  310. 

Batta,  32S. 

Bavarians,  393. 

Beasts  of  burden  and  draught,  108, 

Beautiful,  theory  of  the,  120. 

Bedshas,  351. 

Bee-hive  liouses,  388. 

Behring  people,  209. 

Bellandas,  329. 

Belooches,  383. 

Bengalese,  283. 

Bengas,  306. 

Benguela,  306. 

Berbers,  350. 

Berduranis,  383. 

Betchuanas,  306. 

Bheels,  282. 

Bhutias  (Bhots),  257. 

Biafadas,  327. 

Binibias,  327. 

Births,  255,  2S6,  299,  317,  339. 

ceremonies  at,  299,  317,  339,  37 1. 
Blackfeet  Indians,  210. 
Blood-revenge,   138,  206,  279,  287,  300,  31S,  342, 

363,  371- 
Bodogue,  222. 
Bolivia,  people  of,  210. 
Bolombo,  328. 
Bongos,  329. 
Boomerang,  61,  187. 
Botocudos,  210. 
Botoques,  214. 

Bow  and  aiTow.gS  (see  Weapons). 
Brahmanism,  2S7,  379,  380,  381. 
Brahmo-Samaj  (sect),  3S2. 
Brahuis,  282. 

Brain  of  man  and  the  lower  animals,  20. 
Braknas,  350. 
Britons,  393. 
Bronze,  the  Age  of,  171. 
Buddhism,  144,  152,  253,  256,  259,  268,  2S7,  380, 

3S1. 
Budumas,  327. 
Building,  100,  197,  297,  334,  358. 

classified,  100. 
Bulgarians,  260,  394. 
Bulloms,  327. 
Bull-roarer,  1 89. 
Bunda  nations,  306. 
Bundelzwarts,  293. 


Burgundiaas,  393. 

Burial,  1S9,  '95,  201,  207,  224,  232,  256,  258,  263, 
267,  274,  288,  300,  319,  348,  36S,  3S7. 

ceremonies,  224,  257,  319,  367,  36S,  3S7. 

chambers,  368,  387. 
Burials,  260. 
Burmese,  248. 
Burutes,  260. 
Bushmen,  2,Z,  291. 

Caeinda  Negroes,  307. 

Caffir  tribes,  306. 

Cafusos,  215. 

Cakchiquels,  2IO. 

Caledonians,  393. 

California  Indians,  2IO, 

Calniucks,  260. 

Calpules  (clans),  135. 

Camacunas,  222. 

Cambocos,  210. 

Canarese,  2S2. 

Cannibalism,  63,  1S8,  194,  199,  206,  222,  274,  319, 

344- 
Cannibal  implements,  194,  206,  222. 
Caiiopa,  230. 
Cardinal  points,  113. 
Cai-essing,  modes  of,  80. 
Caribs  (people),  210. 
Carthaginians,  54,  353. 
Cartography,  113. 
Cashmerians,  377. 
Cassava  bread,  68. 

Castes,  140,  199,  252,  266,  279,  287,  341,  379,  3S0. 
impure,  252,  266,  267,  3 1 7,  320,  367,  368. 
origin  of,  140. 
Caucasus,  the  peoples  of  the,  236,  277-2S0. 
Causality,  22. 
Cave-dwellers,  27,  37. 
Celtiberians,  392. 
Celts  (people),  389,  392. 
Celts  (stones),  27. 
Chaidags,  277. 
Chaldeans,  353. 

Chambers,  subterranean,  197,  227,  368. 
Chapanecs,  210. 
Character,   188,   193,  195,  206,  226,  232,  251,  259, 

262,  265,  272,  280,  289,  303,  322,  348,  369, 

371,  379,  386,  392. 
Charms  and  amulets,  132,  223,  302,  310,  346,  382. 
Chefsurs,  277. 
Cherokees,  210. 
Cherusci,  393. 
Chibchas,  210. 
Children,   193,  223,  252,  255,  265,  286,  299,  317, 

339.  340,  363. 
naming  of,  205,  2S6,  299,  339. 
Chinese,  254-257  (Plates  57-60). 
Chippeways,  210. 
Chippewyans,  210. 
Chiquitos,  210. 
Chichen  Itza,  ruins  of,  227. 
Choctaws,  210. 
Cholos,  215. 

Chronological  conclusions,  180. 
Circa-ssians,  277. 
Circumcision,   188,   192,  196,  202,  215,  295,  310, 

3I7>  Illy  339>  356>  l^l- 
Civihzation,  168,  195,  201,  215,  233,  235,  288,  304, 

322,  375,  379,  383,  3S6,  3SS,  396. 
definition  of,  1 68. 
influence  on,  235. 


INDEX. 


411 


Civilization,  stage  of,  179. 
Clan,  the,  135. 
Clepsydra,  the,  111. 
Climate,  25. 

effects  of,  32,  33,  350. 
in  early  ages,  25. 
"Clucking"  sounds,  83,  291. 
Cochoqua,  293. 
Coins,  Mexican,  il6. 
Color,  as  a  trait  of  race,  41-43  (see  Skin), 
sense  of,  123. 
signification  of,  250. 
symbolism  of,  124,  254. 
Comanches,  210. 
Commerce,  66,  193,  204,  229,  251,  262. 

arts  necessary  to,  66. 
Commingling  of  nations,  183. 
Confucianism,  256,  26S. 
Congo  tribes,  306. 

Consanguinity  and  affinity,  systeiTis  of,  54. 
Cooking,  art  of,  69. 
Copts,  351. 

Coracle  (boat),  the,  106. 
Coreans,  259. 

physical  characteristics,  261. 
Coroados,  210. 
"Corn-hills,"  216. 
Corroboree,  188. 
Cossacks,  260. 
Costume  (see  Apparel). 
Counting,  methods  of,  110. 
Cowries,  I16,  337. 
Craniology,  science  of,  47,  48. 
Creation,  theory  of,  321,  346,  365. 
Crees,  210. 

Cremation,  189,  207,  258,  263,  288. 
Creoles,  42. 
Cromlechs,  288. 
Cross,  the,  230. 
Crossings,  fertility  of,  23,  56. 
Cult,  animal,  320. 
Moloch,  366. 
religious,  381. 
Culture,  165,  201,  203,  235,  253,  259,  261,  303. 
Currencies,  115,  192. 

shells  as,  116. 
Czechs,  394. 

D.\ci-RouMANiANS,  395. 
Dahomans,  327. 
Daimios,  265. 
Dakotas,  210. 
Damara-s,  mountain,  292. 

"      "Dung,"  292. 
Danakil,  352. 

Dance,  iSS,  193,  19S,  199,  205,  207,  222,  223,  231, 
271,  289,  301,  303,  316,  320,  338,  343,  366, 

377- 

bear,  271. 

buffalo,  223. 

kangaroo,  1S8. 

nocturnal,  1 88,  193,  199,  205,  207,  222,  338. 
Danes,  393. 
Darfur,  327. 
Dargiuian  races,  277. 
Darr.ad.a-s  (Dards),  376. 
D.aiTuds,  352. 
Darwinian  theory,  30. 
Death,  189,  195,  2or,  224,  263,  288,  319,  367,  387. 

ceremonies  at,  224,  367. 
Deccan  tribes,  2S1. 


Decorative  designs,  no. 
Defence,  institutions  for,  140. 

walls  of,  102. 

weapons  of,  99. 
Deities,  150,  195,  200,  228,  267,  273,  301,  345,  346, 

365,  381,  386. 
Descent,  laws  of,  76. 

of  man,  30. 
Deva,  207. 

Development  (evolution)  of  mankind,  30. 
Dikelis,  306. 
Dinka,  328. 

Disease,  tolerance  of,  35. 
Disfigurations,  187,  192,  196,  202,  214,  285,  309, 

.  .332.356- 
Divination,  149. 
Divorce,  70,  299,317,  339. 
Djebali,  351. 
Djin,  207. 
Djurs,  329. 
Dogs,  tamed,  65. 
Dohrs,  329. 
Dongolawi,  351. 
Dravidian  Peoples,  2S1-289  (Plate  81). 

classification,  280. 

government,  287. 

language,  284. 

life  and  habits,  285-289. 

physical  characteristics,  282-284. 

reUgion,  2S7. 
Dress  (see  Apparel). 
Drift  and  Cave  men,  27,  38,  62,  131. 
Druses,  75. 
Duallas,  306. 
Duranis,  383. 
Dushik  Kurds,  384. 

Dwellings,  100,  187,  192,  197,  203,  218,  227,  231, 
251,  25S,  262,  264,  269,  275,  276,  279,  285, 
297.  3".  334.  358.  360.  37S,  385- 
Dyaks,  202. 
Dzungar,  260. 

EriYAHS,  306. 
Edurs,  352. 
Eg\ptians,  351. 

ancient,  357. 

mythology  of,  1 56. 

sculpture  of,  1 25. 

writing  of,  92. 
Electrum  (coin),  use  of,  117. 
Elephants,  taming  of,  54. 

white,  252. 
Elevation,  effects  of,  n. 
Elli.abs,  32S. 

Eloikobs  (W.akualis),  352. 
Emotions,  natural  expression  of,  50. 
Endearment,  tcnns  of,  80. 
Endowments,  racial  and  national,  1S2. 
Engis  skull,  38,  390. 
English,  393. 
F^schatology,  367. 
Eskimos,  209. 
Esseda  (ch.ariot),  108. 
E.stlioni,ans,  261. 
Ethiopians,  351. 
ETIIMK'.RAIIIV,  iSJ. 

definition  of,  17. 

dctemiin.alivc  clcmcnLs  in,  57. 
EriiNoi.iK.Y,  17,  57. 
Etruscans,  375. 
Eurojie,  aboriginal  [wpulation  of,  ^fi. 


412 


INDEX. 


Euskalduns,  371 

Exchange  and  commerce,  66. 

Eye,  peculiarities  of,  36. 

Falashas,  351. 

Family,  the,  133,  189,  223,  255,  265,  272,  yx>,  317, 

340,  364- 

Lubbock's  theory  of,  134. 

Morgan's  theory  of,  134. 

plan  of  the,  1 33. 
Family  life,  1S7,  199,  205,  223,  252,  255,  262,  265, 

272,  276,  286,  316,  338,  358,  362,  379. 
Fantis,  327. 
Fai-ther    India,    the   peoples    of,    247-259    (Plates 

54-61). 
Fatalism,  doctrine  of,  162. 
Feast,  18S,  194,  199,  205,  207,  222,  257,267,  377. 

of  circumcision,  i88. 

of  the  dead,  387. 

of  human  sacrifice,  194,  207. 

of  lanterns,  257. 

of  manhood,  188,  317,  320. 

of  the  "  new  moon,"  253. 

Omsia,  263. 

of  puberty,  222,  339. 

religious,  205,  230,  265,  288. 
Features,   186,   191,  196,  202,  214,  237,  238,   241, 
249,  254,  258,  261,  262,  27s,  283,  295,  309, 
.  330.  354,  355.  376,  378,  384,  385,  392,  393. 
Feejeeans,  191. 
Fellahs,  351. 
Feloops,  327. 
Festivals,   129,   188,   194,  197,   198,  205,  222,  336, 

338,  339,  346. 
Fetiches,  132,  145,  345,347. 

birds  as,  145,  345. 

doctrine  of,  145. 

serpents  as,  145. 

trees  as,  145. 
Filhams,  327. 
Filleles,  350. 
Fingos,  306. 
Finns,  26 1. 

Fuearms,  99,  222,  273,  343. 
Fire-making,  27,  69,  1S7,  25S,  276,  297,  315. 
Fishing,  193,  218,  29S,  314,  336. 

implements,  187. 

pre-historic,  and  fish-hooks,  62. 

weapons,  218,  314,  336. 
Flatheads,  213. 

Food,  58,  203,  218,  220,  251,  255,  262,  264,  270, 
276,  2S6,  29S,  315,  336,  358. 

from  natural  jiroducts,  60. 

plants,  distribution  of,  64. 

preparation  of,  68,  298. 

prohibition  of,  298,  302,  315,  320,  336,  366,  382. 

quality  and  quantity  of,  58. 

supply,  60. 
Foot  of  man,  18. 

of  Chinese  woman,  36. 
Forces,  natural,  worship  of,  146. 
Form,  186,  191,  202,  213,  236,  240,  249,  254,  258, 
261,  262,  275,  283,  294,  307,  329,  354,  355, 

371.  376.  377.  384.  385.  393.  394- 
deviation  in,  331. 
Forts,  primitive,  102. 
Franks,  393. 
French,  393. 
Frisians,  393. 
P'uegians,  210. 
Fulah,  327. 


Fundshes,  351. 

Funeral  ceremonies,  132,  195,  201,  232,  256,  279, 
300,  319,  348,  367,  387. 
objects,   132,  201,  232,  257,  274,  301,  348,  368, 

387. 
Future  life,  132,  162,  200,  224,  229,  232,  276,  288, 

346,  367.  3S2. 

Gallas,  352. 

Games,  129,  130,  188,  19S,  205. 

Olympian,  129. 

Roman,  129. 
Gaming,  passion  of,  130. 
Garden-beds,  216. 
Garos,  248. 
Gens,  135. 
Gentoos,  282. 
Geodesy,  113. 
Geographical  system,  40. 

surroundings,  182. 
Geology,  doctrines  of,  25. 
Georgians,  278. 
Gepidi,  393. 
Germans,  393. 
Ghegides,  392. 
GhiUais,  383. 
Gilyaks,  259. 
Glacial  epoch,  25,  28. 
Gluttony  as  a  vice,  128. 
Goajiros,  210. 
Gold,  use  of,  117. 

Age  of,  36. 
Golos,  329. 
Gonacjua,  293. 
Gonds,  282. 
Gorachouqua,  293. 
Gorah,  303. 
Goringhaiqua,  293. 
Goths,  393. 

Government  and  laws,  133,  137,  189,  205,  223, 
229,  252,  255,  265,  272,  279,  287,  300,  317, 
340,  363,  379. 

military,  141. 
Graves,   I90,   195,   201,  224,  257,  263,  267,  274, 

279,  300,  34S,  368. 
Grebos,  327. 
"Grecques,"  122. 
Greeks,  391. 
Grigriqua,  293. 
Griqua,  294. 

Groves,  sacred,  201,  280,  288. 
Growth,  completed,  34. 

of  states,  134. 

of  wants,  1 81. 
Grusians,  278. 
Guanches,  350. 
Guaycurus,  210. 
Guaymis,  2lo. 
Guebers,  383. 
Gurage,  357- 
Gurajos,  210. 
Guranes,  384. 
Guranis,  210. 
Gurmas,  327. 
Gurungs,  257. 

Gynocracy  in  savage  states,  77. 
Gypsies,  377. 

Hababs,  351. 
Hadendas,  351. 
Haidah  (Kolushes),  209. 


INDEX. 


413 


Haiks,  384. 

Hair,  45,   186,  191,  196,  202,  213,  237,  250,  254, 
261,  262,  283,  295,  308,  330,  ly.,  353,  354, 

355.  376-  378,  384,  392.  393- 

abundance  of,  46. 

shape  of,  44. 
Hair-dressing,   191,  213,  250,  254,  258,  263,  268, 

269,  278,  285,  296,  30S,  332,  lii,  37S. 
Hammeg  tribes,  351. 
Hands  and  feet,  19. 
Hantu,  207. 
Harafures,  191. 
I  lau-  Kuin,  292, 
Hausas,  327. 
llawaiians,  197. 
Ha/ires,  260. 
Headduinling,  206,  207. 
Hebrews,  353. 
HeiUoni,  293. 

Henotheism  in  religion,  159. 
Hereros,  306. 
Heruli,  393. 
Hessatlua,  293. 
Hessians,  393. 
Heterogenesis,  29. 
Heva,  201. 
Hieroglyphics,  193,  221,  226,  22S,  229,  23I. 

Mexican,  93. 
Hiniyarites,  353. 
Hindoos,  377. 
Homo  alalus,  39. 

anthropopithecus,  39. 

primigenius,  39. 
Horses,  introduction  of,  65. 
Hottentot  "apron,"  294. 

"bustle,"  294. 
Hottentots,  292. 
Household  fui-niture,  197,  251,  264,  270,  312,  334, 

359- 

utensils,  203,  275,  3S5. 
Hovas,  185,  202. 
Huns,  260. 
Hunting,  219,  266,  298,  314,  358. 

stage  of  progress,  1 74. 

weapons,  6i,  218,  314,  35S. 
Hurling-stick,  61,  187,  194. 
Hurons,  210. 
Hyperborean  people,  209. 

Iberians,  392. 

Ibos  (Ibus),  327. 

Icelanders,  393. 

Ideograms,  use  of,  90. 

Idols,  189,  195,  200,  225,  228,  230,  263,  273,  288, 

303.  347.  366,  377- 

primitive,  131. 
Igaras,  327. 
Illyrians,  391. 
Imertians,  278. 
Imoshags,  351. 
Inca,  229. 

Indians,  Aryan,  376. 
Indo-Chinese  race,  247-259. 
I.NDo-EiRoi'KAN  Rack, 371-397  (Tlates  107-II1). 

classitication,  371,  376,  3S3,  391. 

language,  371-375.  385.  394- 
•       life  and  habits,  371,  378-382,  385-387. 

government,  379. 

physical  characteristics,  371,  378. 

religion,  380-3S2,  386. 
Indo-Germanic  family,  375-38S,  397. 


Indo-Germanic  civilization,  375. 

migration,  375. 
Infanticide,  iSS,  193,  199,  200,  205,  252,  286,  299, 

3'7.  339.  363- 
Inheritance,  78,  79,  1S8,  195,  199,  205,  252,  258, 

272,  287,  300,  341,  363. 
Inkalit.s,  210. 
Inkosi,  318,  321. 
In(iua,  293. 

InscriiJtions,  cuneiform,  92. 
Intermarriage  of  classes,  56,  200. 
Intermixtures,  55,   191,  215,  239,  240,  261,  283, 

307.  330.  353.  373.  392.  393- 
Iranian  peoples,  383-388. 
Iron  (jieople),  384. 
Iron  Age,  172. 

smelting,  173.204.  297.  3'3- 
Irotjuois,  78,  210. 
Isubus,  306. 
Itali,  392. 
Itclimen,  276. 

Jains  (sect),  382. 
Japanese  antiquities,  266. 

peoples,  the  Ural,  259-268  (Plates  62-80}. 

physical  characteristics,  261. 

writing,  91. 
Jats,  3S0. 
Javanese,  202. 
Jews,  355. 
Joktanidcs,  353. 
Juris,  210. 

Kabardans,  277. 

K.ibyles,  350. 

Kaffai,  351. 

Kafirs,  376. 

Kamassings,  261. 

Kamchatkans,  domestic  life  of,  276. 

Kami  (gods),  267. 

Kanuris,  327. 

Ka-olsche,  260. 

Karabulaks,  277. 

Karagasses,  261. 

Kara-Kalpaks  (Black  Caps),  260. 

Karens,  24S. 

Karos.s,  296,  310. 

Kartulians,  278. 

Kassi-Kumuches,  277. 

Kassulw,  394. 

Katcharis,  248. 

K.ayak,  106,  21S. 

Kedugiis,  282. 

Kek  (Kitsch),  328. 

Kcnais,  209. 

Klialka  Mongolians,  260. 

Kh.ambas,  257. 

Khames,  248. 

Khamtis,  248. 

Kharri.TS,  282. 

Kh.asins,  248. 

Khitan,  259. 

Khmii,  249. 

Khomas,  248. 

Khomis,  2S2. 

Khyes,  24S. 

Khyens,  248. 

Khyis.  24S. 

KiamKxs,  327. 

KilKini,  31  V 

Kibitkcs  (cirts),  270. 


414 


INDEX. 


Kinship,  agnatic  system  of,  77. 

matriarchal  system,  76. 

patriarchal  system  of,  77. 
Kiralis,  257. 

Kirgheez  (Cossacks),  260. 
Kirri,  296,  313. 
Kisaki,  266. 
Kissing,  custom  of,  80. 
Kitsch  (Kek),  32S. 
Koi-Koin,  291-305  (Plate  82). 
Kohlis,  257. 
Koibals,  261. 
Kolas,  282. 
Kolhs,  282. 
Kolitas,  248. 
Kohishes,  209. 
Kong,  249. 

Konyaks  (Kodyaks),  219. 
Korana  (Kora-qua),  294. 
Koryaks,  275. 
Kotschas,  24S. 
Kottes,  274. 
Koumiss,  270. 
Kraal,  297. 
Krej,  329. 
Kris,  204. 
Kukis,  248. 
Kumuks,  260. 
Kurankos,  327. 
Kurds,  384. 
Kurgs,  2S2. 
Kurins,  277. 
Kus,  282. 

Laks,  277. 

Lamutes,  259. 

Land,  tenure  of,  136,  1 89. 

transportation,  107. 
Language,  22,49,  So,  190,  195,  207,  211,  241,  284, 
291,  304.  l-^l,  369.  371,  37S.  379.  3S5.  392. 
393.  394- 

agglutinative,  52. 

Ainos,  of  the,  245. 

Altaic,  245. 

Amharic,  351. 

articulate  speech,  84. 

Aryan,  285. 

Bengalee,  377. 

Bugis,  204. 

Bullom,  324. 

Bushmen  (dialect),  305. 

Catalonian,  395. 

Caucasian,  246. 

characteristics,  as  race,  22,  49,  53. 

"clucking  sounds"  in,  291. 

Deccan,  2S4. 

defined,  81. 

deterioration  of,  388. 

dissimilar,  rise  of,  53. 

Ehwe,  323. 

Elu,  2S5. 

Euskara,  371. 

French,  395. 

Friulian,  395. 

Galla,  326. 

gesture,  81. 

Gha,  327. 

Gujeratee,  377. 

Haikanic,  384. 

Hausa,  324,  329. 

Hindustani,  377. 


Language,  Hottentot  (dialect),  304. 

Huzvaresh,  3S5. 

inarticulate,  83. 

incorporative,  52,  212,  37I. 

inflecting,  52. 

isolating,  52. 

Italian,  394. 

Japanese,  of  the,  245. 

Kanuri,  323,  324. 

l^adinish,  395. 

Logone,  329. 

Mahrattee,  377. 

Malayan,  241. 

Mande,  323. 

Mayas,  of  the,  51. 

Maba  (dialect),  327. 

monosyllabic,  236,  242,  304. 

Odshi,  323. 

of  the  lower  animals,  81. 

Oriya,  377. 

Pali,  3S0. 

Parsi,  3S5. 

Pehlevi,  385. 

Portuguese,  395. 

polysyllabic,  190,  195,  236,  242. 

prefix-pronominal,  305. 

progress  of,  88. 

Provencal,  395. 

Pukhtu  (Pushto),  383. 

recorded,  88. 

RliKto  (Romance),  395. 

Romany,  53,  377. 

Sesuto,  306. 

.Sign,  8l. 

Sindhi,  377. 

.Spanish,  395. 

Tagala,  207,  241. 

Tibbu,  324. 

Tigre,  351. 

Timne,  323. 

Vedic,  379. 

Vei,  323. 

Vindhya,  284. 

Yolof,'323. 

Yoruba,  323. 

Zend,  385. 
Laos,  248. 
Lapps,  261. 
Latins,  392. 
Laus,  248. 
Laws,  133,  137,  190,  300,  31S,  341. 

creation  of,  137. 

of  descent,  76. 

iiiternational,  growth  of,  141. 
Laz,  278. 

Lechish  races,  394. 
Legbas,  327. 

Legends,  189,  230,  301,  366. 
Lemet,  249. 
Lenape,  210. 
Lepcha-s  (Lapka),  257. 
Lesghians,  277. 
Letto-Slavs,  394. 
Letts,  394. 
Lhokbas,  257. 
Ligurians,  371. 
Limbus,  257. 
Limmous,  352. 
Linguistic  coincidences,  50- 
Linn.-can  system,  40. 
Lissus,  249. 


INDEX. 


415 


Literature,  167,  193,  251,  255,  265,  271,  2S0,  2S9, 

338,  379- 
Lithuanians,  394. 
Livonians,  261. 
Lohanis,  383. 
Lok-Thai,  248. 
Lolos,  248. 
Love,  meaning  of,  79. 

of  money,  118. 

suicide  for,  80. 
Lubbocl';,  Sir  John,  134. 
Lures,  384. 

Mabongu,  306. 

Macassars,  202. 

Macedonians,  389. 

Macusis,  210. 

Madurese,  202. 

Magars,  257. 

Magatamas,  266. 

Magicians,  166,  189,  195,  207,  225,  253,  25S,  288, 

321,  342,  346,  347,  367. 
Magyars,  261. 
Mahra  tribes,  352. 
Makololo,  306. 
Makuas,  306. 
Malabars,  282. 
Malagassies,  202. 
Malaimiutes,  209. 
Malavalam,  282. 
Malays,  1 86. 
Malaysia,  races  of,  186. 
Malaysians,  202-208  (Plates  21-28). 
Maler,  282. 
Mamalucos,  215. 
Man,  antiquity  of,  24. 

chin  of,  19. 

dentition  of,  20. 

embryology'  of,  31. 

emotions  in,  21. 

evolution  of,  30. 

feet  of,  18. 

first  appearance  of,  26. 
habitat  of,  28. 

height  and  weight  of,  33. 

longevity  of,  35. 

lower  limbs  of,  18. 

origin,  theories  of,  29. 

physical  characteristics  of,  18. 

primitive  condition  of,  36. 

psychical  characteristics,  21. 

reasoning  in,  21. 

subspecies  of,  39. 

tail  in,  20. 

tendency  to  retrogression  of,  37. 
Manchoos,  255- 
Mandans,  210. 
Mamlaras,  327. 
Maude  people,  327. 
Mandengas,  327. 
Mandingoes,  327. 
Manganyas,  307. 
Mangues,  210. 
Maniagoes,  327. 
Man-lse,  249. 
M'Nya.ssa,  306. 
Mapilas,  281. 
Maoris,  19S. 
Marabouts,  363. 
Maravi,  306. 
Marghi,  328. 


Marriage,  71-77,  188,  193,  199,  205,  223,  255, 
258,  265,  272,  276,  279,  286,  298,  316,  338, 
362,  363,  379. 

ceremonies  of,  298,  316,  339,  379. 

effects  of  population  on,  75. 

fertility  in,  35. 

forms  of,  71,  72,  73,  18S,  193,  205,  363,  339. 

limitations  of,  73. 

restrictions,  73,  299. 
Matongo,  306. 
Matores,  261. 
Matzos,  359. 
Mauhes,  210. 
Maui  (a  god),  200. 
Maxurunas,  210. 
Mayakulia,  328. 
Mayas,  210. 
Mazigs,  350. 
Mbayas,  2IO. 
Mbe,  328. 
Measures,  109. 

of  direction,  113. 

of  force,  114. 

of  gravity,  1 14. 

linear,  112. 

metric  system  of,  1 14. 

of  space,  112. 

of  time,  no,  193,  229. 
Mecapal,  use  of,  107. 
Meda  League,  226. 
Media  of  exchange,  1 1 5-1 1 7,  337. 
Melanesians,  190-196  (Plates  7-13). 
Melanism,  43. 

Men,  great,  influence  of,  183. 
Meras,  282. 
Metal  tools,  97. 

working,  203,  313. 
Metals,  precious,  1 16. 
Mexicans,  ancient,  226. 
Micronesians,  196-208  (Plate  20). 
Midsherthains,  352. 

Migration,  196,  254,  293,  375,  388,  389,  390. 
Mikado,  264,  265. 
Minas,  282. 
Mincojiics,  190. 
Mingrclians,  278. 
Minit.arees,  210. 
Minkia,  249. 
Mir,  (he  Russian,  136. 
Miianha.s,  2 ID. 
Mirris,  248. 
Mischmis,  248. 
Miidshegcs,  277. 
Moabilc  Stone,  93. 
Modestv,  sense  of,  I03. 
Mohammedanism,   152,  206,  273,  278,  2S7,   345, 

366,  377- 
Mohawks,  221. 
Mois,  248. 
MoiThai,  248. 
Mojaves,  2IO. 
Molu.as,  306. 
Mon,  248. 
MonbullHS,  329. 
Moncv,  (laiKT,  II7- 
MoNiioiiANS.  235-2S<)  (PlMcs  S4-So). 

cl.^s^iticali..n.  235,  236.  257,  259,  274,  J77. 

government,  252,  255,  J65,  2/2,  279. 

language.  241. 

numosyllabic,  236,  242,  247. 
ixilysyilabic,  236,  243,  259. 


4i6 


INDEX. 


Mongolians,  life  and  habits.  250-256,  25S,  259, 
262-276,  278-280. 
physical  characteristics,  236,  249,  250,  254,  25S, 

259-262. 
religion,  253,  256,  263,  266,  273,  276,  279. 
Monogamy,  71. 
Monotheism,  150. 
Monuments,  201,  2l6,  225,  279,  288,  302,  348,  368, 

382. 
Moors,  350. 
Moplays,  28 1. 
Moquis,  210. 
Mordvvins,  261. 

Morgan,  Lewis  II.,  54,  62,  134,  iSo. 
Moses,  327. 

Motion,  worship  of,  147. 
Mounds,  215,  216,  224. 
Moxos,  210. 

Mozambique  Negroes,  306. 
Mpongwe,  306. 
Mran  ma,  248. 
Multiplication  table,  1 10. 
"  Mumbo  Jumbo,"  348. 
Munda  people,  281. 
Mundrucus,  210. 
Muris,  210. 
Murmis,  257. 
Musgus,  327, 
Music,  126,  198,  204,  221,  231,  262,  265,  271,  303, 

337.  33S,  1^0,  377. 
Musical  instruments,  126,  127,  193,  198,  204,  221, 
231,  262,  303,  316,  338,  360,  377. 

notation,  127. 
Muskokees,  210. 
Mussurongos,  328. 
Muyscas,  210. 

Mysteries  and  secret  orders,  164. 
Mythology,  152. 

American,  157. 

Aryan,  157. 

comparative,  159. 

Egyptian,  156. 

homonymy  in,  154. 

parallelisms  in,  160. 
Myths,  22S,  267,   287,   292,  301,   302,  338,  366, 

387. 
Greelc  and  Aztec,  160. 
growth  of,  155. 
study  of,  153. 

Nagas,  248. 
Nalas,  327. 

Nama  (Namaqua),  293. 
NamoUos,  275. 
Nasirs,  383. 

Nates  in  Hottentots,  36. 
Natkis,  259. 

Naulette,  cave  of,  30,  37,  38. 
Navajos,  210. 

Neanderthal  skull,  38,  390. 
Negritos,  190. 

Negro,  physical  characteristics  of  the,  329 
Neolithic  Age,  170. 
Netherlanders,  393. 
Newars,  257. 
New  Caledonians,  190. 
Niam-Niam,  329. 
Nictitating  membrane,  31. 
Nogais,  260. 

North  .Asiatic  peoples,  isolated,  236,  274-276. 
physical  characteristics,  275. 


Norwegians,  38,  393. 

Nuba,  351. 

Nubians,  351. 

Nuers,  328. 

Number,  conceptions  of,  109. 

Numidians,  54. 

Nupis  (NufS),  327. 

Oaths,  166,  206,  347. 

of  purification,  342,  348. 
O-bongos,  ii,  329. 
Occupations  as  racial  traits,  54. 
Oceanic  Peoples,  185-20S  (Plates  4-28). 

classification,  190. 

distribution  of,  1 85. 

divisions,  1S5,  186. 

ethnological  description,  1S6. 

government,  i8g,  205. 

language,  190,  195,  201,  207. 

life  and  habits,  187-190, 192-195, 197-201,  202- 
207. 

physical  characteristics,  1 86,  igi,  196,  202. 

relationship  of,  185. 

religion,  189,  195,  200,  206. 
Ododomni,  274. 
Odul,  274. 
Oeloet,  260. 
Offerings,  201,  224,  228,  288,  300,  319,  322,  347, 

368,  382. 
Old  Babylonians,  353. 
Old  Prussians,  394. 
Omaguas,  210. 
Onomatopoietic  words,  50. 
Ordeals,  206,  31 8,  342,  347. 
Oregon  tribes,  209. 
Organs,  rudimentary,  30. 
Orlam,  293. 

Ornaments,  187,  196,  202,  216,  217,  231,  268,  275, 
278,  285,  296,  310,  III,  37S. 

signification  of,  218,  230. 
Orotschon,  260. 
Orotskos,  259. 
Osmans,  260. 
Ossetes,  384. 
Ostyaks,  261. 

Yenesei,  274. 
Ovampu,  306. 

Paharias,  282. 
Painting  (see  Art). 

bodies,  120,  187,  215,  263,  296,  333,  343,  357, 

378- 

faces,  124,  192,  215,  296,  356,  378. 
Pa-is,  249. 

Palaces,  231,  251,  341. 
Paleolithic  Age,  27,  170. 
Pampas  Indians,  210. 
Panos,  210. 
Pantheism,  256. 
Pantuns  (poetry),  205. 
Pa-pe,  248. 
Papels,  327. 
Papuas,  190. 
Parallelisms  of  development,  24. 

in  mythology,  160. 
Paravilhanos,  210. 
Pariahs,  377. 
Paronymy,  154. 
Parsivin,  3S3. 
Patachos,  210. 
Patagonians,  212. 


INDEX. 


417 


Pawnees,  210. 

Pecunia,  65,  115,  117. 

Pei,  248. 

Pelota  (boat),  106. 

Permians,  261. 

Persians,  383. 

Peruvians,  210. 

Petroglypiis,  122. 

Phenomena,  unreality  of,  162. 

Piioenicians,  353. 

Phonetic  system  of  dialect,  195. 

Phralry  (clan),  185. 

Phrj'gians,  391. 

Plcts^  12 1. 

Pile  dwellings,  192,  198,  334,  391. 

Pinios,  210. 

P.tsho,  318. 

Plants  (products),  196,  203,  220,  251,  255,  314, 

315.  335.  358,  376.  389- 
Poetry,  1S5,  193,  igci,  205,  221,  271,  338,  361. 
assonance  in,  95. 
rhyme  in,  94. 
Polabs,  394. 
Poles,  394. 

Polyandry,  70,  258,  286. 

Pol)gamy,  70,   193,   199,  205,  223,  252,  258,  262, 
265,    272,    276,    278,    298,    316,    338,    362, 

379- 
Polynesians,  196-201  (Plates  14-20). 
Polytheism,  150. 

Pottery,  193,  203,  216,  230,  297,  312,  336. 
Prayer,  147,  225,  253,  256,  345,  365. 
Priests,  163,  1S9,  195,  200,  201,  207,  225,  228,  253, 

2SS,  259,  274,  2S8,  347,  363,  367,  377,  3do, 

3S7. 
Primates,  order  of,  18. 
Primogeniture,  136,  300,  379. 
J'rot;ress,  conditions  of,  181. 
meaning  of,  168. 
stages  of,  1 69,  1 74. 

agricultural,  176. 

barliarism,  178. 

civilization,  179. 

commercial,  177. 

enlightenment,  179. 

hunting  and  fishing,  174. 

nomadic,  174. 

savagery,  17S. 

semi-civili/ation,  178. 
Property,  rights  of,  135. 

personal,  1 36. 
Propulsion,  means  of,  107. 
Pshaus,  277. 
Puberty,  epoch  of,  34. 

feast  of,  223,  339. 
Pueblo  Intlians,  210. 
I'uelchcs,  210. 
Pukhlaneh,  383. 
Pul  (I'eul),  325. 

]'uni-.hment,  1S9,  206,  3OO,  318,  341,  365. 
futtne,  346,  3S2,  387. 
for  religious  violations,  347,  369. 
Puris,  210. 
Purra  League,  348. 

QlIADRUMANA,  ig. 
C,)uan-tos,  248. 
Ou.itenary  eiMch,  65. 
(Juichuas,  2IO. 
Quich6s,  210. 
Quipus,  90,  231. 
27 


Races  of  man,  39. 
.'.ntic|uity  of,  39. 

i-lassilication  of,  40,  190,  209,  236,  248,  259,  274, 
277,  281,  306,  322,  350,  371,  376,  i-ii,  391. 
by  hair,  45. 
by  language,  49. 
by  location,  40. 
by  the  skin,  41. 
by  the  skull,  47. 
by  social  organization,  54. 
destiny  of,  56. 
differences  of,  40. 
distinctions  of,  191. 
distribution  of,  42. 
divisions  of,  235,  248,  257,  277,  281,  291,  292, 

■^•il,  326,  353,  376. 
number  of,  40. 
|X)lyglottic,  52. 
l)resent  relations  of,  55. 
Rackuin,  296. 
Rajniahal-Kolhs,  282. 
RaJix>ots,  377. 
Ramusis,  282. 

Rel>us,  employment  of,  90,  91. 
Religion,   141,  228,  229,  253,  256,  259,  263,  266, 
273.  276,  279,  2S7,  301,  320,  344,  365,  381, 
386. 
aim  of,  147. 
a-s  a  racial  trait,  54- 
as  a  teacher  of  ethics,  167. 
characteristic  of  man,  21. 
classes  of,  141- 15 1. 
dclinition  of,  142. 
life  in,  146. 

national  and  world,  151. 
primitive,  143. 
Sinto,  266. 
Religious  belief,  1S9,  195,  200,  206,  224,  228,  232, 
267,  280,  301. 
doctrines,  161. 
interdict,  194,  200,  267. 

"'<■%  339.  381- 

societies,  166,  225,  367. 

views,  229,  276,  320,  382. 
Remains,  aboriginal,  390,  391. 

age  of  oldest,  28. 

osseitus,  38. 
River-drift  Age,  27. 
Road  making,  ancient,  67. 
Rock  drawings,  122. 
Rom  (Romany),  377. 
Romance  peoples,  394. 
Romans,  67,  392. 
Rong,  257. 
Roumanians,  305. 
"  Running  anuick,"  206. 
Russians,  394. 

Sab  (San,  Sagun),  293. 

SacriHces,  147,  14S,  195.  225,  228,  230,  259,  273, 
288,  347.  377.  38'.  387. 
human,  194,  207,  225,  228,  230,  288,  320,  341, 

347.  367- 
places  of,  216,  228. 
Saiios,  351. 
Sakalavas,  185,  202. 
Samaritans,  353. 
Samoicds,  2(xj. 
San,  293. 
Sandchs,  329. 
Sand-glass,  III. 


4i8 


INDEX. 


Sanskrit,  379,  386. 

Santals,  282. 

Santanes,  259. 

Sarakules  (Serraliolets),  327. 

Sarrars  (Sereres),  327. 

Saxaiis,  393. 

Scents  and  flavors,  127. 

Schara-Mongoliaiis,  260. 

Schipka  cave,  30,  37. 

Scotch,  3S8. 

Sculpture,  124,  204,  221,  227. 

Egyptian,  125. 

native  American,  125. 
Scythians,  385. 
Sefans,  257. 
Self-consciousness,  21. 
Seljuks,  260. 
Semangs,  igo. 
Seminoles,  210. 
Semites,  350-370. 

African,  350. 

Asiatic,  353. 
Seneca  Iroquois,  54. 
Sereres,  327. 

Serrakolets  (Sarakules),  327. 
Servians,  394. 
Sex,  origin  of,  69. 
Sexes,  primitive  relation  of,  70. 
Sexual  attraction,  79. 

relation,  69,  1S8,  199,  223,  258,  265,  272,  276, 
2S6,  316,  317,  338,  362. 
Shamans,  163,  274. 
Shangallas,  328. 
Shangols,  328. 
Shells  as  currency,  116. 
Shelter,  primitive,  100. 
Sheluh  (Shelloclis),  350. 
Shilluks,  32S. 
Ships,  use  of,  106. 
Shiranis,  3S3. 
Shoa,  351. 
Shoshones,  210. 
Shuluh,  350. 
Shumurs,  352. 
Siamese,  248. 

Sijah-Posh  ("Black  Coats"),  376. 
Sikhs,  382, 
Silver,  use  of,  117. 
Sing-Bonga  (god),  287. 
Singhalese,  282. 

Singing,  1S8,  205,  303,  3 16,  360,  377. 
Singphos,  248. 
Sinte,  377. 
Sioux,  210, 

Skin,  color,  41,  1S6,  191,  196,  202,  213,  237,  249, 
254,  258,  261,  276,  283,  295,  308,  329,  353, 
354,  355.  378,  384,  3S5.  392.  393.  394- 

odor,  44,  308,  354. 

parasites  of  the,  44. 

variations  in  color,  43,  332. 
Skull,  47,  186,  191,  196,  202,  212,  237,  295,  308, 
330.  356,  378.  3S4,  390.  391.  392.  393.  394- 

artificial  shaping  of,  186,  202,  213, 
Slave,  203,  252,  300,  319,  335,  340,  363- 

-dealing,  206. 

-hunting,  206,  319. 

-trade,  319,  340. 
Slavery,  252,  340,  342,  349. 

penal,  206. 
Slavs,  394. 
Sledges,  21S,  270,  276. 


Sling,  invention  of,  61. 
Slovaks,  394. 
Slovenians,  394. 
Smerenkurs,  259. 

Societies,  164,  221,  223,  225,  342,  348. 
Soma-liquor,  38 1. 
Somalis,  352. 
Sonora  tribes,  210. 
Sonqua  (Soaqua),  293. 
Sonrhais,  327. 
Sorbs,  394. 

Soudan,  the  peoples  of,  322-350  (Plates  91-97). 
Soul,  189,  195,  200,  201,  207,  224,  267,  273,  302, 
346,  366,  377,  3S2,  387. 

doctrine  of  the,  156. 
"Soul  of  the  god,"  200. 
"  SouFs  path,"  346. 
Soyotes,  261. 
Spaniards,  395. 
Species,  adaptability  of,  32. 

definition  of,  22. 

limits  of  variation  in,  33. 

unity  of  human,  22. 
Spinning,  art  of,  104,  203,  359. 
Spirits,   189,   224,  229,  267,  273,   2S0,   2S8,    302, 

365. 
evil,  1 89,  225,  229,  267,  320,  345,  365,  366. 
fear  of,  201,  207,  28S,  346,  382. 
guardian,  189,  195,  200,  207,  223,  224,  225,  267, 

273.  302.  320,  321,  345,  347,  365,  366,  382, 

387. 
veneration  of,  200,  207,  2S8,  302,  3S2. 
Stature,  186,  191,  200,  202,  213,  236,  249,  254,  258, 

261,  262,  283,  294,  307,  330,  353,  354,  355, 

371.  377.  3S4.  385.  393.  394- 
Stimulants  and  narcotics,  67,  194,  199,  203,  220, 
222,  255,  262,  264,  270,  276,  286,  298,  315, 
336,  35S. 
Stock-raising,  203,  220,  258,  2S5,  297,  3 1 5,  335, 

358. 
Stone  Age,  169. 
old,  27. 
implements,  169. 
walls,  loi. 
Structures,  231,  269. 

stone,  197. 
Suahelis,  306. 
Sun  circles,  III. 
-dials,  III. 
-stroke,  42. 
Suomi  (Finns),  261. 
Superstition,  207,  228,  256,  280,  287,  302,  320,  346, 

366,  382. 
Surroundings,  natural,  influence  of,  350,  369,  375, 

3S9.  396. 
physical,  31. 
Susaqua,  293. 
Susquehannocks,  210. 
Susus,  327. 
Sutchin,  259. 
Sutteeism,  379. 
Swabians,  393. 
Swanes,  277. 
Swedes,  393. 

Swine,  introduction  of,  65. 
Swiss,  393. 
Syrians,  353. 
Syrjans,  261. 

Taboo,  137, 166, 194,  200,  207,  267,  302,  320,  347, 
364.  367.  368.  3('9- 


INDEX. 


419 


Tagalas,  202. 

Tajiks,  383. 

Talaings,  248. 

Talapoiii  (prie.st),  253. 

Tamils,  54,  282. 

Tainpajaus,  203,  205. 

Tanana  Indians,  210. 

Tartars,  260. 

Tasmanians,  186-190  (Plate  6). 

Tats,  3S4. 

Tattoo,  121,  192,  196,  197,  203,  215,  249,  260,  262, 

264,  275,  309,  333,  356,  378. 
Tawgy-Samioeds,  260. 
Tchapogirs,  259. 
Tcheremisses,  261. 
Tcherkesses,  277. 
Tchetchenzes,  277. 
Tcholas,  327. 
Tchuktchis,  275. 
Tchuvashes,  261. 
Tchuwanzes,  275. 
Tecunas,  210. 

Tedas  (Tebus,  Tibbus),  327. 
Tehuelches,  210. 
Teimanis,  260. 
Tekeza  tribes,  306. 
Telingas  (Telugus),  282. 

Temple,   189,   192,   195,  200,  203,  225,  228,  229, 
230,  231,  251,  253,  267,  268,  312,  387. 

architecture,  204,  231. 

places,  216. 
Teocalli,  228. 

Textile  materials,  decorations  of,  123. 
Thai  (Shan),  248. 
Thai-jai,  248. 
Thai-noi,  248. 
Theistic  conceptions,  150. 
Thibetans,  257-259. 
Thlinkits,  209. 
Thou-fan,  257. 
Thracians,  391. 
Thuringians,  393. 
Thusche,  277. 
Tiapis,  327. 
Tigr6  people,  35 1. 
Tikor,  287. 
Timnfi,  327. 
Timuris,  260. 
Tinni,  209. 
Tlachtli  (game),  130. 
Tobacco,  use  of,  68  (see  Stimulants). 
Tobas,  210. 
Tombo,  327. 

Tombs,  132,  2l6,  232,  288,  368,  382,  387. 
Tools,  bone  and  horn,  98. 

stone,  96. 

use  of,  22. 
Tooth  of  Buddha,  sacred,  287. 
Topnaar,  293. 
Toskidcs,  392. 
Totem,  221,  223,  224. 
Transiwrlation,  means  of,  105,  270,  285. 

atrial,  109. 

land,  107. 

water,  105. 
Traps  and  calls,  62, 
Trarsas,  350. 
Tshagas,  306. 
Tsianipas,  248. 
Trumbash,  3  \  -•,  343. 
Tuarick,  351. 


Tudas  (Todas),  282. 
Tu-kJu,  260. 
Tumbas,  327. 
Tunguses,  259. 
Tupi  tribes,  210. 
Turcomans,  260. 
Turks,  260. 
Tuscaroras,  210. 
Tyjje,  deterioration  of,  388. 

reversions  of,  31. 

unity  of,  232,  235,  396. 

UniQUA,  293. 

Ude-s,  277. 

Ugrian  people,  261. 

Uigtirs,  260. 

Ural-.\ltaic  peoples,  236,  268-280  (Plates  62p8o). 

Ural -Japanese  peoples,  259-268  (Plates  62-67). 

Urauhs  (t'raon),  282. 

Utensils,  96,   187,  203,  220,  230,  258,  262,  276, 

297.  3 '2.  336.  337.  359- 
Utes,  210. 
Uzbecks,  260. 

Vandals,  393. 

Vascons,  371. 

Veda  fVedic  ai-e),  38 1. 

Ve<ldahs,  282. 

Vei,  327. 

Veziris,  383. 

Villages,  187,  192.  197,  311,  334,  358,  385. 

Vindhya  people,  2S1. 

Vishnu,  381. 

Voguls,  261. 

Volga  people,  261. 

Votyaks,  261. 

Waki'AKI  (Makuavi),  352. 
Wallachians,  395. 
Wampum,  79,  116,  124,  217. 
Wandalas,  327. 
W'anyamwezi,  306. 
\Va|)isianos,  210. 

War,  13S,  1S7,  194,  199,  222,  226,  231,  252,  300, 
318,  342,  362. 

advantaj;ts  of,  139. 

chariots  of,  1 08. 

effects  of,  1 38. 
Warfare,  206,  231,  256,  266,  362. 
Warraus,  33,  210. 
Water-clocks,  III. 

-mills,  271. 

-lrans|xirtalion,  105. 
Walwa,  32S. 

We.-i|>ons,  9S,  1S7,  194,  I9S.  204,  222.  22«.  252. 
258.  262,  266.  272,  276,  279,  285,  296,  313, 

34J.  3^».  37f'.  379.  i^l- 
Weaving,  art  of,  104,  203. 
Weights  and  measures,  109. 
Wcnils,  304. 
Winil  mills,  27 1. 
Wolofs,  327. 

Woman,  social  |x>silion  of,  77. 
Worship,  ancestral,  161. 

religious,  225,  220,  230,  253,  273,  2S7,  30I,  J03, 
321,  345.  3<>5.  3S'.  386. 
Wrilin;;,  s\>t^ni>  m\<\  history  of,  89-94. 

.\/loc  system  "f.  0;. 

CI,;  .1. 


420 

Writing,  Japanese,  91. 
picture,  S9. 
quipus,  90,  231. 
Semitic,  early,  93,  369. 
sound,  90. 
thought,  89. 

XiNCAS,  210. 

Y-KIA,  249. 
Yakoots,  260. 
Yalas,  327. 
Yleu  (Yliu),  259. 


INDEX. 


Yolofs,  327. 
Yoruba  tribes,  327. 
Yuliagirs,  236. 
Vul;airs,  274. 
Yuraales,  352. 
Yumas,  210. 
Yurts,  270,  273. 
Yurucare  tribe,  43. 

Zabaings,  24S. 
Zapotecs,  210. 
Zonibos,  328. 
Zulus,  306. 


END  OF  VOL.    I. 


